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Peroxynitrite

Peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻) is a highly reactive nitrogen species and short-lived peroxide anion that serves as a potent biological oxidant and nucleophile.^[1] It is formed through the diffusion-controlled reaction of nitric oxide (•NO) with superoxide anion (O₂⁻), with a rate constant of approximately 6.7 × 10⁹ M⁻¹ s⁻¹ at physiological pH, which kinetically outcompetes enzymatic dismutation of superoxide by superoxide dismutase.^[2] The protonated form, peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH), exists in equilibrium with the anion (pKₐ ≈ 6.8), allowing it to diffuse across biological membranes and exert effects at sites distant from its formation.^[3] Chemically, peroxynitrite is unstable in aqueous solution, with a half-life of about 1 second at pH 7.4 and 37°C, decomposing primarily to nitrate (NO₃⁻) or nitrite (NO₂⁻) via isomerization, or undergoing homolytic cleavage to generate hydroxyl (•OH) and nitrogen dioxide (•NO₂) radicals.^[1] Its reactivity is pH-dependent and includes one- and two-electron oxidations of biomolecules such as thiols (e.g., cysteine, with rate constant k ≈ 4,500 M⁻¹ s⁻¹), as well as nucleophilic attacks leading to nitration, notably of tyrosine residues to form 3-nitrotyrosine.^[3] Peroxynitrite also reacts rapidly with carbon dioxide (k ≈ 4.6 × 10⁴ M⁻¹ s⁻¹) to produce nitrosoperoxycarbonate (ONOOCO₂⁻), which further decomposes into carbonate radical (CO₃⁻•) and •NO₂, amplifying oxidative damage.^[2] In biological contexts, peroxynitrite plays a dual role as a cytotoxic mediator in immune defense against pathogens—produced by activated phagocytes such as macrophages and neutrophils—and as an endogenous toxin contributing to oxidative and nitrative stress in inflammation, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and chronic diseases.^[1] It induces protein modifications, lipid peroxidation, and DNA strand breaks, impairing mitochondrial function, enzyme activity (e.g., inactivation of aconitase and creatine kinase at nanomolar concentrations), and cellular signaling, which are implicated in pathologies including neurodegeneration (e.g., Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases), cardiovascular disorders, and diabetes.^[3] Detection of nitrotyrosine serves as a biomarker for peroxynitrite-mediated damage, and its scavenging by antioxidants like uric acid or therapeutic agents holds potential for mitigating associated tissue injury.^[2]

Chemical Identity

Definition and Formula

Peroxynitrite refers to the peroxynitrite anion (\ce{ONOO^-}), which is the conjugate base of peroxynitrous acid (\ce{ONOOH}) and acts as a reactive intermediate in chemical reactions and biological processes. This species is classified as a reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) due to its hybrid nature, combining elements of both reactive oxygen and nitrogen chemistries. The chemical formula of peroxynitrite is \ce{ONOO^-}, corresponding to a molecular weight of 62.005 g/mol. It was first synthesized in the late 1920s, with early reports describing its preparation via the reaction of nitrite with hydrogen peroxide under acidic conditions or through ozonation of alkaline azide solutions.^[4] Its role in biological systems gained recognition in the 1990s, following demonstrations of its formation as a key product from the near-diffusion-limited reaction between nitric oxide and superoxide radicals. Unlike other reactive nitrogen species, such as nitric oxide (\ce{NO^\bullet}), a gaseous signaling radical, or nitrite (\ce{NO2^-}), a stable metabolite often derived from nitric oxide oxidation, peroxynitrite is a non-radical oxidant capable of rapid one- and two-electron transfers, leading to oxidative and nitrative damage in vivo.

Molecular Geometry

The peroxynitrite anion (ONOO⁻) exhibits a nearly linear O-N-O-O backbone with a cis conformation, characterized by a small dihedral angle of approximately 0–22° that renders the molecule nearly planar. This arrangement reflects its structural isomerism to nitrate (NO₃⁻), but with distinct bonding due to the peroxide moiety. The geometry is asymmetric, featuring a bent structure at the central nitrogen atom, where the O-N-O angle measures about 114–116°. This bending arises from the sp² hybridization of nitrogen and the partial double-bond character in the proximal N-O linkage, contrasting with the longer, single-bond-like distal N-O and O-O bonds that impart peroxide-like reactivity.^[5]^[6] Key bond lengths, determined from crystallographic and quantum chemical studies, include the proximal O=N bond at approximately 1.16–1.22 Å, the distal N-O bond at 1.35–1.38 Å, and the O-O bond at 1.37–1.41 Å. These values indicate a shortened proximal bond consistent with double-bond character and elongated distal bonds akin to single bonds in peroxides, contributing to the overall asymmetry. The negative charge resides primarily on the terminal oxygen atom, yet resonance structures delocalize it across the anion, with contributions from forms such as ⁻O-N(=O)-O-O⁻ and O=N(-O⁻)-O-O⁻, leading to partial double-bond delocalization (e.g., 21–31% for key linkages). This resonance stabilizes the cis isomer as the predominant form observed experimentally.^[5]^[6] The electronic structure of peroxynitrite features a singlet ground state, with the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) primarily localized on the terminal peroxide oxygen (resembling a superoxide fragment) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) on the nitrosyl (NO) fragment, akin to NO π* orbitals. These frontier orbitals enable peroxynitrite to function as a versatile one- or two-electron oxidant, facilitating electron transfer in reactions with biological targets. Quantum Monte Carlo and density functional theory calculations confirm the closed-shell singlet as the lowest-energy configuration, underscoring its reactivity profile.^[6]

Properties

Physical Properties

Peroxynitrite is most commonly handled in the form of its sodium salt, NaONOO, which forms pale yellow aqueous solutions attributable to its characteristic absorption in the near-ultraviolet region.^[7] Peroxynitrite exhibits high solubility in water, enabling the preparation of stock solutions at concentrations up to approximately 0.25 M in alkaline media (e.g., 0.3 M NaOH).^[8] The solid form is highly unstable and rarely isolated. This solubility facilitates its use in biochemical studies, where dilutions are typically made into neutral or physiological buffers for experimentation. Spectroscopic properties provide key methods for identification and quantification. In the UV-Vis spectrum, peroxynitrite displays a maximum absorption at 302 nm with a molar absorptivity (ε) of approximately 1700 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹ in alkaline solution, allowing direct spectrophotometric determination of its concentration.^[9] Vibrational spectroscopy reveals characteristic bands for the O-O stretch: around 790 cm⁻¹ in Raman spectra and similar frequencies in IR spectra of alkali metal salts, confirming the peroxide linkage.^[9] The physical stability of peroxynitrite is highly pH-dependent, remaining relatively stable in strongly basic conditions (pH > 10) where the anionic form predominates, but decomposing rapidly upon acidification due to protonation of the peroxo group (pK_a ≈ 6.8).^[10] At neutral pH, the half-life is on the order of seconds to milliseconds, limiting its persistence in aqueous environments.^[9]

Chemical Stability

Peroxynitrite exhibits limited kinetic stability in aqueous solutions, particularly under physiological conditions, with a half-life of approximately 1 second at pH 7.4 and 37°C.^[1] This short lifetime arises primarily from protonation to form peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH, pK_a ≈ 6.8), which accelerates decomposition compared to the anion form.^[11] In more acidic environments, the half-life decreases further due to enhanced protonation and subsequent reactivity of ONOOH.^[12] The primary decomposition pathways of peroxynitrite involve either homolytic cleavage of the O–O bond in ONOOH to generate nitrogen dioxide (•NO₂) and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals, or isomerization to nitrate (NO₃⁻).^[1] Isomerization predominates under neutral conditions, yielding nitrate as the major product with ~70% efficiency in aqueous solution at pH 7.5.^[1] This process can be represented as:

\text{ONOO}^- \rightarrow \text{NO}_3^-

The radical products from homolysis contribute to the oxidative reactivity of peroxynitrite, as detailed in subsequent sections on oxidation mechanisms.^[1] Several factors influence peroxynitrite stability, including temperature, which shortens the half-life with increasing heat (e.g., from ~2 seconds at 25°C to ~1 second at 37°C at pH 7.4), and pH, where alkalinity stabilizes the anion while acidity promotes rapid decay.^[13] Additionally, the presence of carbon dioxide (CO₂) accelerates decomposition by forming a transient peroxynitrosocarbonate intermediate (ONOOCO₂⁻), which breaks down more quickly than free peroxynitrite, reducing its half-life to about 0.77 seconds at physiological CO₂ levels.^[14]

Formation

Diffusion-Controlled Reaction

The primary mechanism for peroxynitrite formation in non-biological systems involves the rapid recombination of nitric oxide radical (NO•) and superoxide anion radical (O₂•⁻). This diffusion-controlled reaction proceeds according to the equation:

\text{NO}^\bullet + \text{O}_2^{\bullet-} \rightarrow \text{ONOO}^-

in basic media, yielding the peroxynitrite anion; in neutral or acidic conditions, the protonated form peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH) predominates due to protonation of O₂•⁻ to hydroperoxyl radical (HO₂•) prior to recombination.^[15] The reaction exhibits a second-order rate constant of approximately $6.7 \times 10^9 \, \text{M}^{-1} \text{s}^{-1} at 25°C, rendering it diffusion-limited under aqueous conditions where the encounter rate of the reactants governs the kinetics rather than an activation energy barrier. This high rate reflects the absence of significant steric or electronic impediments, allowing the radicals to form the O-N bond efficiently upon collision.^[15] Both NO• and O₂•⁻ possess a single unpaired electron, classifying them as doublet-state radicals; their recombination conserves spin by pairing the electrons to produce the closed-shell singlet peroxynitrite without requiring spin inversion or intersystem crossing, which would otherwise impose a kinetic restriction.^[1] This spin-allowed pathway contributes to the reaction's near-maximal speed, distinguishing it from slower radical pairings involving spin-forbidden channels.^[16] In competitive environments, this reaction outcompetes enzymatic scavenging of superoxide by superoxide dismutase (SOD), which proceeds at a rate constant of approximately $2 \times 10^9 \, \text{M}^{-1} \text{s}^{-1}.^[15] Consequently, at elevated NO• concentrations where the product k_{\text{NO}} [\text{NO}^\bullet] exceeds k_{\text{SOD}} [\text{SOD}], peroxynitrite formation dominates, limiting SOD's protective role against superoxide.^[17] This kinetic preference underscores the reaction's efficiency in radical-rich settings.

Biological Production

Peroxynitrite is generated in living organisms through the diffusion-controlled reaction between nitric oxide (NO•) and superoxide (O₂•⁻), which are produced simultaneously in various cellular compartments. NO• is primarily synthesized by nitric oxide synthase (NOS) isoforms, including endothelial NOS (eNOS), neuronal NOS (nNOS), and inducible NOS (iNOS), which catalyze the conversion of L-arginine to NO• using NADPH and oxygen as substrates. Superoxide, on the other hand, arises from enzymatic sources such as NADPH oxidase (particularly NOX2 in phagocytic cells), xanthine oxidase, and uncoupled NOS, where the enzyme produces O₂•⁻ instead of NO• due to cofactor deficiencies like tetrahydrobiopterin. This colocalization of radicals enables rapid peroxynitrite formation near sites of production, as detailed in the chemical kinetics of the underlying reaction.^[10]^[18] Key sites of peroxynitrite production include activated macrophages and neutrophils during inflammatory responses, where iNOS and NADPH oxidase are upregulated to generate high fluxes of NO• and O₂•⁻ within phagosomes for antimicrobial defense. In mitochondria, peroxynitrite forms under oxidative stress conditions, driven by electron leakage from the electron transport chain producing O₂•⁻ and NO• derived from nearby nNOS or eNOS activity. These localized production sites allow peroxynitrite to act as a potent oxidant in immune and metabolic contexts.^[18]^[19] The steady-state concentration of peroxynitrite in cells is maintained at approximately 1 nM under basal conditions, with formation rates estimated at 0.1 to 0.5 μM s⁻¹, though these levels vary based on the balance of radical production and scavenging. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes, present at micromolar concentrations (e.g., 1–30 μM MnSOD in mitochondria), regulate production by rapidly dismutating O₂•⁻ to hydrogen peroxide and oxygen, thereby competing with NO• and inhibiting peroxynitrite formation; overexpression of SOD further reduces these levels. Conversely, eNOS uncoupling in endothelial cells, often triggered by oxidative stress or cofactor depletion, boosts O₂•⁻ output and enhances peroxynitrite generation.^[10]^[18]

Laboratory Preparation

Synthesis Methods

One of the most widely used laboratory methods for preparing peroxynitrite solutions involves the reaction of acidified nitrite with hydrogen peroxide, followed by rapid quenching in a basic medium to isolate the stable peroxynitrite anion. In this procedure, an ice-cold aqueous solution of sodium nitrite (typically 0.6 M) is mixed with hydrogen peroxide (0.7 M) under acidic conditions (e.g., 0.6 M HCl) to form peroxynitrous acid (HOONO), which is then immediately extracted into a cold sodium hydroxide solution (1.2 M) to yield sodium peroxynitrite (NaONOO). The reaction can be represented as:

\text{HNO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{HOONO} + \text{H}_2\text{O}

\text{HOONO} \rightleftharpoons \text{ONOO}^- + \text{H}^+

This approach allows for the production of large volumes of peroxynitrite solutions, up to hundreds of milliliters at concentrations of 180 mM, with yields reaching approximately 80% when conducted at low temperatures (around 0°C) to limit decomposition.^[20] An alternative synthetic route entails quenching gaseous nitric oxide (NO) into an alkaline solution of hydrogen peroxide. Nitric oxide gas is bubbled slowly into a cold (0°C), stirred solution of H₂O₂ (0.6–1.0 M) in 0.1 M NaOH, promoting the formation of the peroxynitrite anion via reaction of NO-derived dinitrogen trioxide with hydroperoxide anion. This method is particularly suitable for smaller-scale preparations or in situ generation and typically yields peroxynitrite concentrations of 50–100 mM, though it requires careful control of gas flow to optimize efficiency and minimize side products like nitrite.^[7] For the preparation of solid peroxynitrite salts, a method involves the reaction of potassium superoxide (KO₂) with nitric oxide in liquid ammonia. KO₂ is suspended with quartz sand in anhydrous liquid ammonia at low temperature (−33°C), and NO gas is introduced gradually under an inert atmosphere, leading to the formation of potassium peroxynitrite (KONOO) with ~40-50% conversion of KO₂; the mixture is then processed to isolate the product. This method produces solid salts with 10-50% nitrite impurities relative to peroxynitrite and no significant nitrate or peroxide contaminants, though analytically pure salts suitable for structural studies are better obtained using tetramethylammonium superoxide instead. Yields for such solid preparations using KO₂ are approximately 40-50%, though higher yields (up to ~100%) can be achieved with tetramethylammonium superoxide.^[21]

Purification and Handling

Purification of peroxynitrite typically involves anion-exchange chromatography using resins such as Q-Sepharose to separate the peroxynitrite anion from nitrite and nitrate impurities generated during synthesis. Gel filtration chromatography serves as an alternative or complementary method to achieve higher purity by size-based separation, particularly for removing low-molecular-weight contaminants. The elution is monitored by UV absorbance at 302 nm, where peroxynitrite exhibits a characteristic peak with an extinction coefficient of 1670 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹ in alkaline conditions.^[22] Storage of purified peroxynitrite requires alkaline conditions (pH 13, typically in 0.1 M NaOH) to minimize decomposition, with solutions frozen at -80°C to maintain stability for several months. At this temperature and pH, the half-life is extended significantly compared to room temperature, where rapid decay occurs. Metal ions such as Fe³⁺, Mn³⁺, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺ must be rigorously excluded, as they catalyze peroxynitrite decomposition via one- or two-electron transfer mechanisms, leading to nitrate formation and loss of activity.^[23] Handling peroxynitrite demands stringent safety protocols due to its high reactivity as a potent oxidant and nitrating agent, with concentrated forms (>100 mM) posing risks of explosive decomposition similar to other peroxides. Operations should be conducted under an inert atmosphere (e.g., argon or nitrogen) to prevent unwanted reactions with atmospheric oxygen or carbon dioxide, which accelerate decay. Appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves, safety goggles, and lab coats, is essential, and work should occur in a fume hood to manage potential release of reactive gases.^[22] Post-purification quantification relies on spectrophotometric measurement of absorbance at 302 nm using the established extinction coefficient, allowing accurate determination of concentration after dilution in alkali. Alternatively, chemiluminescence assays employing luminol in the presence of bicarbonate or cobalt enhance sensitivity for low concentrations, as peroxynitrite oxidizes luminol to produce light emission proportional to its amount. These methods ensure reliable assessment without significant interference from common impurities.

Reactivity

Oxidation Mechanisms

Peroxynitrite acts as a potent oxidant through one-electron transfer mechanisms, primarily involving the abstraction of an electron from substrates such as phenols and thiols. In this process, peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻) oxidizes a substrate RH to form a radical cation RH•⁺ and the peroxynitrite radical anion ONOO•⁻, as represented by the reaction ONOO⁻ + RH → ONOO•⁻ + RH•⁺. For example, with phenolic compounds like trolox (a vitamin E analog), this one-electron oxidation generates a phenoxyl radical, which can propagate radical chain reactions leading to further oxidative damage. Similarly, thiols such as cysteine undergo one-electron oxidation to yield thiyl radicals (RS•), contributing to disulfide formation and potential chain reactions.^[19] In contrast, two-electron oxidation by peroxynitrite involves direct oxygen atom transfer to susceptible substrates, bypassing radical intermediates. This pathway targets nucleophilic sites like sulfides and amines; for instance, methionine (a sulfide) is oxidized to methionine sulfoxide via a two-electron process with a rate constant of 181 M⁻¹ s⁻¹ (at pH 7.4 and 25°C). Amines, such as those in tryptophan, can form N-oxides through similar O-atom transfer, though this often competes with other reactions. These two-electron oxidations are kinetically favored for certain biomolecules under physiological conditions.^[24]^[19] The strong oxidizing nature of peroxynitrite is reflected in its redox potentials at pH 7, estimated as E′°(ONOO⁻/•NO₂) ≈ 1.4 V and E′°(ONOO⁻/NO₂⁻) ≈ 1.2 V versus NHE, positioning it as a potent oxidant comparable to hypochlorite (HOCl). These values indicate peroxynitrite's ability to drive thermodynamically favorable electron transfers from a wide range of biological reductants.^[19] The presence of carbon dioxide (CO₂) significantly modulates peroxynitrite's oxidation pathways by forming nitroso-peroxycarbonate (ONOOCO₂⁻) as an intermediate, with a rate constant of 5.8 × 10⁴ M⁻¹ s⁻¹. This adduct rapidly decomposes to nitrogen dioxide radical (•NO₂) and carbonate radical anion (CO₃⁻•), as shown in the reaction ONOO⁻ + CO₂ → ONOOCO₂⁻ → •NO₂ + CO₃⁻•. The carbonate radical, a strong one-electron oxidant (E° ≈ 1.8 V), enhances the oxidation of biomolecules such as lipids and proteins, shifting the reactivity toward radical-mediated processes under physiological CO₂ concentrations (~1.2 mM).^[19]^[25]

Nitration Mechanisms

Peroxynitrite promotes nitration of aromatic substrates through radical-mediated pathways, primarily involving the nitrogen dioxide radical (•NO₂). The protonated form, peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH), undergoes homolytic cleavage to generate •NO₂ and the hydroxyl radical (•OH), as shown in the following equation:

\text{ONOOH} \rightarrow \cdot\text{NO}_2 + \cdot\text{OH}

The •NO₂ radical then adds to electron-rich aromatic rings, such as the tyrosine residue in proteins, at the ortho position relative to the hydroxyl group. This addition leads to the formation of a nitroaromatic product, exemplified by 3-nitrotyrosine, after subsequent hydrogen abstraction and rearrangement steps. This mechanism has been elucidated through computational modeling of phenol as a tyrosine analog, confirming the phenoxy radical intermediate's role in the process.^[26] In physiological environments, the presence of carbon dioxide (CO₂) significantly modulates nitration by forming an adduct with peroxynitrite. The anion (ONOO⁻) reacts rapidly with CO₂ to produce nitrosoperoxycarbonate (ONOOCO₂⁻), which decomposes predominantly via homolysis into •NO₂ and the carbonate radical (CO₃•⁻), with a yield of approximately 35% for the radical pair:

\text{ONOO}^- + \text{CO}_2 \rightarrow \text{ONOOCO}_2^- \rightarrow \cdot\text{NO}_2 + \text{CO}_3^{\cdot-}

A minor decomposition pathway yields nitrate (NO₃⁻) and CO₂. The resulting •NO₂ facilitates aromatic nitration, while the strongly oxidizing CO₃•⁻ can abstract hydrogen from tyrosyl residues to generate tyrosyl radicals that couple with •NO₂. This CO₂-mediated route enhances overall nitration efficiency compared to uncatalyzed homolysis.^[27] Aliphatic nitration by peroxynitrite is less prevalent than aromatic nitration and typically proceeds indirectly through •NO₂ interaction with carbon-centered alkyl radicals. These radicals arise from initial hydrogen abstraction by •OH or CO₃•⁻ from substrates like ethyl acetoacetate, leading to nitroalkane products such as ethyl 2-nitroacetoacetate. The process is catalyzed by CO₂, which increases nitration yields by promoting adduct formation and radical generation.^[28] In vivo, nitration represents a minor fate for peroxynitrite, with yields typically ranging from 5% to 10% of reacted peroxynitrite, depending on local conditions. This efficiency is augmented by physiological CO₂ concentrations (around 1.3 mM in cells) and redox-active transition metals like iron or copper, which catalyze radical formation and direct nitro group transfer.^[27]

Peroxynitrous Acid

Structure and Isomers

Peroxynitrous acid, the protonated form of peroxynitrite, has the chemical formula HOONO and is formed via the acid-base equilibrium ONOO⁻ + H⁺ ⇌ HOONO with a pKₐ of approximately 6.8. This species exhibits geometric isomerism, primarily existing as the cis-HOONO and trans-HOONO isomers, with the cis form predominant at approximately 90% abundance under typical conditions; a minor isomer is nitrosoperoxol, denoted as HONO(O). The cis isomer is thermodynamically favored due to intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl proton and the distal oxygen atom, which contributes to its greater stability relative to the trans form by 2–8 kJ/mol.^[29] The bond lengths in peroxynitrous acid are largely similar to those in the peroxynitrite anion, featuring a characteristic O-O peroxide bond of about 1.37 Å in the cis isomer (elongated to 1.40 Å in the trans) and N-O bonds reflecting partial double-bond character; the additional O-H bond measures approximately 0.96 Å. Spectroscopic techniques provide confirmation of the cis isomer's dominance: ¹⁵N NMR spectroscopy reveals a single peak consistent with the cis configuration in alkaline solutions of the related anion, while infrared (IR) spectroscopy of matrix-isolated samples shows characteristic vibrations for cis-HOONO, including the O-H stretching mode at approximately 3200 cm⁻¹ indicative of hydrogen bonding.^[30]

Acidity and Equilibria

Peroxynitrous acid (HOONO), the protonated form of peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻), exhibits an acidity characterized by a pKa value of 6.8 ± 0.2 at 25°C.^[31] This value positions the equilibrium such that at physiological pH (approximately 7.2–7.4), partial protonation occurs, with roughly 30% of the species existing as the protonated HOONO form. The acid-base equilibrium is represented as:

\ce{HOONO ⇌ H+ + ONOO-}

The protonated HOONO decomposes more rapidly than the peroxynitrite anion, with a first-order rate constant of approximately 1.5 s⁻¹ at 25°C, primarily via isomerization pathways, whereas the anion remains relatively stable on this timescale.^[32] In aqueous environments, protonation to form HOONO accelerates heterolytic O–O bond cleavage, favoring decomposition to nitrate (NO₃⁻) and H⁺ as the dominant pathway, with yields up to 72% nitrate under neutral conditions.^[29] The equilibrium between structural isomers of HOONO favors the cis configuration, which predominates in solution due to its greater thermodynamic stability and a substantial barrier to trans isomerization.

Biological Significance

Role in Cell Signaling

At physiological concentrations, peroxynitrite (ONOO⁻) acts as a signaling molecule by modulating key regulatory proteins in cellular pathways, particularly through reversible or controlled oxidation events that influence phosphorylation states and downstream responses.^[33] Low levels of ONOO⁻ inactivate protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), such as PTP1B, by oxidizing their catalytic cysteine residues, thereby reducing dephosphorylation activity and enhancing tyrosine kinase signaling.^[34] This modulation is evident in the insulin signaling pathway, where low concentrations of ONOO⁻ promote insulin receptor autophosphorylation and glucose uptake, supporting metabolic homeostasis without causing widespread damage.^[35] In vascular tissues, ONOO⁻ contributes to vasodilation through release of nitric oxide (•NO), which activates soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) and elevates cyclic GMP (cGMP) levels, promoting smooth muscle relaxation to regulate blood flow.^[36] Such actions occur at submicromolar concentrations, ensuring precise control over vascular tone during normal physiological conditions. ONOO⁻ also fine-tunes mitochondrial function at low doses by inducing mitochondrial biogenesis and protective adaptations, which help maintain reactive oxygen species (ROS) balance to prevent excessive oxidative burden.^[37] This supports adaptive responses, such as mild adjustments in ATP production that signal energy homeostasis. Additionally, brief exposure to ONOO⁻ induces the Nrf2 antioxidant response pathway by promoting Nrf2 nuclear translocation and activation of antioxidant response elements, upregulating protective enzymes like heme oxygenase-1 and thereby conferring resilience against subsequent oxidative challenges.^[38]

Involvement in Diseases

Peroxynitrite contributes to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases by promoting protein modifications that lead to neuronal damage and aggregation. In Parkinson's disease, peroxynitrite induces nitration of α-synuclein at tyrosine residues, enhancing its oligomerization and fibril formation, which accelerates dopaminergic neuron loss.^[39] This nitrative stress is evidenced by elevated nitrotyrosine levels in affected brain regions, linking peroxynitrite overproduction to disease progression.^[40] Similarly, in Alzheimer's disease, peroxynitrite-mediated nitration of amyloid-β at tyrosine 10 facilitates plaque formation and neurotoxicity, with nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity detected in senile plaques and surrounding neurons.^[41] Elevated 3-nitrotyrosine levels in Alzheimer's brain tissue further confirm widespread peroxynitrite-induced oxidative damage.^[42] In cardiovascular pathology, peroxynitrite drives endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis by oxidizing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and forming nitrotyrosine adducts on vascular proteins. This oxidation promotes LDL uptake by macrophages, contributing to foam cell formation and plaque development.^[43] Nitrotyrosine levels correlate with atherosclerotic lesion severity and cardiovascular events, serving as a marker of peroxynitrite-mediated nitrosative stress in endothelial cells.^[44] Peroxynitrite also impairs nitric oxide bioavailability, exacerbating vascular inflammation and stiffness.^[45] As of 2025, studies highlight peroxynitrite's role in cardiac microvascular ischemia-reperfusion injury via endoplasmic reticulum stress and mitochondrial calcium overload, suggesting targeted scavenging as a strategy to limit damage.^[46] During inflammation and sepsis, activated immune cells overproduce peroxynitrite, leading to widespread tissue damage through lipid peroxidation, protein nitration, and DNA strand breaks. In sepsis models, such as pneumococcal meningitis, peroxynitrite causes neuronal apoptosis and blood-brain barrier disruption, with nitrotyrosine accumulation as a hallmark of injury.^[47] Elevated 3-nitrotyrosine in plasma and urine serves as a reliable biomarker for peroxynitrite-driven oxidative stress in inflammatory conditions, reflecting systemic nitrosative damage.^[48] Therapeutic strategies targeting peroxynitrite show promise in disease models. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetics, such as FeTMPyP, decompose peroxynitrite and reduce infarct size in stroke models by limiting nitrosative stress, with efficacy observed even when administered post-ischemia.^[49] In diabetes models, NOS inhibitors like aminoguanidine prevent peroxynitrite formation, attenuating endothelial dysfunction and nephropathy by preserving nitric oxide signaling.^[50] These interventions, studied extensively since the early 2000s, highlight peroxynitrite scavenging as a viable approach for mitigating oxidative damage in stroke and diabetes.^[15]

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https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.23.11173
[25]
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M213302200
[26]
https://doi.org/10.1021/tx800463y
[27]
Error (ACS Publications)
- **Insufficient relevant content**: The requested URL (https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jp063523q) returns a "Page Not Found" error, indicating the page is inaccessible or does not exist.
[28]
Infrared absorption spectra of matrix-isolated cis, cis-HOONO and its ...
Feb 22, 2006 · We observe ν 6 (cis, cis-HOONO) at 617 ± 1 cm − 1 but the CCSD(T) calculation of υ 6 (cis, cis-HOONO) finds 668 cm − 1 ⁠, a difference of 50 cm ...Missing: NMR lengths
[29]
GROMOS-RONS: A Force Field for Simulations of Reactive Oxygen ...
May 29, 2025 · ΔGw of HOONO considered to be the same as of the cis-cis conformer, given its greater stability and prevalence. c. Derived from the standard ...
[30]
Rapid and irreversible inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases ...
Sep 15, 1999 · Rapid and irreversible inactivation of protein tyrosine phosphatases PTP1B, CD45, and LAR by peroxynitrite. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1999 Sep 15 ...
[31]
Rapid and Irreversible Inactivation of Protein Tyrosine ...
Sep 15, 1999 · Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) contain an essential thiol in the active site which may be susceptible to attack by nitric oxide ...
[32]
Bidirectional regulation of insulin receptor autophosphorylation and ...
Aug 1, 2009 · Concomitantly, peroxynitrite dramatically reduced (125)I-insulin binding capacity and phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity of IR preparations.Missing: PTPs signaling
[33]
Peroxynitrite-mediated vasorelaxation: evidence against the ...
Peroxynitrite-induced relaxation of isolated vessels may involve the formation of S-nitrosothiols. This study characterized the hemodynamic effects of ...
[34]
Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite exert distinct effects on mitochondrial ...
Mar 15, 1996 · Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite exert distinct effects on mitochondrial respiration which are differentially blocked by glutathione or glucose.Missing: low dose fine- tuning
[35]
Peroxynitrite activates NF-E2-related factor 2/antioxidant ... - PubMed
These results provide evidence that peroxynitrite plays an essential role in nuclear translocation of Nrf2 and ARE activation through the pathway of PI3-kinase.
[36]
Oxidative and Nitrative Protein Modifications in Parkinson's Disease
Recombinant α-synuclein treated with nitrating agents (peroxynitrite/CO2 myeloperoxidase/H2O2/nitrite) generates highly stable nitrated α-synuclein oligomers ...
[37]
Nitrosative stress in Parkinson's disease - Nature
Aug 11, 2022 · This review will focus on how RNS leads to loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD and whether RNS accumulation represents a central signal in the degenerative ...
[38]
Nitration of Tyrosine 10 Critically Enhances Amyloid β Aggregation ...
Sep 8, 2011 · Nitration of Aβ at tyrosine 10 regulates its aggregation in vitro and in vivo. Nitrated Aβ is found in the core of amyloid plaques in AD and in APP/PS1 mice.
[39]
Elevated Levels of 3-Nitrotyrosine in Brain From Subjects with ... - NIH
A number of studies reported that oxidative and nitrosative damage may be important in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD).
[40]
Superoxide and peroxynitrite in atherosclerosis - PMC - NIH
NO is involved in the development of atherosclerotic disease by yielding a potent mediator of lipoprotein oxidation, as well as by limiting .NO stimulation of ...Missing: nitrotyrosine | Show results with:nitrotyrosine
[41]
Association of Nitrotyrosine Levels With Cardiovascular Disease ...
Peroxynitrite is a potent oxidant that promotes nitration of protein tyrosine residues producing a distinctive "molecular fingerprint" for nitric oxide–derived ...
[42]
Roles of Vascular Oxidative Stress and Nitric Oxide in the ...
Feb 17, 2017 · Animal studies have provided compelling evidence demonstrating the roles of vascular oxidative stress and NO in atherosclerosis.
[43]
Role of Peroxynitrite as a Mediator of Pathophysiological Alterations ...
This study investigated the role of peroxynitrite in an adult rat model of pneumococcal meningitis. Immunohistochemically, nitrotyrosine residues, as a marker ...Results · Physiological And... · Immunohistochemical Studies...<|separator|>
[44]
3-Nitrotyrosine: A biomarker of nitrogen free radical species ...
The peroxynitrite-driven oxidation and nitration of biomolecules may lead to autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus. The subsequent release of altered ...Missing: sepsis | Show results with:sepsis
[45]
Neuroprotective efficacy and therapeutic time window of ...
Jan 29, 2009 · Significant reduction of peroxynitrite in blood and nitrotyrosine in brain sections was observed on FeTMPyP and FeTPPS treatment. As delayed ...
[46]
Peroxynitrite-Driven Mechanisms in Diabetes and Insulin Resistance
In relation to peroxynitrite-mediated downstream mechanisms, several lines of evidence prove the role of PARP activation in diabetic neuropathy [52, 80-81].Missing: mimetics | Show results with:mimetics