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Dominant caste

The dominant caste is a sociological concept introduced by in his 1959 study of the village of Rampura to denote a group that achieves local preeminence through a combination of substantial numerical presence, control over economic resources such as land and wealth, effective political mobilization, and a that is high enough to elicit from subordinate groups, even if not the apex of the traditional hierarchy. This framework shifted analysis from rigid purity rankings toward observable power dynamics in rural , where dominant castes—often intermediate agrarian groups like Reddys in or in —mediate access to resources and influence social relations. In practice, dominance manifests through mechanisms such as land ownership enabling networks, electoral clout via bloc , and cultural emulation by lower castes seeking upward mobility, as Srinivas observed in patterns of Sanskritization where aspirants adopt dominant caste customs to elevate their status. confirms that villages with numerically or economically dominant upper castes exhibit higher and volumes, while dominance by lower-status groups correlates with stagnation, underscoring the causal link between caste power structures and economic outcomes in rural settings. Politically, dominant castes have shaped post-independence by dominating panchayats and state assemblies, often converting ritual influence into modern leverage amid land reforms and reservations that sometimes reinforced rather than eroded their hold. The concept has faced critiques for overemphasizing structural functionality at the expense of conflict, such as resistance or intra-caste fractures, and for potentially importing dominance ideas from non-Indian contexts without fully accounting for 's ritual-ideological underpinnings. Nonetheless, it remains foundational for understanding persistent caste asymmetries in India's and , where dominant groups continue to navigate and to sustain advantages.

Conceptual Foundations

Origin of the Concept

The concept of the dominant caste emerged from the ethnographic fieldwork of Indian sociologist Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas, who introduced the term in his 1959 article "The Dominant Caste in Rampura," published in the American Anthropologist. This work drew directly from Srinivas's observations in Rampura, a pseudonymous village in the then-Mysore State (present-day ), where he documented how certain castes wielded substantial influence despite not always holding the highest ritual purity. The article, originally presented as a seminar paper at the University of Chicago's Department of Anthropology in May 1957, formalized the idea to explain intra-village power dynamics beyond traditional Brahminical dominance, emphasizing numerical strength, land ownership, and political control as key factors. Srinivas's formulation originated from longitudinal fieldwork in Rampura, initiated after his return to following studies at University, with primary data collection spanning the late and early 1950s. In this multi-caste village of approximately 576 households as of the 1950s, Srinivas identified the Okkaligas (landowning cultivators) as the dominant group, controlling about 70% of the arable land and dominating local institutions like the panchayat despite comprising roughly 30-40% of the population. This empirical grounding challenged earlier caste theories focused solely on hierarchy and purity, such as those in Louis Dumont's work, by incorporating secular criteria like economic and political efficacy observed in post-colonial rural settings. Srinivas explicitly rejected claims that the concept borrowed from African sociological notions of dominant clans or lineages, asserting its roots in his prior Indian studies, including the 1952 publication Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India, though the Rampura analysis provided the definitive crystallization. The term gained traction in Indian sociology for analyzing how castes transitioned from ritual to dominance in modernizing villages, influencing subsequent research on power shifts amid land reforms and electoral politics in the 1950s-1960s.

Definition and Core Criteria

The term "dominant caste" refers to a social group within the Indian caste system that holds substantial influence in a localized context, such as a village or region, through a combination of demographic, economic, and political factors, without necessarily occupying the pinnacle of ritual purity. Coined by sociologist in his study of Rampura village, the concept highlights how castes achieve dominance by leveraging resources that enable control over local affairs, often transcending traditional Brahminical hierarchies. Core criteria for dominance, as outlined by Srinivas, include numerical preponderance, whereby the caste constitutes a significant portion of the local population—typically 20-25% or more in the relevant area—to provide a demographic base for . is manifested through ownership of and other productive assets, allowing the caste to control agricultural output and , as landholding patterns in pre- and early post-independence concentrated wealth among certain intermediate castes. Political leverage follows from this foundation, enabling the caste to secure leadership roles in village councils, influence electoral outcomes, and mediate disputes, often converting economic clout into formal authority under systems like . A further criterion is a relatively high position in the ritual hierarchy, which facilitates emulation by lower castes and legitimizes dominance without requiring ritual supremacy; for instance, castes like the Okkaligas or in parts of ranked below Brahmins but commanded respect through syncretic practices and economic might. These attributes must conjoin for true dominance: numerical strength alone, as in some Scheduled Caste concentrations, does not suffice without economic and political translation. Srinivas emphasized the dynamic nature of this status, noting it could shift with modernization, such as through or , but required empirical verification in specific locales rather than blanket application across .

Historical Context

Pre-Independence Village Dynamics

In pre-independence , rural villages functioned as largely self-contained agrarian units where hierarchies shaped resource allocation and social interactions, with a numerically significant landowning —often of origin—exercising predominant influence over economic and political spheres. These castes, comprising roughly one-eighth to one-third of the village population, controlled the bulk of cultivable land under colonial tenure systems like (direct peasant revenue payment) and (village-based assessment), which empowered solvent cultivators while sidelining higher-ritual but numerically weaker Brahmins or absentee zamindars. Labor from lower castes, including artisans and , was secured through customary ties, ensuring production continuity amid limited mobility and enforcement via social sanctions rather than formal contracts. Local governance occurred through informal panchayats, caste-dominated councils of elders that resolved disputes over land, water, debt, and marital infractions, often prioritizing the dominant group's cohesion and economic interests. These bodies mediated with revenue officials, leveraging networks to influence tax assessments or exemptions, while enforcing , taboos, and labor obligations that perpetuated subservience of service jatis (sub-castes). Empirical accounts from colonial ethnographies highlight how such structures maintained order in diverse multi-caste settlements, but at the cost of systemic exclusion, as lower groups faced ritual degradation and restricted access to common resources. Regionally, dominance manifested variably: in Karnataka's irrigated villages, peasants monopolized wet-rice fields and panchayat leadership, their numerical edge (up to 60% in some locales) amplifying control over trade and irrigation disputes; northern examples included in Punjab-Haryana tracts, who consolidated holdings under canal colonies post-1880s, using martial prowess for revenue farming roles. expansion from the late , such as in (Patidars) or in (Marathas), further entrenched these castes by facilitating credit access and market linkages, though vulnerabilities to famines (e.g., 1896-1902) occasionally prompted colonial interventions favoring intermediaries. This pre-1947 configuration underscored causal links between land control, demographic weight, and authority, independent of pan-Indian ideals.

Post-Independence Transformations

Post-1947 land reforms, particularly the abolition of intermediary tenures under zamindari abolition acts enacted between 1950 and 1955 across most states, redistributed tenancy rights to cultivating peasants, predominantly members of dominant castes such as in northern and Marathas in , thereby enhancing their proprietary control over arable land and weakening upper-caste absentee landlords. These reforms, implemented unevenly due to resistance from landed elites, failed to achieve widespread redistribution to landless laborers from scheduled castes, preserving and amplifying the economic foundations of dominant caste in rural economies. The advent of universal adult franchise from 1952 onward facilitated the political mobilization of dominant castes, which leveraged numerical preponderance to dominate local institutions established under the 1959 recommendations and subsequent state legislations. In regions with clear dominant castes, vertical mobilization—aligning lower castes under their leadership—reinforced their control over electoral outcomes, as observed in studies of postcolonial villages where such groups secured disproportionate representation in gram panchayats and state legislatures by the 1960s. Agricultural modernization via the , initiated in 1965-1966 with high-yield variety seeds and irrigation investments in , , and , disproportionately accrued benefits to dominant land-owning castes like and Yadavs, who commanded over 60% of operational holdings in these areas by 1970-1971, widening income disparities and entrenching their socioeconomic leverage amid national foodgrain production rising from 72 million tons in 1965 to 108 million tons in 1971. This economic consolidation intersected with caste-based party formations, such as Yadav-led in by the 1990s, adapting pre-existing dominance to democratic competition. While policies, including scheduled reservations in legislatures since 1952 and the Mandal Commission's Other Backward Classes recommendations implemented in 1990, aimed to dilute upper- influence, dominant intermediate castes—often classified as OBCs—integrated these mechanisms to expand their spheres, as evidenced by their overrepresentation in state assemblies (e.g., Marathas holding 40-50% of seats in the 1970s-1980s despite comprising 30% of the ). Sociologists have noted that post-independence , at regional levels, exemplifies the "India of dominant castes," with ritual status yielding to amalgamated numerical, economic, and political criteria in power dynamics. Empirical analyses of electoral data confirm the persistence of enclaves, where dominant groups exhibit positive performance effects in and economic outcomes, underscoring limited erosion of their structural advantages.

Identification and Attributes

Numerical and Economic Dominance

In M. N. Srinivas's formulation of the dominant caste, numerical strength refers to a caste's substantial share of , typically forming a or within villages, taluks, or districts, which translates into leverage over community decisions and institutions. This demographic weight, often exceeding 20-40% in the relevant locality, enables the caste to influence electoral outcomes and social norms without relying solely on higher ritual status. For instance, in rural , the Okkaliga caste exemplified this by constituting around 50% of Rampura village's during Srinivas's 1948 fieldwork, allowing it to overshadow numerically weaker but ritually superior Brahmins. Economic dominance, closely intertwined with numerical factors, stems primarily from control over , the principal source of wealth and in agrarian prior to widespread industrialization. Dominant castes historically monopolized through and tenancy advantages, employing lower castes as laborers and thereby securing economic leverage that reinforces political power. Land ownership patterns from the mid-20th century show that such castes held disproportionate shares; in , Marathas, comprising approximately 30% of the state's population, owned over 80% of as of the late 20th century, alongside dominance in 86 of 105 sugar cooperatives and 70% of cooperative bodies. Similarly, in , Reddys, forming about 6.5% of the population statewide but concentrated in key districts, controlled significant landholdings that underpinned their economic influence into the 1980s. Post-independence land reforms, enacted between 1950 and 1970 across states, aimed to redistribute surplus land but largely preserved dominant castes' holdings due to exemptions for smallholders and evasion tactics, sustaining their economic primacy. By the , surveys indicated that upper and dominant intermediate castes retained 40-50% of rural land in regions like and , where Yadavs emerged as dominant through post-1960s and pastoral-to-agricultural shifts. This economic base facilitates networks, funding political mobilization and local , though recent data reveals intra-caste disparities, with only a minority of households in castes like Marathas owning large plots exceeding 10 acres.

Ritual Status and Political Leverage

In M.N. Srinivas's formulation of the dominant caste concept, ritual status denotes a caste's relatively elevated position within the local hierarchy of purity and pollution, sufficient to assert moral and social authority over subordinate groups without challenging the apex ritual positions held by Brahmins. This status is not absolute supremacy in the pan-Indian varna order but contextual primacy in village or regional settings, where the caste emulates higher Sanskritic practices like vegetarianism or temple patronage to bolster legitimacy. Such positioning enables the caste to sponsor communal rituals, festivals, and life-cycle ceremonies, fostering patronage networks that translate ritual influence into deference from lower castes. This ritual elevation underpins political leverage by legitimizing the dominant caste's monopoly on leadership roles, as lower-status groups accept their adjudicatory and representational authority to avoid taboos or social ostracism. In empirical village studies, dominant castes leverage this to control local governance institutions; for instance, in Rampura village (studied by Srinivas in the 1940s and detailed in 1959), the Okkaliga () caste, positioned as cultivators with middling ritual purity, dominated the panchayat established under the 1926 Mysore Village Panchayat Act, electing headsmen who mediated disputes and allocated resources while Brahmins, despite ritual superiority, remained economically dependent and politically marginal. Okkaligas comprised roughly one-third of the population, owned most land, and used their ritual claims—such as leading harvest festivals—to consolidate votes and exclude from decision-making. Post-independence democratic expansions, including the 1959 Community Development Programme and 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) for , amplified this leverage, as dominant castes captured elected positions through bloc voting and kinship ties, often holding 70-90% of roles in their strongholds by the 1970s. In northern , castes like in or —classified as but with warrior (Kshatriya-like) self-perceptions—exert similar control, using ritual assertions of purity (e.g., temple endowments) to form political alliances and dominate state assemblies, as evidenced in Jat-led parties securing over 60% of seats in elections from 1967-1987. This fusion of ritual status and politics perpetuates exclusion, with lower castes facing barriers to office due to perceived impurity, though empirical critiques note that economic shifts have occasionally eroded pure ritual-based leverage in favor of class mobilization.

Regional Variations and Examples

Dominant Castes in Southern India

In Southern India, dominant castes typically consist of intermediate groups, often classified as Shudras, that exercise substantial influence through land ownership, numerical preponderance in rural areas, and control over local economic and political institutions, rather than relying primarily on ritual purity as in northern India. These castes emerged prominently during the and post-independence land reforms, leveraging agricultural surpluses for upward mobility and territorial expansion. Unlike Brahmin-dominated ritual hierarchies, southern dominant castes frequently challenge Sanskritic orthodoxy, as seen in Karnataka's who reject aspects of Vedic authority. In , the (also known as Veerashaivas) and Vokkaligas exemplify dominant castes, with the 1986 Venkataswamy Commission estimating Lingayats at 16.92% and Vokkaligas at 11.68% of the state's population. Lingayats, originating as a 12th-century Shaivite reform movement under Basavanna, function as a caste-like community with strong internal cohesion, dominating politics in northern and central regions through affiliations with parties like the BJP, while Vokkaligas, primarily agriculturists, hold sway in the old Mysuru area via parties such as JD(S). Both groups control significant temple resources, educational institutions, and cooperative societies, perpetuating economic leverage despite resistance to caste censuses that could dilute their quota benefits. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana feature Reddys and Kammas as key dominant castes, comprising roughly 5-6% and 3-4% of the population respectively, yet wielding disproportionate power through irrigated delta farmlands and business networks. Reddys, historically revenue collectors under British rule, dominate the with 49 assembly candidates in 2024 elections, while Kammas, known for entrepreneurial migration and territorial consolidation since the , lead the with 34 candidates in the same cycle. Their rivalry structures state politics, with Kammas establishing "heartlands" in coastal districts via land purchases and canal irrigation post-1850s, enabling socio-spatial dominance over subordinate groups like Scheduled Castes. Tamil Nadu's dominant castes include Vellalar subgroups such as (Gounders) in the western Kongu region, who control textiles, , and across 35% of the state's land, alongside Thevars (Mukkulathors) in the south, noted for numerical strength and martial traditions. Gounders, endogamous agriculturists with titles like "protector," dominate Coimbatore's industrial economy, while Thevars, Vanniyars, and upwardly mobile Nadars influence DMK and AIADMK vote banks through community organizations. These groups, lacking unified ritual superiority over Brahmins, assert power via economic diversification and electoral alliances, as evidenced by their overrepresentation in assembly seats despite no post-1931 . Kerala's caste dynamics diverge due to 20th-century reforms and communist governance, diminishing overt dominance, but historically functioned as a dominant group through matrilineal and military roles under and Cochin kingdoms until the 1940s. Comprising about 14-15% of the , retain influence in government service alongside Ezhavas (23%), who, via the founded in , achieved social upliftment and now share 41% of state jobs with as of 2024 data. Ezhavas, traditionally toddy-tappers, transitioned to political clout through the CPI(M), challenging Nair preeminence without equivalent territorial control seen elsewhere in the south.

Dominant Castes in Northern India

In Northern India, dominant castes are characterized by substantial numerical presence, control over , and resultant political influence, often transcending their middling ritual positions in the traditional hierarchy. These groups, such as and Yadavs, gained prominence through post-independence land reforms that consolidated their economic base in rural economies, enabling them to mobilize votes and dominate local power structures despite not holding the highest priestly or warrior statuses. Unlike Brahmins or Rajputs, who may claim ritual superiority but lack comparable demographic weight in many regions, these castes leverage secular criteria of dominance—population shares exceeding 10-20% in key states, ownership of prime farmland, and electoral sway—to shape governance and social norms. The Jats exemplify this pattern in and , where they constitute about 20-25% of the population and control a disproportionate share of , fostering economic and political . In , Jat have monopolized chief ministerial positions since the state's formation in 1966, reflecting their command over rural constituencies and . In , Jats' landholding dominance—stemming from historical zamindari patterns and gains—has translated into consistent control of state assemblies and panchayats, with agitations like the 2016 Jat stir underscoring their capacity to disrupt governance for caste interests. This dominance persists amid , as Jats adapt by influencing urban and , maintaining leverage over 25-30% of legislative seats in both states. Yadavs represent a parallel dynamic in and , where their 8-14% population share, combined with pastoral and cultivatory traditions, has fueled OBC consolidation and party formation. In , Yadavs at over 14% form the core of Rashtriya Janata Dal's base, enabling leaders like to govern through caste arithmetic from 1990-2005, prioritizing Yadav recruitment in administration and police. In , comprising roughly 8-9%, they underpin the Samajwadi Party's rural strongholds, with Yadav legislators often exceeding 50 in assemblies via alliances that amplify their veto power on agrarian issues. Economic data from the 2011 census highlights their overrepresentation in dairy and smallholder farming, yielding surpluses that fund electoral machines, though intra-caste fragmentation and competition from Dalits have occasionally eroded absolute control. Other groups like Gujjars in and , or Kurmis in parts of , exhibit localized dominance through similar mechanisms—numerical clusters of 5-10% allied with land control—but lack the statewide sweep of or Yadavs. These castes' rise correlates empirically with declining feudal upper-caste influence post-1950s zamindari abolition, which redistributed resources to intermediate tillers, per agrarian studies; however, persistent and ritual assertions of descent reveal ongoing tensions with sanskritic norms. This regional variant underscores how dominance in Northern hinges more on material power than purity rankings, adapting to via bloc rather than hereditary privilege.

Functions and Sociological Impact

Role in Local Governance and Dispute Resolution

In rural India, dominant castes have historically monopolized control over local governance institutions, such as village assemblies and, post-1959 Panchayati Raj reforms, elected panchayats, due to their numerical preponderance and control over land and resources, allowing them to dominate leadership roles and decision-making processes. In empirical observations from villages like Rampura in (now ), documented by in the late 1940s, the Okkaliga (a peasant caste) caste constituted about 60% of the population and effectively directed panchayat activities, including tax collection and infrastructure maintenance, often sidelining input from numerically weaker castes. This pattern persists in many regions, where dominant caste members secure 70-80% of panchayat seats in unreserved villages, influencing allocations for public goods like roads and water supply to align with their economic priorities, as evidenced in surveys across 265 villages in and during the 2000s. Dominant castes also play a central role in informal through caste panchayats, parallel bodies that adjudicate conflicts over , , and honor without formal legal authority but backed by . These panchayats, comprising elders from the dominant group, resolve up to 80% of intra-village disputes in some North Indian contexts by invoking customary norms, imposing fines or as penalties, as noted in ethnographic studies from and in the 1970s-1980s. For instance, in Jat-dominated villages of , caste panchayats mediated over 60% of agrarian disputes in the , prioritizing collective caste interests over individual rights and often deterring appeals to state courts through threats of , which could result in economic isolation given the dominant caste's grip on local labor and markets. While effective for maintaining order in homogeneous settings, this system disadvantages subordinate castes, as resolutions frequently embed power asymmetries; a 2020 analysis of 1,200 conflict cases across found that dominant caste-led panchayats ruled against lower castes in 65% of inter-caste disputes, perpetuating hierarchies rather than equitable . Even in formally democratic panchayats introduced under the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1992, dominant castes adapt by capturing reserved seats through proxies or influencing unreserved ones, blending traditional authority with electoral mechanisms to sustain their leverage in governance and adjudication. Studies from and in the 2010s reveal that in villages with dominant or castes, panchayat presidents from these groups allocate 20-30% more development funds to their habitations compared to those of Scheduled Castes, underscoring how numerical and economic dominance translates into veto power over local policies. This fusion of informal and formal roles ensures dispute resolution remains caste-centric, with state interventions often undermined by social pressure; for example, in a 2015 survey, 45% of respondents preferred caste panchayats for speed and cultural resonance, despite documented biases favoring the powerful.

Influence on Social Mobility and Cultural Processes

Dominant castes exert significant control over local resources such as land and credit, which constrains for subordinate groups in rural by limiting access to economic opportunities and . In villages like Rampura studied by , the dominant Okkaliga caste owned the majority of cultivable land and wielded political influence through numerical preponderance, effectively marginalizing lower castes from upward trajectories unless aligned with dominant networks. Empirical analyses indicate that caste enclaves—where a group holds dominance—yield positive economic effects for intra-caste members via preferential hiring and , but overall village and suffer due to exclusionary practices that hinder broader . Sanskritization represents a cultural pathway for limited mobility, wherein lower castes emulate the rituals, , and social practices of dominant castes to claim higher status, yet this process often reinforces rather than disrupts as dominant groups dictate acceptable norms and may resist full integration. Srinivas observed that in Rampura, non-Brahmin dominant castes like Okkaligas served as models for emulation due to their economic and political clout, transmitting practices such as systems downward while preserving ritual distance. Success in such mobility remains contingent on acquiring parallel economic power, as ritual elevation alone seldom translates to substantive gains without dominant approval or state interventions like reservations, which have enabled some Scheduled Caste upward movement since the 1950s but face resistance from entrenched groups. Culturally, dominant castes shape village processes by custodianship of rituals, festivals, and , establishing norms that privilege their values and perpetuate , thereby embedding in daily life and . Their higher ritual status allows control over temples and community events, influencing what constitutes prestige and , as seen in southern Indian contexts where landowning castes dictate cultural calendars. This extends to and media consumption, where dominant norms frame "merit" and aspiration, subtly limiting alternative cultural expressions from subordinate groups and sustaining caste-based differentials in intergenerational transmission.

Criticisms and Debates

Theoretical and Methodological Challenges

The concept of dominant caste, as articulated by M.N. Srinivas, integrates numerical preponderance, economic resources, political influence, and ritual standing, yet critics argue this multifaceted definition introduces theoretical ambiguity, complicating precise delineation from ritual hierarchy. Louis Dumont contended that dominance constitutes a secular phenomenon distinct from the ritual purity-pollution framework central to caste ideology, positing that conflating the two obscures underlying structural separations. Adrian C. Mayer challenged the primacy of numerical dominance, observing that power and prestige frequently reside with a limited cadre of individuals rather than entire castes, while emulation of dominant practices by subordinate groups suggests bidirectional cultural flows rather than unidirectional imposition. Further theoretical critiques highlight the concept's contextual specificity and limited scalability. linked dominance to localized processes like Sanskritization, viewing it as a regional cultural adaptation rather than a pan-Indian mechanism. Gardner proposed a hierarchical model of dominance encompassing rulers, regional castes, local groups, and village-level landholders, arguing against restricting it solely to caste units. K.L. Sharma disputed the existence of all-India dominant castes, emphasizing regional variability, while Deepankar Gupta questioned numerical criteria by citing cases like , where (approximately 9% of the population) exert control over numerically superior Dalits (around 25%). Methodologically, Srinivas's reliance on extended in select villages, such as Rampura, yielded rich ethnographic insights but constrained generalizability, as structural-functional approaches may underemphasize rapid social fluxes like land reforms or political mobilizations noted by Bétéille. Empirical verification faces hurdles from the absence of comprehensive since 1931, rendering quantitative assessments of dominance—spanning economic, political, and numerical axes—susceptible to subjective interpretation and incomplete data. D.N. Majumdar illustrated this by noting instances where scheduled castes achieve numerical majorities yet fail to translate them into power, underscoring challenges in operationalizing and longitudinally tracking dominance amid evolving agrarian and electoral .

Empirical Limitations and Alternative Views

Critics have pointed out that the dominant caste concept, derived primarily from ethnographic observations in specific villages like Rampura, exhibits empirical limitations in generalizing across diverse regions and historical contexts, as it underemphasizes macro-level economic transformations such as post-independence land reforms in the 1950s and 1960s, which eroded the economic foundations of traditional landowning s in areas like Tanjore district. André Béteille's fieldwork in Sripuram village documented how these reforms shifted power away from landowners toward numerically stronger non- cultivating s, illustrating that dominance is not static but responsive to policy-driven changes in land ownership and tenancy rights. Additionally, numerical preponderance alone does not guarantee dominance, as ritually higher castes have historically retained influence despite smaller populations, a pattern observed among upper castes vis-à-vis scheduled castes in certain locales. Methodologically, the framework has been faulted for its ahistorical approach, prioritizing synchronic field data over diachronic processes that shape power, such as colonial land revenue systems or pre-colonial kingship structures, which can render dominance appear as a purely contemporary empirical outcome rather than a product of long-term causal dynamics. Yogesh Atal argued that the term "dominant caste" carries varying connotations at different scales—from village-level land control to district-wide political leverage—complicating uniform application and risking overgeneralization from micro-studies to macro-phenomena. Adrian C. Mayer further critiqued the overreliance on numerical strength, noting that effective power often resides with a small within castes, and lower castes emulate dominant practices reciprocally, not merely subordinately, which challenges the unidirectional model of . Alternative perspectives reframe dominance through lenses of and secular rather than alone. Ghanshyam Shah contended that phenomena labeled as dominant mobilization are essentially -based consolidations of landowning peasant interests, where economic stakes drive alliances more than status, as seen in the political ascendance of intermediate agricultural castes post-Green Revolution in the 1960s-1970s. Béteille integrated with and dynamics, arguing in his 1965 study that dominance emerges from their intersection, not primacy, evidenced by how urbanizing economies dilute rural monopolies on resources. distinguished secular dominance as a modern, -oriented attribute detachable from the central to Srinivas's model, positing that political leverage operates independently of purity-pollution rankings. Kathleen Gardner proposed a tiered of dominance—encompassing rulers, regional castes, local groups, and village-level actors—suggesting that no single monopolizes across scales, thus broadening the concept beyond localized . These views collectively urge a prioritizing economic and political variables over -endogenous explanations.

Contemporary Relevance

Political Power and Mobilization

In contemporary , dominant castes sustain political influence by mobilizing as cohesive vote banks, exploiting their demographic weight and local networks to negotiate alliances with major parties. This strategy has shaped electoral outcomes, with parties allocating seats and crafting manifestos around caste arithmetic, as evidenced in Bihar's 2025 assembly election preparations where and consolidations underpin and strategies. Reservation agitations exemplify proactive mobilization, with economically ascendant groups demanding quotas to preserve advantages amid expansions. The () movement in , peaking in 2015 under , rallied over 400,000 protesters for status, forcing policy concessions despite the caste's control of 25-30% of state assembly seats and disproportionate business ownership. in , comprising 30-35% of the population and dominating rural landholdings, launched violent protests in 2016-2018 and 2023-2024 for similar inclusions, swaying state elections and extracting a 10-13% quota via Supreme Court-vetted legislation in February 2021, later struck down in 2024. in followed suit in 2016, blockading roads and halting economic activity to secure 10% reservations, underscoring how dominant castes weaponize disruption for political leverage. In northern heartlands, Yadavs—numerically strong OBCs with Yadav-dominated parties like in —have translated pastoral-agricultural bases into enduring power, capturing 10-15% of votes in key constituencies and allying with Muslims for bloc victories, as in the 2024 Lok Sabha polls where their consolidation contributed to losses in 60+ seats. Bihar's 2023 , revealing Yadavs at 14.26% and other dominant OBCs at 27%, intensified mobilization, with parties like Lok Janshakti Party (Ram Vilas) targeting sub-castes to counter upper-caste alliances. Resistance to nationwide caste censuses reflects dominant castes' apprehension over redistributed power, as seen in where upper and OBC elites opposed surveys in 2024-2025, fearing erosion of grassroots dominance in panchayats and assemblies. Such dynamics reinforce caste over class or ideology, with parties fielding 70-80% candidates from dominant groups in caste-heavy states, perpetuating fragmentation despite economic modernization.

Economic Adaptations and Urban Shifts

Dominant castes, facing land fragmentation from inheritance divisions and population pressures, have increasingly diversified economic activities away from toward non-farm sectors, including , , and services. Average farm sizes in declined from 2.28 hectares in 1970–71 to 1.15 hectares in 2015–16, exacerbating viability issues for traditional agrarian groups like , , and Patidars, prompting investments in education and skill acquisition for urban opportunities. Caste networks have facilitated this transition by enabling collective entry into new occupations, such as Yadav involvement in dairy processing and transport logistics in northern , or Kamma and enterprises in and in southern states. Urban migration among dominant caste members has accelerated since the 1990s , driven by better access to —upper and intermediate castes historically outpace scheduled castes in qualifications—and leading to higher returns from city-based . In urban settings, these groups maintain economic advantages through persistent networks, replicating rural dominance in sectors like and small-scale industry, though competition has spurred demands for reservations; for instance, the 2015 Patidar agitation in highlighted amid land constraints, despite the community's overall prosperity in trading and . Similarly, in sought OBC status in 2016, reflecting shifts toward non-agricultural pursuits amid agrarian stagnation. This adaptation has contributed to partial convergence in occupational mobility across castes, with dominant groups leveraging for business formation, yet caste-based endures in urban labor markets, limiting full equalization. In southern , Reddys and Kammas have notably urbanized through investments in and pharmaceuticals in cities like , transforming rural land wealth into diversified portfolios. Overall, while has diluted pure agrarian dependence, dominant castes' urban presence reinforces intra-group solidarity, sustaining influence amid broader market forces.

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