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Endothelium-derived relaxing factor

Endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) is an endogenous vasodilator produced and released by endothelial cells lining blood vessels in response to various stimuli, such as shear stress or agonists like acetylcholine, leading to relaxation of adjacent vascular smooth muscle and vasodilation.^[1] Identified in the early 1980s, EDRF was found to mediate endothelium-dependent vasodilation, a process essential for regulating vascular tone, blood flow, and blood pressure.^[2] In 1986, independent studies by Robert F. Furchgott and Louis J. Ignarro demonstrated that EDRF is nitric oxide (NO), a gaseous signaling molecule biosynthesized from L-arginine by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS).^[2]^[3] This discovery, which earned Furchgott, Ignarro, and Ferid Murad the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, revolutionized understanding of cardiovascular physiology and NO's broader roles as an anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory, and neurotransmitter agent.^[2] The production of NO as EDRF involves calcium-calmodulin-dependent activation of eNOS, which converts L-arginine to NO and L-citrulline, with NO diffusing to smooth muscle cells where it activates soluble guanylate cyclase, elevating cyclic GMP levels and inducing relaxation.^[1] EDRF/NO also inhibits platelet aggregation and leukocyte adhesion to the endothelium, contributing to vascular homeostasis.^[1] Dysfunction in EDRF production, often due to reduced eNOS activity or oxidative stress, is implicated in endothelial dysfunction, a hallmark of atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular events like myocardial infarction and stroke.^[1] Therapeutically, strategies to enhance EDRF bioavailability include ACE inhibitors, statins, and lifestyle interventions such as exercise and smoking cessation, underscoring its clinical importance in preventing vascular diseases.^[1]

Discovery and History

Initial Observations

In the 1970s, Robert F. Furchgott investigated vascular smooth muscle responses using isolated helical strips of rabbit thoracic aorta suspended in organ baths containing oxygenated Krebs bicarbonate solution at 37°C, where acetylcholine typically elicited contractions rather than relaxation.^[4] This contractile effect was consistent across preparations until an accidental observation in 1978, when a technician's over-rubbing of the aortic tissue during cleaning inadvertently removed the endothelial lining, revealing that intact endothelium was necessary for acetylcholine to induce relaxation instead of contraction.^[4] Furchgott's subsequent deliberate experiments confirmed that denuded vessels contracted to acetylcholine, while re-endothelialized preparations relaxed, highlighting the endothelium's pivotal role in modulating vascular tone.^[4] Collaborating with John V. Zawadzki, Furchgott published seminal findings in 1980 demonstrating that acetylcholine-induced relaxation in isolated rings of rabbit thoracic aorta and other vessels strictly required endothelial cells, distinguishing it from any direct relaxant action on smooth muscle.^[5] In these studies, aortic rings were mounted between hooks in aerated organ baths for isometric tension recording, precontracted with norepinephrine, and exposed to cumulative acetylcholine concentrations; rings with intact endothelium showed potent relaxation at low doses (<0.1 µM), whereas endothelium-denuded rings (prepared by gentle rubbing) exhibited only contraction at higher doses (>0.1 µM).^[5] This endothelium-dependent response was not mediated by prostaglandins, as indomethacin pretreatment did not alter it.^[5] These observations prompted early hypotheses that endothelial cells release a short-lived, diffusible humoral factor—later named endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF)—upon stimulation by agonists such as acetylcholine or bradykinin, or by physical cues like increased shear stress from blood flow. Supporting evidence came from "sandwich" assays, where an endothelium-denuded aortic strip placed adjacent to an intact one relaxed upon acetylcholine addition to the endothelial side, confirming the factor's diffusibility across tissues without requiring cell-to-cell contact.^[4] The organ bath methodology, involving precise control of tension and pharmacological interventions, proved essential for isolating this endothelium-mediated mechanism from direct smooth muscle effects.^[5]

Identification as Nitric Oxide

The discovery of endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) began with the 1980 observation by Furchgott and Zawadzki that acetylcholine-induced relaxation of arterial smooth muscle required the presence of endothelial cells, suggesting the release of an unidentified relaxing substance. Building on this, research in the mid-1980s focused on characterizing EDRF's properties to identify its chemical nature. In 1986 and 1987, studies by Ignarro, Furchgott, and collaborators demonstrated striking similarities between EDRF and nitric oxide (NO), including a comparable short half-life of approximately 3–6 seconds, rapid inactivation by hemoglobin, and enhancement of activity by superoxide dismutase, which scavenges superoxide radicals that degrade NO.^[6] Parallel investigations provided direct evidence for NO as EDRF. In a seminal 1987 study, Ignarro's group employed bioassay cascades—where endothelial cell supernatants were superfused over detector tissues—to show that EDRF's pharmacological profile, including relaxation potency and sensitivity to inhibitors, precisely matched that of authentic NO.^[6] Concurrently, Palmer, Ferrige, and Moncada reported in 1987 that stimulated endothelial cells release NO, detectable via chemiluminescence, and that this NO accounts for EDRF's biological effects in vascular relaxation assays.^[3] These findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and Nature, converged to confirm NO as the elusive EDRF, transforming it from an unknown humoral factor into a recognized gasotransmitter.^[6]^[3] The identification culminated in widespread recognition. In 1998, Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, and Ferid Murad received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system, honoring the foundational work on EDRF's identity.^[7] This timeline—from the 1980 foundational experiments to the 1987 chemical confirmation—marked a paradigm shift in vascular biology, establishing NO's role in endothelial function.^[3]

Chemical Identity

Structure and Properties

Endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) is nitric oxide (NO), a diatomic free radical gas with the chemical formula NO and an unpaired electron that imparts paramagnetism. Its molecular structure is linear, featuring a triple bond between nitrogen and oxygen (N≡O), with a bond order of 2.5 due to the distribution of electrons in molecular orbitals.^[8]^[9] NO is a colorless, odorless gas at room temperature, existing as a highly diffusible molecule owing to its small size and uncharged nature, with a boiling point of -152°C. It demonstrates moderate aqueous solubility of approximately 1.9 mM at 20°C but exhibits greater solubility in lipids, enhancing its lipophilicity and facilitating rapid diffusion across cell membranes without requiring transporters.^[10]^[11]^[9] In biological contexts, NO functions primarily as the neutral radical species NO•, the form identified as EDRF, though it can interconvert with the one-electron oxidized NO⁺ (nitrosonium) and reduced NO⁻ (nitroxyl) under specific redox conditions. NO• acts as a signaling molecule through targeted reactivity, notably binding to ferrous heme iron in soluble guanylyl cyclase to form a nitrosyl complex that activates the enzyme. It also reacts with thiol groups to produce S-nitrosothiols and is scavenged by oxyhemoglobin (forming methemoglobin and nitrate) and superoxide (yielding peroxynitrite).^[9]^[12]^[13]

Stability and Detection Methods

Endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), is highly labile, possessing a biological half-life of 6 to 50 seconds in oxygenated aqueous solutions due to rapid auto-oxidation to nitrite and nitrate, as well as reactions with molecular oxygen and superoxide anions. This instability is further exacerbated by scavenging from heme proteins, such as hemoglobin, which inactivate NO with a second-order rate constant of approximately $10^7 \, \mathrm{M}^{-1} \, \mathrm{s}^{-1}. The unpaired electron in NO's radical structure underlies much of this reactivity, enabling both beneficial signaling and rapid decay in biological environments.^[14]^[15]^[16] Several environmental factors modulate NO stability, including pH and temperature, which influence the kinetics of autoxidation; higher pH and elevated temperatures accelerate decomposition, while the presence of antioxidants like superoxide dismutase (SOD) extends half-life by catalyzing the dismutation of superoxide, thereby preventing NO quenching and peroxynitrite formation. SOD supplementation has been shown to preserve EDRF activity in vascular preparations by mitigating superoxide-mediated inactivation. These factors highlight the need for controlled conditions in experimental studies to accurately assess NO bioavailability.^[17]^[18] Initial detection of EDRF in the 1980s relied on bioassay techniques, particularly cascade superfusion systems where effluent from endothelium-intact donor vessels was passed over endothelium-denuded detector vessels to observe relaxation responses, allowing indirect measurement of the labile factor without direct chemical identification. This method confirmed EDRF's short-lived nature and sensitivity to inhibitors like hemoglobin.^[19] Modern detection methods have advanced to direct quantification, including chemiluminescence analyzers that measure gas-phase NO via reaction with ozone, offering high sensitivity (picomolar range) for exhaled or headspace samples. Electrochemical sensors using amperometric detection provide real-time monitoring in tissues with spatial resolution, while fluorescence probes such as 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein (DAF-FM) enable intracellular NO imaging through triazole formation. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy detects NO radicals by spin trapping, particularly useful for studying free radical dynamics in complex matrices.^[20] The inherent reactivity of NO poses significant challenges for accurate detection in biological samples, often necessitating anaerobic conditions to minimize autoxidation or the use of scavengers and inhibitors to isolate true NO signals from artifacts. These precautions are essential to avoid overestimation of decay rates or under-detection in oxygenated environments.^[21]^[22]

Biosynthesis and Regulation

Enzymatic Production Pathway

The endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), is primarily produced in endothelial cells through the action of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS, also known as NOS3), a constitutively expressed, calcium-calmodulin-dependent flavoprotein enzyme.^[23] This enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of the substrate L-arginine in the presence of molecular oxygen and the electron donor NADPH, yielding L-citrulline and NO as products.^[24] The overall reaction requires several essential cofactors, including the flavins FAD and FMN, a heme prosthetic group, and (6R)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which together facilitate the five-electron oxidation process.^[25] eNOS belongs to a family of three nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms, each with distinct tissue distribution and regulation: neuronal NOS (nNOS or NOS1), which is primarily expressed in neurons and involved in neurotransmission; inducible NOS (iNOS or NOS2), which is expressed in macrophages and other cells upon inflammatory stimuli and produces high levels of NO; and eNOS, which is endothelial-specific and maintains basal NO production for vascular homeostasis.^[25] Unlike iNOS, which is calcium-independent, eNOS activity is tightly regulated by intracellular calcium levels binding to calmodulin, ensuring rapid but controlled NO generation in response to physiological signals.^[23] The enzymatic pathway proceeds via interdomain electron transfer within the dimeric eNOS structure, which comprises an N-terminal oxygenase domain and a C-terminal reductase domain connected by a calmodulin-binding linker. Electrons from NADPH are initially accepted by FAD in the reductase domain, then transferred to FMN, and subsequently delivered to the heme iron in the oxygenase domain, where O2 is activated to form a reactive iron-oxo species that abstracts a hydrogen from L-arginine's guanidino nitrogen, generating an arginyl radical intermediate and ultimately leading to NO release and L-citrulline formation.^[26] BH4 plays a critical role in this process by donating an electron to stabilize the oxygenase intermediates and prevent uncoupling, which could otherwise produce superoxide instead of NO.^[24] In endothelial cells, eNOS is primarily localized to plasmalemmal caveolae, specialized cholesterol-rich membrane invaginations, through post-translational acylation modifications including N-terminal myristoylation at glycine-2 and palmitoylation at cysteines-15 and -26, which anchor the enzyme to the membrane and facilitate targeted NO release toward the vascular lumen.^[27] This subcellular compartmentalization optimizes eNOS coupling with upstream activators and downstream effectors, enhancing the efficiency of NO-mediated signaling.^[28] The core reaction catalyzed by eNOS is represented as:

\text{L-arginine} + \text{O}_2 + \text{NADPH} \rightarrow \text{L-citrulline} + \text{NO} + \text{NADP}^+

This stoichiometry underscores the enzyme's role in precise NO stoichiometry for physiological balance.^[23]

Factors Influencing Synthesis

The synthesis of endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), is tightly regulated by various physiological and pharmacological factors that modulate the activity and expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). These regulators influence NO production through receptor-mediated signaling, mechanical stimuli, hormonal influences, and feedback mechanisms, ensuring precise control over vascular tone and homeostasis.^[29] Agonist stimulation plays a key role in acutely activating eNOS via receptor-mediated pathways. For instance, agonists such as bradykinin and acetylcholine bind to G-protein-coupled receptors on endothelial cells, triggering phospholipase C activation and subsequent increases in intracellular calcium (Ca²⁺) levels. This Ca²⁺ elevation binds to calmodulin, which then activates eNOS by relieving its autoinhibitory constraints and facilitating electron transfer in the catalytic domain.^[30]^[31] Studies have shown that this pathway rapidly enhances NO release, contributing to vasodilation in response to humoral signals.^[29] Shear stress, arising from blood flow, serves as a primary mechanical regulator of eNOS activity. Fluid shear forces activate mechanosensors on the endothelial surface, including β1-containing integrins, which transduce signals leading to eNOS phosphorylation and activation. Additionally, shear stress induces phosphorylation of caveolin-1, a negative regulator of eNOS, thereby dissociating it from the enzyme and enhancing NO production. Seminal experiments in endothelial cell models demonstrated that laminar shear stress at physiological levels (e.g., 15 dyn/cm²) increases eNOS-derived NO by up to twofold within minutes.^[32]^[33]^[34] Hormonal factors also significantly influence eNOS expression and translocation. Estrogen enhances eNOS activity by promoting its phosphorylation at Ser1177 via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway and increasing gene transcription through estrogen receptor-α. Similarly, insulin upregulates eNOS mRNA and protein levels in endothelial cells, augmenting NO bioavailability and supporting vascular relaxation. In contrast, endogenous inhibitors like asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) competitively antagonize L-arginine binding to eNOS, reducing NO synthesis; elevated ADMA levels have been linked to diminished eNOS efficiency in vitro.^[35]^[36]^[37] Pharmacological agents further modulate eNOS synthesis, with statins emerging as potent upregulators. These compounds, such as simvastatin, increase eNOS expression and activity through activation of the Akt signaling pathway, which phosphorylates eNOS and enhances its coupling. Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH₄), an essential eNOS cofactor, prevents enzyme uncoupling by maintaining the ferrous iron state in the active site, ensuring efficient NO production rather than superoxide generation; supplementation with BH₄ has been shown to restore eNOS function in cofactor-deficient conditions.^[38]^[39] A critical feedback mechanism involves NO itself inhibiting eNOS to prevent overproduction and maintain homeostasis. Endogenous NO can S-nitrosylate eNOS at specific cysteine residues (e.g., Cys94 and Cys98), reducing its enzymatic activity and providing a self-limiting regulatory loop. This reversible modification ensures balanced NO signaling in endothelial cells.^[40]^[41]^[42]

Physiological Functions

Vascular Effects

Endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), mediates vascular relaxation by diffusing from endothelial cells into adjacent vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), where it binds to the heme prosthetic group of soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC).^[6] This binding activates sGC, catalyzing the conversion of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP).^[43] Elevated cGMP levels then activate cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG), which phosphorylates several targets to promote relaxation.^[44] PKG activation leads to dephosphorylation of myosin light chain through stimulation of myosin light chain phosphatase, reducing VSMC contraction.^[43] Additionally, the cGMP-PKG pathway opens large-conductance Ca2+-activated potassium (BKCa) channels, causing membrane hyperpolarization that inhibits voltage-gated calcium channel opening and further attenuates contraction.^[45] This endothelium-dependent process is concentration-dependent, with NO eliciting half-maximal relaxation (EC50) in the nanomolar range (approximately 10-100 nM) in isolated vascular preparations.^[46] Under physiological conditions, tonic NO release from endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) maintains basal vasodilation, counteracts vasoconstrictors such as norepinephrine, and regulates systemic blood pressure and regional blood flow distribution.^[47] This ongoing modulation ensures vascular tone homeostasis and prevents excessive constriction.^[48] Beyond direct vasorelaxation, NO exerts anti-thrombotic effects by diffusing to platelets, where it similarly activates sGC to increase cGMP and PKG activity, thereby inhibiting platelet aggregation through phosphorylation and desensitization of the thromboxane A2 receptor.^[49] NO also reduces leukocyte adhesion to the vascular endothelium by downregulating adhesion molecules such as CD11/CD18 on leukocytes and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) on endothelial cells, mitigating inflammatory responses in the vessel wall.^[50]

Non-Vascular Roles

Beyond its well-established vascular functions, endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), exerts diverse effects in non-vascular tissues through endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)-derived production, often in concert with neuronal (nNOS) and inducible (iNOS) isoforms. In the central nervous system, NO serves as a retrograde messenger facilitating synaptic plasticity, particularly long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus, where postsynaptic activation of NMDA receptors triggers NO release from nNOS, diffusing to presynaptic terminals to enhance neurotransmitter release; eNOS in brain microvasculature and postsynaptic densities contributes tonic NO signaling that supports this process.^[51]^[52]^[53] In immune modulation, eNOS-derived NO from endothelial cells inhibits leukocyte adhesion and migration, thereby dampening inflammation in non-vascular contexts like tissue microenvironments. Conversely, iNOS in activated macrophages generates high-output NO for cytotoxicity against pathogens and tumor cells, inactivating enzymes such as ribonucleotide reductase and inducing apoptosis in targets while protecting host cells through controlled signaling.^[54]^[55] In the respiratory system, NO from airway epithelial and endothelial sources promotes bronchodilation by relaxing smooth muscle, modulating ciliary beat frequency, and regulating mucus secretion to maintain airway patency. Exhaled NO levels reflect this activity, with eNOS contributing to baseline tone and iNOS elevating during inflammation.^[56] Within the gastrointestinal tract, neuronal nNOS-derived NO acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter to regulate motility by relaxing smooth muscle during peristalsis, while epithelial and endothelial eNOS supports mucosal integrity through vasodilation and barrier protection against ischemia.^[57] In the reproductive system, eNOS in placental and uterine endothelial cells produces NO that facilitates embryo implantation by promoting endometrial vascularization and trophoblast invasion, while also supporting fetal development through uteroplacental blood flow regulation and prevention of excessive uterine contractility.^[58] Emerging roles include NO's involvement in angiogenesis, where eNOS-derived NO amplifies vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling to induce endothelial proliferation and tube formation in tissue remodeling; in wound healing, eNOS deficiency impairs granulation tissue formation and re-epithelialization, highlighting NO's promotion of collagen deposition and inflammation resolution.^[59]^[60]

Pathological Implications

Endothelial Dysfunction

Endothelial dysfunction is characterized by a reduction in the bioavailability of endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), primarily nitric oxide (NO), due to either diminished production or increased inactivation, leading to impaired vasodilation, enhanced vasoconstriction, inflammation, and a prothrombotic state.^[61] This imbalance disrupts the normal endothelial signaling that maintains vascular homeostasis, where NO typically diffuses to vascular smooth muscle cells to activate guanylate cyclase and promote relaxation.^[62] As a result, affected endothelium fails to counteract aggregating platelets and adhering leukocytes effectively, fostering a pro-inflammatory and pro-atherogenic environment.^[62] Key mechanisms underlying this dysfunction include the uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), often triggered by tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) deficiency, which shifts eNOS from NO production to superoxide generation, exacerbating oxidative stress.^[63] Oxidative stress further contributes through reactive oxygen species (ROS) that directly scavenge NO to form peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻), reducing NO availability and promoting nitrosative damage to vascular cells.^[64] Additionally, reduced eNOS expression and activity diminish NO synthesis capacity, while factors like S-glutathionylation or phosphorylation alterations impair eNOS dimerization and catalytic efficiency.^[63] These processes collectively amplify endothelial impairment by creating a feedback loop of ROS accumulation and NO depletion.^[65] Risk factors such as hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia promote asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) accumulation by inhibiting dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH), an enzyme that degrades ADMA, thereby blocking eNOS activity and NO production.^[66] Smoking exacerbates this by elevating ONOO⁻ formation through superoxide-NO interactions, which nitrotyrosinates proteins and further uncouples eNOS.^[67] These insults compound to lower NO bioavailability, intensifying endothelial stress.^[68] Clinical assessment of endothelial dysfunction often relies on biomarkers like impaired flow-mediated dilation (FMD) measured via brachial artery ultrasound, which reflects reduced NO-dependent vasodilation in response to shear stress.^[69] Elevated plasma nitrotyrosine levels serve as another indicator, signifying increased peroxynitrite-mediated protein modification and oxidative/nitrosative damage.^[70] Endothelial dysfunction progresses in stages, beginning with reversible activation involving transient reductions in NO bioavailability that can be restored by addressing underlying stressors.^[71] In advanced, irreversible stages, prolonged oxidative damage leads to endothelial cell apoptosis or necrosis, resulting in permanent loss of endothelial integrity and barrier function.^[71] This progression underscores the importance of early intervention to prevent escalation from functional impairment to structural vascular damage.^[61]

Associated Diseases and Therapies

Dysregulation of endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), identified as nitric oxide (NO), contributes to several cardiovascular diseases through reduced bioavailability, leading to impaired vasodilation and increased vascular tone. In atherosclerosis, diminished NO production promotes endothelial dysfunction and plaque formation by facilitating monocyte adhesion and smooth muscle proliferation. Clinical studies have demonstrated lower NO levels in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD), correlating with disease severity.^[72] Flow-mediated dilation (FMD), a non-invasive measure of endothelial function largely dependent on NO, inversely correlates with cardiovascular events, with impaired FMD serving as an independent predictor in prospective cohorts. Hypertension arises from reduced NO-mediated vasodilation, exacerbating vascular resistance; endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive patients shows decreased NO bioavailability due to oxidative stress. In diabetes, advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) suppress endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) expression and activity, impairing NO synthesis and contributing to microvascular complications. NO deficiency also heightens thrombosis risk in ischemic heart disease and stroke, as bioactive NO normally inhibits platelet aggregation and promotes fibrinolysis; deficiencies are linked to arterial thrombosis in endothelial dysfunction models. Therapeutic strategies targeting EDRF/NO pathways aim to restore bioavailability or mimic its effects. NO donors, such as nitroglycerin, release NO to induce vasodilation and are used for angina relief in ischemic heart disease; the 1980s-1990s elucidation of EDRF as NO provided mechanistic insights that advanced nitrovasodilator development. Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE5) inhibitors like sildenafil enhance the NO-cGMP signaling cascade by preventing cGMP degradation, improving vasodilation in conditions like pulmonary hypertension and erectile dysfunction associated with endothelial impairment. Statins upregulate eNOS expression and activity, increasing NO production to ameliorate atherosclerosis and hypertension, while ACE inhibitors improve endothelial function by reducing angiotensin II-mediated oxidative stress and enhancing NO bioavailability. Lifestyle interventions, including aerobic exercise and diets rich in nitrates (e.g., from beets and leafy greens), boost NO synthesis and reduce oxidative inactivation, thereby enhancing endothelial function in at-risk populations. Emerging therapies focus on directly addressing eNOS dysregulation. Gene therapy delivering the eNOS gene has shown promise in preclinical models of cardiovascular disease by promoting re-endothelialization and reducing intimal hyperplasia post-injury. Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) supplementation recouples uncoupled eNOS, restoring NO production and mitigating oxidative stress in endothelial dysfunction. Anti-inflammatory agents that curb reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, such as certain antioxidants, preserve NO bioavailability by preventing its scavenging, offering adjunctive benefits in inflammatory-driven diseases like atherosclerosis. As of 2025, recent advances include ultrasound-triggered nitric oxide boosters for on-demand NO release to address endothelial dysfunction, biomaterial-based NO-releasing platforms for coronary heart disease treatment, and combined oral therapy with L-citrulline and BH4 to improve walking distance in peripheral artery disease patients.^[73]^[74]^[75]

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The same functional relevance of feedback inhibition by NOS products has been attributed to the S-nitrosylation of Hsp90, an activator of eNOS [32]. Of interest ...
[42]
Subcellular Localization Guides eNOS Function - MDPI
In endothelial cells, eNOS is mainly detected at the PM as well as the Golgi complex (Figure 1). At the PM, caveolae-associated eNOS is near ligand-accessible ...
[43]
Cyclic GMP Phosphodiesterases and Regulation of Smooth Muscle ...
Nitric oxide (NO) and other endogenous vasodilators regulate smooth muscle tone through the cGMP/PKG signaling pathway. I, PDE5 effectively controls the ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[44]
Invited Review: cGMP-dependent protein kinase signaling ...
Sep 1, 2001 · This review will discuss studies that have shown that NO signaling inhibits VSMC proliferation in vitro and in vivo, although the mechanism and physiological ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[45]
Hyperpolarization and relaxation of arterial smooth muscle caused ...
Jul 5, 1990 · NO derived from the endothelium can cause hyperpolarization of vascular smooth muscle, which might also contribute to relaxation by closing voltage-dependent ...
[46]
Potency and kinetics of nitric oxide‐mediated vascular smooth ...
Feb 3, 2009 · At very high NO concentrations (>400 nm) relaxations equalled or slightly exceeded the increased tone produced by noradrenaline (see Figure 2b).
[47]
The Identification of Nitric Oxide as Endothelium-Derived Relaxing ...
Jul 5, 2013 · When Furchgott and Zawadzki first demonstrated in 1980 that the endothelium released a substance that relaxed blood vessels in response to ...
[48]
Endothelium-Derived Relaxing Factors and Endothelial Function
Nov 10, 2022 · It specifically modulates vascular tone by releasing vasodilatory mediators, which act on the vascular smooth muscle. Large amounts of work have ...
[49]
Mechanism of platelet inhibition by nitric oxide - PubMed Central - NIH
Nitric oxide (NO) is a potent vasodilator and inhibitor of platelet activation. NO stimulates production of cGMP and activates cGMP-dependent protein kinase ...
[50]
Nitric oxide: an endogenous modulator of leukocyte adhesion. - PNAS
The objective of this study was to determine whether endogenous nitric oxide (NO) inhibits leukocyte adhesion to vascular endothelium.
[51]
A Requirement for the Intercellular Messenger Nitric Oxide in Long ...
These findings suggest that nitric oxide liberated from postsynaptic neurons may travel back to presynaptic terminals to cause LTP expression.
[52]
Tonic and Phasic Nitric Oxide Signals in Hippocampal Long-Term ...
Nov 8, 2006 · It is concluded that tonic and phasic NO signals are both required for hippocampal LTP and the two are generated, respectively, by eNOS and nNOS ...
[53]
Endothelial nitric oxide synthase localized to hippocampal ... - PNAS
The localization of eNOS to particulate fractions, presum- ably plasma membrane, fits well with a function for NO as a retrograde messenger. NO formed at ...
[54]
Nitric Oxide in Macrophage Immunometabolism: Hiding in Plain Sight
... Nitric oxide: A cytotoxic activated macrophage effector molecule. Biochem ... Coleman J.W. Nitric oxide in immunity and inflammation. Int ...
[55]
Regulation of iNOS on Immune Cells and Its Role in Diseases - MDPI
Nov 29, 2018 · By inactivating and destroying infectious agents, NO is an important pro-inflammatory cytotoxic agent that protects the host against various ...
[56]
Contribution of Nitric Oxide Synthases 1, 2, and 3 to Airway ...
NO has also been reported to be a weak bronchodilator (19–21) or to have no effect on airway caliber (22–24). Nitric oxide is produced by a group of enzymes ...
[57]
Nitric oxide in gastrointestinal health and disease - Gastroenterology
The role of nNOS-derived NO in esophageal, gastric, and intestinal motility and motor disorders is described below. Esophageal motility and motor disorders.
[58]
Roles of Nitric Oxide in the Regulation of Reproduction: A Review
Nov 18, 2021 · NO regulates embryo implantation from two aspects of embryo development and helps create the uterine ... placenta triggers fetal growth ...
[59]
Nitric Oxide and Angiogenesis | Circulation
Endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) is a mediator of angiogenesis. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) stimulates the release of NO from cultured human ...
[60]
Impaired wound healing and angiogenesis in eNOS-deficient mice
Nitric oxide mediates mitogenic effect of VEGF on coronary venular endothelium. ... Nitric oxide regulates wound healing. J. Surg. Res. 63 1996 237-240. Go ...
[61]
Endothelial Dysfunction: Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Therapy, and ...
Endothelial dysfunction is a reversible disorder, and strategies aimed at reducing cardiovascular risk factors, such as cholesterol lowering, antihypertensive ...
[62]
Nitric Oxide and Endothelial Dysfunction - PMC - PubMed Central
The concept of endothelial dysfunction (ED) is centrally linked to decreased NO production and sensitivity, which ultimately results in an imbalance in ...
[63]
Endothelial dysfunction due to eNOS uncoupling - PubMed Central
Mar 9, 2023 · Endothelial dysfunction is characterized by impaired endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation due to diminished nitric oxide bioavailability ...
[64]
Oxidative stress-induced endothelial dysfunction and decreased ...
Feb 23, 2022 · ... (NO) bioavailability and reactive oxidant species (ROS). A decrease of the endothelium-derived NO is observed in response to an endothelial ...
[65]
Oxidative Stress and New Pathogenetic Mechanisms in Endothelial ...
Oxidative-stress induced ROS generation contributes to mitochondrial damage, endothelial dysfunction, and promotes leukocyte adhesion, inflammation ...
[66]
Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases in Diabetes Mellitus and Serum ...
Hyperglycemia is another factor related to ADMA. Human endothelial cells exposed to high glucose concentrations show impairment of DDAH and accumulation of ADMA ...
[67]
Superoxide-mediated inactivation of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite ...
Tobacco smoke is known to cause nitric oxide ( NO) inactivation and endothelial dysfunction. In this work we evaluated the interplay between NO and superoxide ...
[68]
Emerging Roles of Dyslipidemia and Hyperglycemia in Diabetic ...
Mar 22, 2021 · In regard to hypercholesterolemia and endothelial dysfunction, markedly elevated lipids inactivate dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH) ...
[69]
Endothelial Function Assessment by Flow-Mediated Dilation Method
Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) is based on the ultrasound assessment of changes in the diameter of the brachial artery as a result of increased blood flow.
[70]
Nitrotyrosine causes selective vascular endothelial dysfunction and ...
Elevated plasma levels of free 3-nitro-L-tyrosine (3NT, biomarker of peroxynitrite formation) have been measured in settings of endothelial dysfunction, but its ...
[71]
The Central Role of Endothelial Dysfunction in Cardiorenal Syndrome
Dec 29, 2016 · The fact that ED is a continual cellular event divides this process into reversible ED (endothelial activation) and irreversible ED (endothelial ...