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Domain registration

Domain registration is the process by which individuals, businesses, and organizations secure exclusive rights to a unique on the through an ICANN-accredited or , enabling the creation of websites, addresses, and other online services. This typically involves selecting an available name, providing registrant details such as name, address, and contact information, and entering into a registration agreement that outlines terms like duration (usually one to ten years), fees, renewal, and transfer policies. Upon approval, the submits the registration to the relevant registry operator, who maintains the authoritative database for the (TLD). The foundation of the contemporary domain registration system traces back to the establishment of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers () in as a to oversee the (DNS), transitioning management from informal U.S. government oversight that began in the 1980s with the . ICANN coordinates the global DNS, including policies for domain name allocation, accreditation of registrars, and introduction of new TLDs, ensuring stability and interoperability of the internet's addressing system. By 2016, ICANN completed the IANA stewardship transition, fully empowering the global multistakeholder community to guide DNS policies without U.S. governmental oversight. In the registration process, registrars serve as the primary interface for users, handling applications, billing, and customer support, with over 2,000 -accredited entities worldwide facilitating registrations for generic TLDs (gTLDs). Registry operators, in contrast, manage the zone files and name servers for specific TLDs, ensuring resolution to IP addresses. Resellers, operating under accredited registrars, provide additional access points but do not hold direct accreditation. Registrants must comply with anti-abuse policies, such as data accuracy requirements, to maintain their domain rights. Domain names are structured hierarchically and categorized primarily into gTLDs, which are generic extensions like .com, .org, and .net available globally without geographic restrictions, and ccTLDs, country-code TLDs like .us () or .uk () managed by national authorities often with residency or purpose-based eligibility. Additionally, internationalized domain names (IDNs) support non-Latin scripts, encoded in ASCII for DNS compatibility while displaying in native characters. As of the third quarter of 2025, the global domain name base exceeded 378.5 million registrations across all TLDs, reflecting sustained growth driven by digital expansion.

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Domain registration is the administrative and contractual process by which an individual, organization, or entity reserves a unique for a specified period, typically ranging from one to ten years, through an accredited that interacts with the relevant domain registry. This process establishes a formal outlining the terms of use, including fees and renewal options, ensuring the is entered into the authoritative registry database for the corresponding (TLD). The scope of domain registration encompasses the reservation of names under various TLD categories, including generic TLDs (gTLDs) such as .com and .org, country-code TLDs (ccTLDs) like .uk and .ca, and sponsored TLDs (sTLDs) that represent specific communities, such as .aero for the sector. It focuses solely on securing the itself within these TLD structures and does not extend to creation under an existing domain or the provision of web hosting services. Upon successful registration, the registrant receives exclusive usage rights to the domain name within its specific TLD, preventing others from registering or using an identical name in that zone during the registration period. However, these rights do not constitute outright ownership of the domain name, which is more akin to a from the registry operator, subject to compliance with policies and potential expiration or transfer. Domain registration traces its origins to the 1980s evolution of the , the precursor to the modern , with the first commercial domain name, symbolics.com, registered on March 15, 1985. The underlying (DNS) enables this process by serving as the Internet's directory, translating registered domain names into numerical IP addresses for global accessibility.

Domain Name Hierarchy

The domain name system (DNS) organizes domain names in a hierarchical structure that enables efficient global resolution of names to IP addresses. At the apex is the root zone, which is invisible to users and represented by a dot (.) at the end of fully qualified domain names; it serves as the starting point for all DNS queries and is managed through a distributed network of root name servers coordinated by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), a department of ICANN. Below the root lies the top-level domain (TLD), which categorizes domains into broad groups, followed by the second-level domain registered by users, and optionally subdomains for further subdivision. This layered approach allows for scalable delegation of authority, where higher levels point to lower ones via name server records. Top-level domains are primarily divided into generic TLDs (gTLDs), which are open or restricted extensions like .com or .org intended for general or specific uses, and country-code TLDs (ccTLDs), two-letter codes assigned to countries or territories such as .us for the or .uk for the under ISO 3166-1. Internationalized domain names (IDNs) enable support for non-Latin scripts in domain names, including at the TLD level, such as the ccTLD .рф for , promoting global linguistic diversity. The expansion of gTLDs, initiated by 's New gTLD Program in 2012, has resulted in more than 1,200 delegated gTLDs as of 2023, dramatically increasing choices beyond legacy options like .com, which is operated by the registry under contract with . For instance, second-level domains under .com, such as , are the portions directly registered by individuals or organizations, while subdomains like www.example.com provide additional granularity under the registrant's control without requiring separate registration. The delegation process in this hierarchy involves the root zone delegating authority to TLD registries, which maintain the authoritative database for all second-level domains within their TLD and handle zone file updates for DNS propagation. Registries, such as Verisign for .com, focus on backend operations like database management and stability, while ICANN-accredited registrars serve as the frontline interface for end-users, processing registrations and interfacing with registries via protocols like Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP). This separation ensures scalability, with reverse DNS lookups (mapping IP addresses back to domain names via zones like in-addr.arpa) following a parallel hierarchical structure delegated similarly from the root. Certain TLDs impose restrictions on registration to maintain purpose and security, with eligibility rules enforced by the sponsoring organization or registry. For example, the .gov gTLD is limited to verified U.S. federal, state, local, territorial, and tribal government entities, requiring proof of governmental affiliation and approval from an authorized official before registration. Similarly, other sponsored gTLDs like .edu restrict access to accredited educational institutions, preventing open registration to preserve trust in the namespace. These policies, outlined in registry agreements with , differentiate restricted TLDs from unrestricted ones like .com, guiding users toward appropriate choices during the registration process to claim a .

Registration Process

Steps Involved

The process of registering a involves a series of sequential steps facilitated by ICANN-accredited registrars, ensuring compliance with global standards for the Domain Name System (DNS). These steps typically apply to generic top-level domains (gTLDs) like .com, though country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs) may have additional requirements set by national registries. The entire procedure is designed to verify availability, collect necessary registrant information, and activate the domain efficiently. To begin, prospective registrants must search for domain name availability using tools such as WHOIS databases or the search functions provided by registrars. This step confirms whether the desired domain under a specific top-level domain (TLD) is unregistered. Once availability is established, the registrant selects an ICANN-accredited registrar and the appropriate TLD, such as .com for global use or a ccTLD like .eu for European entities. Approximately 2,800 such registrars were available worldwide as of March 2024. Next, the registrant provides required contact and identification details, including full name, postal address, email address, and phone number, as mandated by ICANN's Registration Data Policy (effective August 21, 2025). This information must be accurate to support domain administration and compliance with policies like the (UDRP), which relies on such data for resolving disputes over abusive registrations. For international variations, the European Union's (GDPR) imposes additional constraints on data collection and public disclosure for EU residents, requiring registrars to obtain explicit consent or justify processing personal information. The registrant then agrees to the registrar's , which outline fees, renewal obligations, and , and completes payment for the initial registration period, usually one to ten years. Upon successful submission, the registrar forwards the request to the relevant registry operator, who adds the domain to the . Confirmation is sent to the registrant, often including default nameserver details for further configuration. For most gTLDs, registration and activation occur almost instantly if the domain is available, enabling immediate use. In contrast, some ccTLDs like .eu may involve delays of 1-5 days due to verification processes by the registry. Post-registration, registrars typically offer auto-renewal options to prevent expiration, automatically charging the associated payment method at the end of the term. If not renewed, domains enter a —up to 45 days for many gTLDs like .com—during which the original registrant can renew without losing the domain. Following this, a redemption period of approximately 30 days allows recovery at an additional fee before the domain is released for public registration.

Selecting a Domain Name

Selecting a is a critical initial step in domain registration, as it forms the foundation of a website's identity, , and online branding. An effective should align with the registrant's goals, such as enhancing brand recognition or improving search visibility, while adhering to technical and legal constraints imposed by the (DNS). Key selection criteria include memorability, brevity, and relevance to the brand. Memorability ensures users can easily recall and type the name, reducing errors and encouraging direct traffic; for instance, simple, evocative names like have become synonymous with their services due to their straightforward appeal. Brevity is equally important, with ideal lengths under 15 characters to minimize typing mistakes and improve shareability, though even shorter names under 10 characters are often preferred for premium appeal. Relevance ties the name directly to the brand or industry, using descriptive yet unique terms that reflect the business's purpose without being overly generic. Registrants should prioritize availability across top-level domains (TLDs), starting with established ones like .com before exploring alternatives such as .net or country-code TLDs. Avoiding hyphens and numbers is advisable, as they complicate pronunciation and increase the risk of user confusion or typos. Premium domains—typically short, keyword-rich, or highly brandable—command significantly higher prices than standard registrations, often ranging from $1,000 to millions, compared to $10–20 annually for basic names, due to their scarcity and market demand. Trademark considerations are essential to prevent disputes; potential registrants must search databases like the USPTO to ensure the name does not infringe on existing marks, as violations can lead to legal challenges or forced transfers. Keyword research tools, such as Google Keyword Planner, aid in identifying high-search-volume terms that enhance relevance while maintaining brand fit. For future-proofing, consider Internationalized Domain Names (IDNs) supporting non-Latin scripts and emerging generic TLDs (gTLDs) like .app for applications or .xyz for versatile use, which expand options amid the ongoing gTLD program. Common pitfalls include overlooking cybersquatting risks, where similar names are registered by third parties to exploit brand confusion for profit, potentially leading to costly resolutions. To mitigate this, conduct thorough availability checks early and secure variations across TLDs.

Registrars

Role and Responsibilities

Domain registrars serve as retail providers that interface directly with end-users, facilitating the registration of domain names in generic top-level domains (gTLDs) by submitting applications and data to the corresponding registries on behalf of registrants. They manage the front-end aspects of the process, including billing for registration fees, providing customer support, and ensuring seamless transactions between users and the backend registry operators. Key responsibilities of registrars include maintaining accurate and up-to-date records by populating public databases with registrant contact information and investigating any reported inaccuracies to comply with transparency requirements. They must adhere to 's consensus policies, such as the Inter-Registrar Transfer Policy and the , as outlined in their accreditation agreements. Additionally, registrars often offer optional add-on services like privacy protection, which masks personal registrant details in public databases to reduce and risks, while still providing valid alternate contact information to meet standards. To support user accessibility, they provide 24/7 tools for checking availability, enabling real-time searches across TLDs. As of 2025, there are over 2,400 -accredited registrars operating worldwide, enabling competition in the domain market; prominent examples include and , which handle millions of registrations annually. While ICANN accreditation applies primarily to gTLDs, some country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs) utilize non-accredited registrars managed by national authorities without ICANN oversight. Registrars also support unique operational concepts, such as bulk registration capabilities tailored for resellers, allowing automated processing of multiple domains through platforms like OpenSRS and to streamline wholesale distribution. For high-value domain transfers, many provide or integrate services, where a neutral third party holds funds until the transfer completes, minimizing fraud risks during ownership changes.

Accreditation and Oversight

The accreditation process for domain registrars is managed by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers () for generic top-level domains (gTLDs), requiring applicants to demonstrate , technical capabilities, and adherence to the Registrar Accreditation Agreement (RAA). Financial requirements include maintaining at least US$70,000 in liquid , verified through documents such as letters or audited , to ensure operational reliability. Technical capabilities must support efficient, accurate, and secure registration services, including provisions for data , WHOIS data management, and contingency plans for business continuity in case of failure. Applicants must also agree to the 2013 RAA (as amended, including the 2024 global amendment), which outlines contractual obligations such as publishing contact details and abuse reporting procedures on their websites. Oversight of accredited registrars is conducted through ICANN's Contractual Compliance team, which performs annual audits and investigates complaints to enforce RAA compliance. Violations, such as failures in maintaining data accuracy, can result in notices of breach, temporary suspensions of new registrations or transfers, or full termination of accreditation. For instance, registrars must verify registrant contact information and suspend domains if accuracy checks fail after repeated notifications. A key distinction exists between ICANN accreditation, which applies exclusively to gTLDs, and country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs), managed by national or regional bodies; for example, the .uk ccTLD is overseen by Nominet, which sets its own registrar qualification standards independent of ICANN. The post-2012 expansion of the gTLD program, which introduced over 1,200 new extensions through 1,930 applications, significantly broadened opportunities for ICANN-accredited registrars by diversifying available domain options. Additionally, ICANN is preparing for the next round of new gTLD applications, expected to open in 2026, further expanding opportunities for accredited registrars. In the 2020s, accreditation standards have incorporated updates for GDPR compliance and enhanced , including the 2025 Registration Data Policy effective from August 21, which mandates agreements among , registrars, and registries to protect personal registration data while ensuring lawful access. These amendments build on earlier GDPR adaptations, such as the 2018 Temporary Specification, requiring registrars to implement privacy protections like redacted outputs and secure data handling protocols.

Technical Integration

DNS Configuration

After domain registration, DNS configuration is essential to make the domain functional by directing traffic to the appropriate servers and services. This involves setting up nameservers, which are servers responsible for handling DNS queries for the domain, typically during or immediately after the registration process through the registrar's interface. For example, a registrant might assign nameservers such as ns1.example.com and ns2.example.com to point the domain to specific IP addresses where the website or other resources are hosted. Once nameservers are updated, DNS changes must propagate across the of DNS servers, a process that generally takes 24 to 48 hours, though it can extend up to 72 hours in some cases due to caching mechanisms. During this propagation, resolvers worldwide update their records, ensuring consistent resolution of the to the intended IP addresses. Authoritative nameservers, maintained by the domain registry for top-level domains (TLDs), play a critical role by providing definitive responses to queries about the domain's delegation to the registrant's chosen nameservers, forming the foundation of the DNS hierarchy. Key DNS resource records are configured to define how the domain interacts with various services. An A record maps the domain to an IPv4 address (e.g., 192.0.2.1), while an AAAA record does the same for addresses, enabling direct routing to web servers. CNAME records create aliases, allowing a subdomain like www.example.com to point to another domain or without specifying an , which is useful for load balancing or redirects. MX records specify mail exchange servers for handling email, prioritizing them by preference values to route incoming messages efficiently. These records are managed via the registrar's control panel or DNS provider dashboard, where users can add, edit, or delete entries as needed. DNS hosting can be decoupled from domain registration, allowing registrants to use third-party providers for greater flexibility and features; for instance, a domain registered with a basic can delegate nameservers to for advanced DNS management, security, and performance optimization. Common configuration errors, such as setting an excessively high (TTL) value—typically measured in seconds and controlling how long records are cached—can lead to prolonged downtime after updates, as resolvers retain outdated information longer than intended. Proper DNS configuration also integrates with SSL/TLS certificates to enable , where the domain's A or CNAME records direct traffic to a hosting the certificate, ensuring encrypted connections; certificate authorities often validate ownership via DNS records during issuance, tying security directly to the domain's DNS setup. Domain transfers between registrars may require re-verifying these DNS settings to maintain continuity, though the core configurations typically remain intact.

Domain Transfer Procedures

Domain transfer procedures enable the movement of a registered from one ICANN-accredited to another or from one owner to another, ensuring continuity of ownership while adhering to standardized protocols to prevent unauthorized changes. These procedures are primarily governed by ICANN's Inter-Registrar Policy (IRTP), a consensus that mandates straightforward, fee-free transfers for eligible domains to promote registrant rights and market competition. The applies mainly to generic top-level domains (gTLDs) like .com and .org, with variations for country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs). The standard transfer process for gTLDs involves several key steps to initiate and complete the change securely. First, the must be unlocked at the current (losing) to allow transfer eligibility. Next, the registrant obtains an (EPP) authorization code, also known as an , from the losing , which serves as a unique identifier for the request. The registrant then submits the transfer request to the new (gaining) , providing the EPP code and updated contact details. The gaining notifies the losing , and the registrant confirms the transfer, typically via to the administrative contact address on file. The process generally completes within 5-7 days, during which the remains functional but may require brief DNS reconfiguration at the new to maintain service continuity. ICANN's IRTP enforces critical safeguards, including a 60-day lock period following initial registration, a previous transfer, or changes to registrant contact information (name, organization, or ), to mitigate and abuse. must be free of charge by the losing , though the gaining may impose standard registration fees. For large-scale operations, bulk transfers are permitted under IRTP provisions, particularly in cases of closure or portfolio migrations, where ICANN may authorize the movement of multiple domains without individual EPP codes, subject to verification and approval. Distinguishing between registrar changes and ownership updates is essential. A full inter-registrar transfer shifts the to a new while retaining the same , whereas a change of registrant updates details directly through the current without involving a new provider. The latter also triggers a 60-day lock but can be authorized by the current owner or a designated under IRTP guidelines. Recent enhancements to the IRTP, updated in February 2024 to align with the Registration Data Policy, facilitate smoother processes, including options for faster transfers for verified users through improved mechanisms as part of the ongoing Transfer Policy Review. In 2025, the Transfer Policy Review Working Group submitted its final report to the Board in April, with public comments closing in June, proposing enhancements to further improve transfer security and efficiency, though implementation is pending as of November 2025. However, ccTLDs often deviate from gTLD standards; for example, .jp domains, managed by Japan Registry Services (JPRS), require an authorization code obtained from the losing registrar and involve manual approval of the transfer request, potentially extending timelines based on local regulations.

History and Development

Origins and Early Systems

The (DNS) was introduced in 1983 by through RFC 882 and RFC 883, which outlined the concepts, facilities, and implementation for mapping human-readable domain names to IP addresses, replacing the earlier flat hosts.txt file maintained by the Stanford Research Institute (SRI). This innovation addressed the scalability issues of the , enabling a hierarchical naming structure that supported distributed management across the nascent . Initial domain registrations were handled manually by the SRI-NIC, the Network Information Center at , which served as the primary registry for the original top-level domains (TLDs): .com for commercial entities, .edu for educational institutions, .gov for U.S. government agencies, and .mil for the military. These registrations were limited to organizations connected to the and its academic and government extensions, reflecting the pre-commercial focus of the during this era. No fees were charged for registrations, as they were subsidized by the U.S. Department of Defense and later the (NSF) to support research and defense networking. The first .com domain, symbolics.com, was registered on March 15, 1985, by the computer company Symbolics Inc., marking the practical beginning of commercial TLD usage under the new system. As of January 1985, only about 12 domains had been registered overall, primarily in academic and government spaces, but this number grew steadily into the thousands by the early 1990s as NSF-funded networks expanded access. In 1993, the NSF established InterNIC—a cooperative agreement with Network Solutions Inc. (NSI), AT&T, and General Atomics—to centralize domain registration services, granting NSI a monopoly on .com, .net, and .org TLDs until competition was introduced in 1999. This period laid the groundwork for the later transition to independent oversight by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).

Expansion and Modernization

The expansion of domain registration began in earnest with the termination of Inc. (NSI)'s monopoly in 1999, following the formation of the in to oversee the . This shift enabled ICANN to accredit additional registrars, fostering competition in the registration of generic top-level domains (gTLDs) like .com, .net, and .org. In the early , the introduction of competitive registrars proliferated, with approving multiple entities to handle registrations, which lowered costs and increased accessibility for users worldwide. This period marked a transition from a centralized model to a shared registry system, allowing diverse providers to offer services and spurring growth in domain adoption. Modernization efforts accelerated with 's 2012 New gTLD Program, which opened applications for over 1,200 new extensions, including brand-specific ones like .google and community-oriented options such as .pizza. has adopted the Applicant Guidebook for the next round of new gTLD applications, with the submission period projected to open in April 2026. In the , focus has intensified on internationalized domain names (IDNs), enabling registrations in non-Latin scripts to support global linguistic diversity, alongside experimental integrations of technology for decentralized name services. Key milestones include the 2016 adoption of the European Union's (GDPR), which profoundly impacted the protocol by restricting the public disclosure of personal registrant data to enhance privacy. This led to a surge in services after 2018, as registrars implemented tools and services to comply with GDPR while maintaining data access for legitimate purposes. As of the third quarter of 2025, the total number of registered domains exceeded 378.5 million, reflecting sustained global expansion. The further accelerated registrations, with a 20% increase in new domains observed across a sample of country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs) in early 2020, driven by heightened online activity and digital business shifts. Concurrently, the industry has shifted toward automated tools, including AI-assisted systems that generate and check domain availability in real-time based on user keywords, streamlining the selection process for registrants.

Policies and Regulations

Governing Bodies

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (), founded in 1998 as a nonprofit headquartered in , , serves as the primary global governing body for domain registration, particularly overseeing generic top-level domains (gTLDs) and coordinating the maintenance of the to ensure the Internet's stability and security. 's core mission is to promote competition and develop policy for the internationalized Domain Name System (DNS), facilitating the secure and unified operation of the global Internet. Within , the (IANA), operated as a function since 2016 under Public Technical Identifiers LLC (a subsidiary), manages technical parameters essential to domain registration, including root zone administration, top-level domain delegations, and protocol assignments. For country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), governance is decentralized and primarily falls under national laws and designated operators, with ICANN providing coordination but lacking direct contractual authority. Examples include DENIC eG, a nonprofit cooperative in Germany that acts as the central registry for all .de domains, administering registrations and ensuring technical stability under German regulations. Similarly, the Canadian Internet Registration Authority (CIRA), a nonprofit organization, manages the .ca domain registry, handling registrations and DNS operations in compliance with Canadian policies. These ccTLD operators maintain autonomy in policy-setting while collaborating with ICANN on global technical standards. ICANN operates through a multi-stakeholder model that incorporates input from governments, businesses, , and the technical community to develop policies collaboratively. A key component is the Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC), which represents governments and intergovernmental organizations, advising the ICANN Board on matters related to domain registration without veto power. Policy development follows a bottom-up, consensus-driven process via open working groups within supporting organizations and advisory committees, allowing diverse stakeholders to propose and refine recommendations. Following the 2016 IANA stewardship transition, which ended direct U.S. government oversight, ICANN implemented enhanced accountability mechanisms, including periodic reviews such as the Accountability and Transparency Review Team (ATRT) and IANA Functions Reviews; following proposals in late 2024, updates to the operating standards for specific reviews were implemented in 2025 to improve efficiency and transparency.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

The Uniform Domain-Name Dispute Resolution Policy (UDRP), adopted by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) in 1999, serves as the primary mechanism for addressing trademark-based disputes over generic top-level domain (gTLD) registrations, focusing on cases of alleged cybersquatting. To prevail under the UDRP, a complainant must prove three elements: that the disputed domain name is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark in which the complainant has rights; that the respondent has no rights or legitimate interests in the domain name; and that the domain was registered and is being used in bad faith. Complaints are submitted to ICANN-approved providers, such as the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which administers the majority of cases through an expedited arbitration process typically lasting 60 days. As of 2025, WIPO has handled a cumulative total exceeding 79,000 UDRP cases since the policy's inception, reflecting its widespread adoption for resolving abusive registrations. Complainants have succeeded in approximately 85% of decided cases overall, underscoring the policy's effectiveness in favoring legitimate trademark holders. Filing fees for a UDRP complaint range from $1,500 for up to five domain names with a single-member panel to $5,000 or more for larger or three-member panel cases, making it a cost-effective alternative to litigation. Complementing the UDRP, the Uniform Rapid Suspension (URS) system, implemented by ICANN in 2013, targets clear-cut infringement in new gTLDs by enabling rapid, temporary suspension of domains rather than transfer or cancellation. Designed for low-cost and swift resolution, the URS requires complainants to meet a higher evidentiary standard—demonstrating "clear and convincing evidence" of infringement—while limiting respondents to a brief response period; decisions are typically rendered within 20 days of filing. For country-code top-level domains (ccTLDs), jurisdiction-specific policies apply, such as the .uk Dispute Resolution Service (DRS) managed by Nominet UK, which handles abusive registrations through mediation and expert adjudication tailored to .uk domains. In cases where administrative mechanisms prove insufficient, parties may pursue court litigation as a final recourse, often in jurisdictions where the registrar or respondent is located. To prevent disputes proactively, mandates sunrise periods for new gTLD launches, providing trademark holders with a priority 30- to 60-day window to register domains matching their marks before open availability. The UDRP also addresses misuse through provisions against reverse domain name hijacking, where panels may declare a baseless and in , issuing a public finding that serves as a deterrent without imposing financial penalties. In January 2025, completed the transition from the protocol to the Registration Data Access Protocol (RDAP), enhancing protections while maintaining access to verified registration data for purposes. Registration data (accessed via RDAP or legacy services) frequently supports evidence in these proceedings by verifying registrant details and timelines.