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Distilled water

Distilled water is a highly purified form of water produced through the process of distillation, in which impure water is boiled to generate steam that is then cooled and condensed into liquid, leaving behind most dissolved minerals, salts, microorganisms, and other contaminants.^[1] This ancient purification method, dating back thousands of years, yields water that is essentially free of impurities, with effectiveness rates up to 99.5% in removing substances such as heavy metals, nitrates, bacteria, viruses, and organic compounds.^[2]^[3] The key properties of distilled water stem from its extreme purity, consisting primarily of H₂O molecules with minimal ions, resulting in very low electrical conductivity (around 0.000055 dS/m) and the potential for a neutral to slightly acidic pH due to the absence of buffering minerals.^[4] It lacks the trace elements and dissolved gases found in tap or mineral water, which often imparts a "flat" or bland taste, as these components are vaporized during boiling and not carried over in the condensate.^[1] While highly effective at eliminating contaminants, the process does not remove all volatile organic compounds (VOCs) unless additional filtration, such as activated carbon, is incorporated, and the resulting water requires proper storage in non-reactive containers like glass or stainless steel to maintain sterility.^[1] Distilled water finds extensive applications across various fields due to its purity. In laboratory and scientific settings, it is used for experiments requiring precise measurements, such as chemical analyses and rinsing equipment, where even trace impurities could skew results.^[5] Medically, it serves in wound cleansing, preparation of sterile solutions, and hemostasis checks during surgeries, providing a contaminant-free medium that minimizes infection risks.^[6]^[7] For household and health purposes, it is recommended for drinking and cooking by those with weakened immune systems to avoid pathogens like Cryptosporidium, in humidifiers to prevent mineral buildup, and in mixing disinfectants to avoid hardness deposits on equipment.^[3]^[8]^[9] Despite its benefits, the energy-intensive production makes it more expensive than other purification methods, limiting widespread use for everyday drinking in favor of targeted applications.^[1]

Definition and Properties

Definition

Distilled water is water that has been purified through the process of distillation, in which impure water is boiled to produce steam that is subsequently condensed back into a liquid state in a separate container, thereby separating it from non-volatile impurities such as minerals, salts, bacteria, viruses, and most organic compounds.^[10]^[11]^[1] This thermal separation exploits differences in boiling points, leaving behind contaminants that do not vaporize at the boiling point of water, resulting in a highly pure form of water suitable for applications requiring minimal interference from dissolved substances.^[10]^[1] The purity of distilled water typically exceeds 99.9%, with total dissolved solids (TDS) levels often near 0 parts per million (ppm) and generally below 10 ppm, as per standards for purified water.^[11] This level of purity is achieved by removing nearly all ionic and non-ionic contaminants, including heavy metals, nitrates, and hardness-causing ions like calcium and magnesium, though certain volatile organic compounds may require additional treatment for complete elimination.^[11]^[1] In contrast to tap water, which retains natural minerals and may include disinfectants like chlorine, distilled water is essentially mineral-free and devoid of such additives.^[11] Distilled water differs from other purification methods in its effective removal of non-volatile impurities through vaporization, although volatile impurities may carry over into the distillate. For instance, deionized water primarily eliminates ions via ion-exchange resins but may leave behind organic matter or microorganisms unless pre-treated, whereas reverse osmosis filters contaminants through a semi-permeable membrane under pressure, achieving high purity but potentially allowing some low-molecular-weight volatiles to pass that distillation would separate.^[12]^[13] Quality standards for distilled water are outlined in pharmacopeias and international norms to ensure suitability for sensitive uses. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) classifies purified water, often produced by distillation, with conductivity limits below 1.3 μS/cm at 25°C and total organic carbon under 500 μg/L, while Water for Injection—typically distilled—imposes stricter microbial action levels of 10 cfu/100 mL.^[14] Similarly, ISO 3696:1987 defines Grade 1 laboratory water (comparable to high-quality distilled water) with a maximum conductivity of 0.1 μS/cm at 25°C; no limits are specified for residue after evaporation or oxidizable matter due to the limitations of the test methods for this purity level, ensuring it meets requirements for analytical precision.^[15]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Distilled water exhibits physical properties closely aligned with those of pure water, owing to its high purity and absence of dissolved solutes. Its boiling point is 100 °C at standard atmospheric pressure (sea level), and its freezing point is 0 °C, consistent with the phase transitions of H₂O under normal conditions.^[16] The density of distilled water reaches a maximum of 1 g/cm³ at 4 °C, decreasing slightly at higher temperatures to approximately 0.997 g/cm³ at 25 °C, which influences its behavior in thermal applications.^[16] Additionally, its surface tension is notably high at around 72 mN/m at 25 °C, higher than that of tap water due to the lack of ions and impurities that can disrupt hydrogen bonding between water molecules.^[17]^[18] Chemically, distilled water is characterized by its neutrality and minimal ionic content. Freshly produced distilled water has a pH of 7.0, reflecting its lack of acids, bases, or buffering agents.^[19] Its electrical conductivity is very low, typically ranging from 0.5 to 3 μS/cm at 25 °C, resulting from the near-complete absence of ions that facilitate current flow.^[17] This purity corresponds to a high resistivity, often exceeding 1 MΩ·cm, though values can approach 18 MΩ·cm in highly controlled production; the ion-free nature enhances its insulating properties compared to mineralized waters.^[17] In storage, distilled water demonstrates aggressive behavior due to its purity, readily leaching metals such as copper or lead from containers like pipes or storage vessels to equilibrate its ionic content.^[20] It also absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH to approximately 5.5–6.5 over time, which can affect long-term stability.^[19] Without inherent minerals or nutrients, distilled water is more susceptible to bacterial growth if not maintained sterile, as oligotrophic microorganisms like Pseudomonas species can colonize it upon contamination.^[21] Furthermore, its lack of dissolved minerals imparts a flat, bland taste, often described as unpalatable compared to mineral-rich waters.^[11]

Production

Distillation Process

The distillation process for producing distilled water relies on the principle of separating components based on differences in boiling points. Water, with a boiling point of 100°C at standard atmospheric pressure, is heated to vaporize, while most non-volatile impurities such as salts, minerals, and heavy metals remain in the liquid residue as they do not evaporate at this temperature.^[22] However, some volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with boiling points close to or below that of water may partially carry over into the vapor phase, though this is typically minimal in standard water purification contexts.^[1] The process involves several key steps to achieve purification. First, source water is heated in a boiling chamber until it reaches its boiling point, causing the water to vaporize and rise as steam while leaving behind non-volatile contaminants. The vapor is then separated from any entrained impurities or droplets through a vapor path or demister, ensuring cleaner collection. Next, the steam is directed to a condenser, where it is cooled—often by circulating cold water or air—causing it to condense back into liquid form in a separate, clean vessel. Finally, the condensed distilled water is collected for use, resulting in a product free from most dissolved solids.^[22] Several types of distillation are employed for water production, each tailored to efficiency or specific needs. Simple distillation, or single-effect distillation, involves a single heating and condensation cycle, suitable for basic laboratory or small-scale purification. Multiple-effect distillation enhances energy efficiency by using the vapor from one boiling stage to heat the next in a series of connected evaporators, allowing multiple stages (often 4–12) to operate sequentially and recover heat that would otherwise be lost. Vacuum distillation reduces the system's pressure to lower the boiling point of water (to as low as 40–60°C), minimizing energy use and preventing thermal degradation of sensitive components, though it requires specialized equipment to maintain the vacuum.^[23]^[22] Efficiency in the distillation process is influenced by energy requirements and recovery yields. The primary energy input is the latent heat of vaporization needed to convert liquid water to steam, approximately 2260 kJ/kg at 100°C and atmospheric pressure. This can be expressed by the basic equation for heat requirement:

Q = m \times L

where Q is the total heat energy supplied (in kJ), m is the mass of water vaporized (in kg), and L is the latent heat of vaporization (in kJ/kg).^[24] Typical yields range from 80–90% recovery of input water volume, depending on the stopping point to avoid excessive concentration of residues in the boiler. Limitations include incomplete removal of all volatile impurities without supplementary techniques like activated carbon filtration, as well as the overall energy intensity of the process.^[22]^[1]

Equipment and Methods

Laboratory-scale distillation of water typically employs glassware setups such as retorts and stills connected to condensers, including the Liebig condenser, which consists of an inner tube for vapor passage surrounded by a cooling jacket to facilitate condensation.^[25] These systems are compact and suitable for producing small volumes of distilled water for experimental purposes, often integrated into complete units like automatic glass stills with capacities up to several liters per day.^[26] Countertop distillers for lab use, made from borosilicate glass or stainless steel, provide convenient operation with built-in heating and collection features.^[27] At industrial scales, multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation involves large pressurized chambers where heated seawater flashes into vapor across multiple stages, enabling high-volume production for desalination plants.^[28] Vapor compression distillation (VCD) uses mechanical compressors to recycle heat from condensed vapor, improving energy efficiency in facilities requiring continuous output.^[29] Solar stills offer a low-energy alternative, utilizing sunlight to evaporate water in basin-type setups covered by transparent glazing, suitable for remote or off-grid industrial applications with capacities scaling to thousands of liters daily.^[30] For home use, do-it-yourself (DIY) setups often involve a simple pot-and-coil configuration, where a boiling pot connects to a copper or stainless steel coil acting as a condenser, cooled by ice or running water to collect distillate.^[31] Commercial electric distillers, typically stainless steel units with capacities of 4 to 20 liters per day, feature automated boiling chambers and activated carbon post-filters for enhanced purity.^[32] Maintenance of distillation equipment includes regular cleaning to prevent mineral scaling from hard water residues, using solutions like citric acid or vinegar applied every 3-4 weeks, followed by rinsing and sterilization via boiling or UV exposure to inhibit microbial growth.^[33] Energy consumption for electric home units averages about 0.8 kWh per liter produced, accounting for boiling and cooling inefficiencies.^[34] Initial setup costs for home distillers range from $200 to $500 for basic electric models, while DIY options can start under $100 using household materials.^[35] Industrial installations, such as MSF or VCD plants, require investments in the millions, with operational costs dominated by electricity or steam generation, varying by scale and energy source.^[36]

Applications

Industrial and Scientific Uses

In laboratories, distilled water is essential for preparing reagents and diluting samples, as its lack of ions and minerals prevents unintended chemical reactions that could alter experimental outcomes. It is also used for cleaning glassware and equipment to avoid contamination from trace impurities in tap water, ensuring accurate results in sensitive analyses. For instance, in spectrophotometry, distilled water serves as a blank to calibrate instruments, minimizing interference from dissolved solids that could skew absorbance readings.^[37]^[38]^[39] In medical applications, distilled water plays a critical role in sterilizing equipment through autoclaving, where its purity helps maintain sterility without introducing contaminants. It is integral to pharmaceutical manufacturing, particularly in producing water for injection (WFI), which was traditionally obtained via distillation to meet stringent purity standards for drug formulations and compounding nonsterile preparations. Additionally, ultra-pure variants are used in continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machines to prevent mineral deposits in humidifiers and in dialysis systems to filter blood without ionic interference.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]^[11] Industrial processes rely on distilled water to mitigate scaling and corrosion in systems sensitive to mineral accumulation. In automotive cooling systems, it is mixed with antifreeze in a 50/50 ratio to facilitate heat transfer while preventing deposits in radiators and engines. For lead-acid batteries, distilled water tops off electrolyte levels, maintaining conductivity without introducing impurities that could reduce battery life or cause sulfation. In electronics manufacturing, it rinses printed circuit boards (PCBs) post-assembly, removing flux residues without leaving conductive residues that might short circuits.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47] Scientific applications leverage distilled water's purity for controlled environments. In hydroponics, it serves as a base medium to precisely add nutrients, avoiding interference from tap water minerals that could imbalance pH or nutrient uptake. For aquariums housing sensitive species like discus fish or shrimp, remineralized distilled water replicates soft water conditions, reducing stress from heavy metals or chlorine. In nuclear reactors, ultra-pure water produced through distillation or equivalent processes cools components and moderates reactions, preventing corrosion of structural materials and ensuring operational safety.^[48]^[49]^[50] The primary advantages of distilled water in these contexts include preventing mineral buildup that could clog systems or impair efficiency, and ensuring reaction purity for reliable outcomes. In pharmaceutical plants, production scales can reach thousands of liters daily to support continuous manufacturing processes.^[38]^[51]

Consumer and Household Uses

Distilled water is widely utilized in household appliances to mitigate mineral deposits from tap water, which can cause scaling and reduce efficiency. In steam irons, it prevents clogs and sputtering by eliminating impurities, allowing for consistent steam output and extending the device's lifespan.^[52] Similarly, humidifiers benefit from its use, as it avoids dispersing white mineral dust into indoor air, a concern highlighted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for maintaining clean vaporization.^[8] For window cleaning, distilled water in homemade solutions, such as those mixed with vinegar, ensures streak-free results by lacking minerals that leave residues on glass surfaces.^[53] In personal care routines, distilled water, which has low fluoride content, serves as a safe option for diluting baby formula to prevent overexposure in infants. Its purity helps minimize contaminants during preparation, though it lacks natural minerals found in some municipal supplies.^[54] Automotive maintenance in household contexts often incorporates distilled water as a base for windshield washer fluid, where it reduces nozzle clogs and residue buildup compared to hard tap water.^[55] For topping up car batteries, it is essential to avoid introducing impurities that could corrode plates or shorten battery life in lead-acid systems.^[56] Other household applications include watering calcifuge plants, such as carnivorous species like Venus flytraps, which thrive with low-mineral water to preserve acidic soil conditions without salt accumulation.^[57] In home aquariums, it supports freshwater setups by providing a contaminant-free medium, though remineralization is typically required to supply essential ions for fish and plants.^[58] It also aids ironing and laundry processes beyond dedicated irons, such as in garment steamers, by producing cleaner vapor that avoids fabric spotting.^[59] Distilled water is readily available for purchase in bottled form at supermarkets and pharmacies, offering high purity for these uses at a premium price over tap water—typically $1–2 per gallon—due to production costs.^[60] Alternatively, home distillation units allow on-demand production, providing long-term savings and reduced plastic waste after an initial investment of $200–$500, though they require electricity and time for operation.^[61]

Health Considerations

Nutritional Aspects of Drinking Distilled Water

Distilled water is characterized by its near-complete absence of dissolved minerals and ions, resulting in a total dissolved solids (TDS) content typically below 1 mg/L.^[62] In comparison, common tap water sources contain TDS levels ranging from 100 to 500 mg/L, including essential ions such as calcium, magnesium, and sodium that contribute to the water's mineral profile.^[63] This demineralization occurs during the distillation process, which removes virtually all impurities, leaving water in a highly pure state devoid of these naturally occurring electrolytes.^[64] Despite its lack of minerals, distilled water serves as an effective hydrating agent, quenching thirst and supporting bodily fluid balance comparably to mineral-containing waters. The human body readily absorbs pure H₂O through cellular osmosis, independent of dissolved solids, ensuring efficient rehydration during daily activities or physical exertion. Health authorities confirm that its purity does not impair hydration efficacy, as long as overall fluid intake meets physiological needs.^[11] In the broader context of nutrition, drinking water, including distilled varieties, plays a minimal role in supplying essential minerals, with the vast majority derived from dietary sources such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins. The World Health Organization indicates that water contributes less than 5-20% of daily intake for key minerals like calcium and magnesium in most populations, emphasizing food as the primary vector.^[65] WHO guidelines establish no health-based minimum for TDS but note that levels below 600 mg/L remain organoleptically acceptable without nutritional detriment, underscoring that a varied diet compensates for any shortfall from low-mineral water.^[66] Scientific reviews, including a 2005 WHO report, suggest an association between low calcium and magnesium levels in drinking water and increased cardiovascular risks, though a balanced diet may mitigate some effects.^[65] Health organizations, including WHO, recommend remineralizing demineralized water for regular consumption to provide essential minerals like calcium (30–100 mg/L) and magnesium (20–30 mg/L).^[65] The absence of dissolved solids imparts a bland, flat taste to distilled water, often described as less refreshing than mineralized alternatives due to the lack of subtle flavors from ions like bicarbonates or sulfates. To address this, post-distillation remineralization is a common practice, involving the addition of controlled amounts of minerals such as calcium or magnesium to enhance palatability while restoring a neutral profile.^[63] This approach allows consumers to balance purity with sensory appeal without compromising the water's core attributes.^[64] Long-term exclusive consumption of distilled water does not lead to mineral deficiencies, as the body's homeostatic mechanisms, particularly via renal regulation, maintain electrolyte balance when supported by a nutrient-rich diet. Field observations, including decades of low-TDS water use by the U.S. Navy (TDS <3 mg/L) among millions of personnel, show no associated health issues or nutritional shortfalls.^[67]

Potential Risks and Myths

One common misconception about distilled water is that it leaches essential minerals from the human body due to its purity, potentially leading to deficiencies. This myth stems from a misunderstanding of osmosis, which does not cause water to extract minerals from cells or tissues in the body; instead, minerals are obtained primarily from food, and the body regulates electrolyte balance independently. Scientific reviews confirm that no evidence supports this claim, as distilled water consumption does not deplete bodily minerals when paired with a balanced diet.^[63]^[64]^[68] Another myth suggests that distilled water is overly acidic and can erode tooth enamel, causing dental harm. While freshly distilled water has a neutral pH of around 7, exposure to atmospheric carbon dioxide can lower it to approximately 5.8–6.5, making it slightly acidic; however, this level is far less erosive than common beverages like sodas (pH 2–4) and does not pose a significant risk to enamel with typical consumption, as the critical pH for substantial enamel dissolution is below 5.5. Dental studies indicate only mild, long-term effects from prolonged exposure to such mildly acidic water, but not to the extent claimed in popular myths.^[69]^[70] Despite its purity, distilled water carries certain risks if not handled properly. Long-term storage in plastic or metal containers can lead to leaching of ions, such as antimony from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics or trace metals from reactive containers, potentially introducing contaminants into the water. Additionally, if not consumed fresh, distilled water is susceptible to bacterial contamination from airborne microbes or improper storage, as its lack of minerals provides no barrier to microbial growth once exposed to air or light.^[20]^[71]^[72] The production of distilled water has notable environmental drawbacks, primarily due to its high energy intensity. Distillation typically requires 0.75–1.25 kWh per liter, contributing to a larger carbon footprint compared to alternative purification methods like filtration, which use significantly less electricity. For context, this energy demand can emit approximately 400–600 kg of CO₂ equivalent per cubic meter produced, depending on the electricity source's carbon intensity, exacerbating climate impacts when scaled for industrial or household use.^[73] Health authorities affirm that distilled water is safe for short-term drinking, provided it meets regulatory standards for purity. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates bottled distilled water under current good manufacturing practices, ensuring it is free from harmful contaminants and suitable for consumption. A WHO report on demineralized water notes potential health risks from long-term consumption, including reduced mineral intake, and recommends a minimum TDS of 100 mg/L to prevent adverse effects.^[74]^[75] For infants, while distilled water can be used for formula preparation due to its sterility, it is not ideal without medical monitoring, as excessive plain water intake risks electrolyte imbalance.^[76] In comparison to other purification methods, such as reverse osmosis (RO), distilled water removes nearly all minerals (over 99.9%), while RO typically retains trace amounts (reducing total dissolved solids by 95–99%) and is less energy-intensive, often using 3–4 kWh per cubic meter for large-scale systems without the need for boiling. RO systems thus offer a lower environmental burden and may provide subtle mineral retention beneficial for taste and minor nutritional input, though both methods produce highly pure water suitable for most applications.^[77]

History

Early Development

The concept of distillation for purifying water traces its origins to ancient civilizations, where early observations laid the groundwork for practical applications. In the 4th century BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle described in his work Meteorology the process of vaporizing seawater to produce drinkable fresh water, noting that evaporation and subsequent condensation yield potable liquid free of salt.^[78] This observation, though theoretical, highlighted distillation's potential for desalination, a technique initially explored in alchemical pursuits to isolate "spirits" or essences from various substances, including liquids like seawater and herbal infusions.^[79] Medieval advancements significantly refined distillation apparatus, transitioning it from rudimentary experiments to more systematic use. In the 8th century, the Persian polymath Jabir ibn Hayyan, often regarded as the father of chemistry, improved the alembic—a key distillation device consisting of a cucurbit for heating and a receiving vessel for condensation—enabling more efficient separation of volatile components.^[80] His innovations, detailed in treatises on alchemy and chemistry, emphasized distillation for purification and essence extraction, influencing subsequent Islamic scholars. By the 16th century, these techniques reached Europe through translations and trade, where distillation was adopted for producing aqua vitae (water of life), a distilled spirit from wine believed to have medicinal properties; this marked a broader integration of the method into pharmaceutical and alchemical practices across the continent.^[81] The application of distillation specifically for potable water gained prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly aboard ships during long explorations, where fresh water scarcity posed severe risks. Naval vessels equipped with simple stills—often copper boilers heated by wood or coal—produced distilled water from seawater, supplementing casks and rainwater collection to sustain crews on voyages like those of Captain James Cook.^[82] This practice combated dehydration and waterborne illnesses. Separately, in his 1753 treatise, Scottish naval surgeon James Lind advocated citrus-based remedies, such as lemon juice, for scurvy prevention following experiments conducted in 1747 on HMS Salisbury.^[83] Despite these developments, early distillation remained limited for large-scale production due to its labor-intensive nature and reliance on manual heating, which consumed excessive fuel and time—often yielding only gallons per day from shipboard apparatus.^[84] Widespread inefficiency persisted until the advent of steam power in the mid-19th century, which harnessed boiler exhaust to drive evaporators, enabling sustained output sufficient for naval fleets and early industrial needs.^[85]

Modern Advancements

Following World War II, the demand for large-scale fresh water production spurred significant advancements in distillation technology, particularly through multi-effect distillation (MED) and multi-stage flash (MSF) systems tailored for desalination. In the Middle East, where water scarcity was acute, Kuwait pioneered the world's first MSF plant in 1957, marking a shift toward industrial-scale operations powered by abundant energy resources. By the late 20th century, these technologies dominated regional capacity, with MSF accounting for approximately 84% of desalination output in the area, enabling plants like those in the United Arab Emirates to produce over 800 million liters per day collectively to meet domestic and industrial needs.^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89] Technological progress in the 1960s and beyond enhanced efficiency and accessibility, with solar distillation emerging as a sustainable option for remote or low-energy settings. Innovations like solar stills, refined during this period, utilized passive solar heating to evaporate and condense water, reducing reliance on fossil fuels. Concurrently, membrane distillation (MD) gained traction, employing hydrophobic membranes to separate vapor from saline feedwater at lower temperatures than traditional methods, improving energy efficiency by up to 50% in some configurations. Hybrid systems integrating distillation with reverse osmosis (RO) further optimized processes, combining thermal evaporation with pressure-driven filtration to achieve higher recovery rates and lower operational costs in desalination plants.^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93] Regulatory frameworks solidified distilled water's role in pharmaceuticals and consumer products during the 20th century. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) established formal standards for distilled water in the 1930s, specifying limits on conductivity, acidity, and impurities to ensure suitability for medical and laboratory use, which influenced global pharmaceutical practices. In the 1980s, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued its first Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality in 1984, extending to bottled waters by emphasizing microbial and chemical purity thresholds, including for distilled variants, to address emerging concerns over contamination in packaged products.^[14]^[40] By the 1980s, the rise of affordable home distillation units democratized access to pure water, driven by growing public awareness of tap water contaminants, with models like countertop distillers becoming popular for household use. NASA's integration of advanced distillation in the 1960s Gemini space program demonstrated compact, reliable systems for recycling water in zero-gravity environments, influencing terrestrial purification technologies. In the 2020s, sustainability initiatives have promoted low-energy variants, such as solar-MD hybrids, amid a global market for distilled water valued at over USD 350 million annually as of 2025, reflecting production growth to support industrial and consumer demands. Post-2000 water crises, including contamination events, fueled a surge in bottled distilled water sales as a perceived safe alternative, boosting market expansion in regions facing supply disruptions.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97]

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May 23, 2025 · Common Uses of Distilled Water in Medical Labs · Autoclaves and Sterilization · Reagent Preparation and Dilution · Cleaning Laboratory Instruments.
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Water for Pharmaceutical Use - FDA
Aug 27, 2014 · A temperature of 80^oC is commonly used and is acceptable. Somewhat lower temperatures may also be acceptable, provided the firm has adequate ...
[41]
[PDF] Guideline on the quality of water for pharmaceutical use
Jul 20, 2020 · Until April 2017, the production of Water for Injections (WFI) had been limited to production by distillation.
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Distilled Water - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Distilled water is required for use in compounding nonsterile drug preparations when formulations indicate the inclusion of water. The facility plumbing system ...
[43]
Guidance for Healthcare Water System Repair and Recovery ... - CDC
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Can I Put Water into My Car Radiator? Common Questions - Natrad
Rating 4.5 (54) · $$$Jan 30, 2024 · Radiator fluid (also called coolant or antifreeze) is a 50/50 mixture of distilled water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol (plus ...
[45]
Watering Your Lead Acid Battery: The Basics
Jul 14, 2017 · To be safe, distilled water is your best bet and is a much smaller investment than a new battery. Remember that water will sit on top of the ...
[46]
Distilled Water for Batteries - Pure Water, Inc.
Jan 3, 2025 · Distilled water is used in lead-acid batteries to prevent impurities, maintain electrolyte balance, and ensure efficient operation and extended ...
[47]
Printed Circuit Board Cleaning - ACDi
Feb 7, 2020 · The in-line wash uses deionized water jets at elevated temperature and pressure to wash and rinse the PCB assemblies. The water temperature is ...
[48]
Water: The First Step in Hydroponics - Fifth Season Gardening
Dec 2, 2021 · Distilled is the best. This is water that has been steam heated and returned into condensate (liquid water). This is more or less the same way ...
[49]
Can You Use Distilled Water In A Fish Tank (questions Answered ...
Dec 14, 2023 · You can still use distilled water in your fish tanks by mixing it with mineralizing supplements or water that help your fish stay healthy and stabilize water ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
[PDF] IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Good Practices for Water Quality ...
Maintaining high quality water is the most important factor in preventing degradation of aluminium clad fuel elements, and other structural components in water ...
[51]
What is Distilled Water? Uses, Properties, and Production - Ecosoft
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Another myth busted—using distilled water in the iron
Mar 1, 2012 · And in case you're wondering, water from refrigerators, dryers, air conditioners, or the clouds is not recommended, so be sure to check your ...
[53]
Tip of the Day: How to make your own (less-toxic) household cleaners
Sep 18, 2009 · For extra-dirty windows try this: 1/2 teaspoon liquid soap, 3 tablespoons vinegar, and 2 cups of water. Shake well. The best way to get streak- ...
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How to Safely Prepare Baby Formula With Water - HealthyChildren.org
Jan 4, 2024 · Use water to prepare concentrated liquid formula and powder formula, but only as directed. Use a safe water source as defined by your state or local government.
[55]
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Jun 29, 2025 · The American Academy of Pediatrics advises you to use water from a safe source or boil the water every time you are preparing your baby's ...
[56]
Is Water Ok to Refill instead of Windshield Wiper Fluid
Feb 6, 2024 · Use the cleanest, filtered or distilled water possible rather than tap water to minimise mineral deposits. In frigid conditions, pour warm or ...
[57]
Adding Water To A Battery | BobIsTheOilGuy
Jun 9, 2010 · The hotter the battery gets, the more water will evaporate. With that in mind, it's likely it will need more water in warmer months.
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Distilled Water For Aquariums? - Fishlore
Mar 12, 2019 · Distilled or RODI water is regularly used to create soft water for sensitive species...it can be used, but in the context of a domesticated ...
[60]
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/purified-vs-distilled-vs-regular-water
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Purified vs Distilled vs Regular Water: What's the Difference?
Jul 12, 2023 · This article investigates the differences between purified, distilled and regular water to find out which one is the best choice for hydration.<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.epa.gov/sdwa/drinking-water-regulations-and-contaminants
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Drinking Water Regulations and Contaminants | US EPA
Jan 23, 2025 · National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs) ; pH, 6.5-8.5 ; Silver, 0.10 mg/L ; Sulfate, 250 mg/L ; Total Dissolved Solids, 500 mg/L.
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Can You Drink Distilled Water? Side Effects, Uses, and More
Aside from its flat taste, distilled water doesn't provide you with minerals like calcium and magnesium that you get from tap water. Because you already get ...
[65]
Can you drink distilled water safely? - MedicalNewsToday
Feb 21, 2025 · Distilled water is safe to drink as part of a balanced diet, but long-term consumption may lead to mineral deficiencies.What is it? · Safety · Risks · Potential benefits
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Feb 11, 2005 · The task was to examine the potential health consequences of longterm consumption of water that had been manufactured or modified to add or delete minerals.
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[PDF] Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition
Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise inorganic salts (principally calcium, magne- sium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulfates) and small ...
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[PDF] CONSUMPTION OF LOW TDS WATER
No ill health effects were caused as a result of drinking this water. In conclusion, the field experiences cited suggest that there are no long-term ill health ...
[69]
(PDF) Dispelling myths about drinking distilled water - ResearchGate
Aug 31, 2017 · Since these are essential nutrients, their removal is harmful to health. Response: It is true that distillation removes the "good" minerals ...
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Water Quality's Effects On Teeth - Marysville - Darby Creek Dental
Nov 30, 2022 · In particular, overly acidic water can cause mild enamel erosion over time, increasing your risk for cavities. There are also minerals ...
[72]
Contamination of Distilled Water, HCl, and NH4OH with Amino Acids ...
Unless special precautions are taken, distilled water will be contaminated with air borne microbes, probably psuedomonads, which multiply in water of ...
[73]
Does Distilled Water Go Bad? Signs It's Unsafe & When to Toss It
Jul 15, 2025 · Can bacteria grow in distilled water? Yes, if it's been opened or stored improperly. Q2. Is it safe to drink distilled water after a year?
[74]
Distilled Water FAQ - AquaNui Home Water Distillers
Household water distillers use about 3 KWH to make one gallon of distilled water. If you use 10 cents per KWH as the average electricity rate in the United ...
[75]
Environmental Considerations of Distilled Water Production
Jun 6, 2023 · All the energy, water and material use is extremely expensive, which leaves a big carbon footprint. You'll need to be more sustainable and find ...
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FDA Regulates the Safety of Bottled Water Beverages Including ...
Sep 22, 2018 · FDA regulates bottled water via CGMPs, requiring sanitary conditions, source protection, quality control, and testing. FDA also monitors and ...
[77]
[PDF] 12. HEALTH RISKS FROM DRINKING DEMINERALISED WATER
The corrosive nature of demineralised water and potential health risks related to the distribution and consumption of low TDS water has led to recommendations ...
[78]
Can Babies Drink Distilled Water? - Today's Parent
Nov 14, 2023 · It's unsafe for babies to drink too much distilled water or any type of water due to the risk of water intoxication.
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6077026/
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[PDF] History Of Distillation For Water Purification, Spirits And Medicine ...
Aristotle in his work Meteorology says,. “seawater can be made drinkable by vaporization; other liquids behave in the same way.” He also speaks of the formation ...
[82]
Chapter 1 The Views of Antiquity on Salt and Sea Water
The distillation process, at least in principle, is as old as the time of Aristotle. While it played an important part in the history of alchemy (223, p.329) ...
[83]
Jabir ibn Hayyan - PMC - NIH
... distillation using his greatest invention, the alembic (Anbaiq). Other achievements included preparation of various metals, development of steel, dyeing of ...Missing: apparatus advances
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Alchemy, aqua vitae, and Mixology: How alchemy gave us liquor
Oct 7, 2024 · Early modern aqua vitae was essentially brandy, distilled wine often with herbal additions for flavor and health. Aqua vitae also makes a great ...
[85]
Watering the Fleet and the Introduction of Distillation
This covers the history of distillation of water on ships at sea and experiments conducted by James Lind during the eighteenth century.
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Finding the Cure for Scurvy | Naval History Magazine
He proposed manufacturing a concentrate made from lemon juice called a rob, but the boiling and distillation process destroyed almost all the vitamin C. As a ...
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Green Engineering | Rum Diaries Blog
Feb 15, 2021 · Coffey would first patent his continuous still in 1830 and it bore remarkable similarity to the Cellier-Blumenthal still. Aeneas Coffey had been ...
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Water, Water Everywhere | EarthDate
Oct 17, 2019 · By the mid-1700s, ships carried their own desalination plants to remove salts through distillation, creating potable water while at sea. The ...
[89]
War on the Water: 'Nor any drop to drink' - HistoryNet
Dec 19, 2017 · Volumes of steam from the ships' boilers could now power a distilling apparatus that was capable of producing large quantities of potable water.
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Evolution of desalination research and water production ... - Frontiers
Kuwait, in parallel, became the first country in the world to pioneer the multi-stage flash distillation system in 1957, followed by Qatar in 1960 (Darwish et ...
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(PDF) Evolution of desalination research and water production in the ...
Oct 25, 2025 · ... desalination was only 1%. The Middle East has 39% of the total desalination capacity worldwide. By 2040, the share of renewable energy in ...Missing: WWII | Show results with:WWII
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[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO DESALINATION TECHNOLOGIES
MSF plants provide about 84 percent of that capacity. Most of those plants have been built overseas, primarily in the Middle East, where energy resources have ...
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History of desalination, current situation, and future development ...
So far, the UAE has 30 desalination plants with an annual capacity of 300,000,000m³, which can meet 98% of the country's domestic and industrial water ...
[94]
Developments in solar-driven desalination: Technologies ...
The first artificial RO membranes were constructed in 1963 by Loeb and Sourirajan from the University of California. The Flash for Multi-Stage (MSF) method was ...
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Advances in Membrane Distillation for Water Desalination and ...
This review considers the fundamental heat and mass transfer processes in membrane distillation, recent advances in membrane technology, module configurations,
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Advances in Membrane Distillation for Water Desalination and ...
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Home Water Distillers - Mother Earth News
Jan 1, 1980 · Here are short reviews of three home water distillers that were available to consumers in the late 1970s/early 1980s.
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NASA Brings Clean Water Back Down to Earth
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Global Distilled Water Market Size Is Prediction to Surpass Around ...
Apr 14, 2023 · “According to the latest research study, the demand of global Distilled Water Market size & share in terms of revenue was valued at USD 354 ...
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Space-Age Water Conservation | NASA Spinoff
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