National Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a private, nonprofit society of distinguished scholars in scientific and engineering research, chartered by an act of the U.S. Congress on March 3, 1863, during the Civil War to provide independent advice to the nation on matters of science and technology.[1][2] Established with 50 charter members at the urging of scientists like Alexander Dallas Bache and Joseph Henry, the NAS operates as a self-perpetuating body that elects new members annually—limited to about 120—for their original contributions to knowledge, with current membership standing at around 2,400 U.S. members and 500 international associates.[2][3][4] The NAS fulfills its congressional mandate by conducting studies at the request of government agencies, producing reports that have influenced policies on everything from public health to national security, and publishing the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), one of the world's most cited scientific journals.[5][6] As the founding component of the broader National Academies—later expanded to include the National Academy of Engineering (1964) and National Academy of Medicine (1970)—it emphasizes evidence-based recommendations, drawing on expert committees to address complex challenges.[7] Notable achievements include pivotal reports on topics like climate change, vaccine safety, and genetic engineering ethics, which have shaped federal legislation and scientific priorities.[8] Despite its stature, the NAS has faced criticisms for perceived ideological biases, particularly in policy-oriented studies where selections of committee members and framing of questions have been accused of favoring progressive viewpoints, as evidenced by congressional inquiries into partisan influences in recent reports and historical concerns over data handling in climate science assessments.[9][10] Such issues reflect broader challenges in maintaining neutrality within academia-dominated institutions, where empirical rigor can intersect with interpretive disputes, prompting calls for greater transparency in member selection and funding disclosures to counter potential systemic left-leaning tilts.[11][12]
Founding and Mandate
Establishment and Historical Context
The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) was founded on March 3, 1863, through an Act of Congress signed by President Abraham Lincoln amid the American Civil War.[2] This establishment addressed the federal government's pressing demand for specialized scientific expertise to tackle technical challenges in warfare, including advancements in ordnance, naval engineering, and resource management.[13] Prior to formal incorporation, informal networks of scientists provided ad hoc advice, but the war's escalation highlighted the need for a structured, enduring institution to deliver impartial counsel on complex matters beyond immediate military exigencies.[14] Key proponents included Alexander Dallas Bache, superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey and the academy's first president; Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; and Louis Agassiz, a leading naturalist who served as foreign secretary.[14] These figures, alongside naval officer Charles H. Davis, collaborated to advance the proposal, drawing from a temporary Permanent Commission established in February 1863 to coordinate scientific input for government agencies.[13] Their efforts underscored a causal link between national crisis and institutional innovation: the Civil War's demands exposed gaps in governmental scientific capacity, prompting the creation of a body capable of mobilizing elite expertise without direct bureaucratic entanglement.[14] The legislative trajectory was swift, reflecting wartime urgency. Senator Henry Wilson introduced Senate Bill 555 on February 21, 1863; it passed the Senate and House on March 3 before Lincoln's signature.[13] The act named 50 charter members—distinguished scientists elected for their contributions—and tasked the NAS with investigating subjects referred by Congress or executive departments, while fostering broader scientific progress through research and knowledge dissemination.[2] This framework positioned the academy as a nongovernmental entity, theoretically insulated from political influence, though its advisory mandate inherently tied it to federal priorities from inception.[14]Congressional Charter and Stated Independence
The National Academy of Sciences was established by an Act of Congress, signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863, incorporating it as a body corporate tasked with advancing scientific knowledge.[15][16] The charter authorized the Academy to elect up to 50 initial members, who were granted powers to organize the institution, adopt a constitution and bylaws, and fill vacancies through peer election, thereby embedding self-governance from inception.[15][16] Under Section 3 of the charter, the Academy is obligated, "whenever called upon by any department of the Government," to investigate, examine, experiment, and report on subjects of science or art, with no compensation for its services but reimbursement of expenses via congressional appropriations.[15][16] This provision establishes a formal advisory role to the federal government without granting the government authority over the Academy's internal operations, membership, or unsolicited activities, distinguishing it from executive agencies.[16] The charter's structure underscores the Academy's stated independence as a private, nonprofit entity, with autonomy to set policies, elect members, and manage its affairs free from direct governmental control or oversight.[15][16] Subsequent amendments, such as the removal of the membership cap in 1870 and expansions of property-holding powers in 1884 and 1914, reinforced this operational freedom while preserving the voluntary nature of advisory engagements beyond mandated requests.[16] The Academy has consistently portrayed this framework as ensuring objective, evidence-based counsel, unencumbered by political directives, though its reliance on federal contracts for a majority of study funding—often exceeding 80% of project revenues in recent decades—has prompted debates on the practical limits of such autonomy.[17]Governance and Membership
Election Process and Composition
Membership in the National Academy of Sciences is conferred through peer election, recognizing distinguished and continuing achievements in original research.[3] Nominations are submitted exclusively by existing members, with no provision for applications from candidates.[3] Following nomination, candidates undergo an extensive vetting process, which culminates in a final ballot presented at the Academy's annual meeting in April.[18] Active members vote on nominees across all six disciplinary classes, rather than solely within their own fields, to ensure broad representation; ballots lacking votes in multiple classes may be invalidated.[19] The Academy limits elections to a maximum of 120 new U.S. citizen members and 30 international members annually, maintaining selectivity amid growing scientific output.[18] U.S. citizens are elected as full voting members, while non-citizens qualify as international members with non-voting status.[3] Emeritus status is granted to members upon reaching age 75 or retirement, preserving their affiliation without active voting rights.[20] As of April 2025, the Academy comprises 2,662 active members and 556 international members.[21] Members are organized into six classes—Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Engineering and Applied Sciences, Biomedical Sciences, Behavioral and Social Sciences, and Applied Biological, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences—each subdivided into sections aligned with specific disciplines, such as mathematics, physics, or genetics.[3] This structure facilitates targeted nominations and voting within expertise areas while promoting interdisciplinary balance.[22] Historically, membership has skewed toward physical and biological sciences, reflecting the Academy's origins, though recent elections show efforts to diversify across classes, with women comprising up to 50% of some annual cohorts despite overall underrepresentation.[23][24]Leadership Structure and Presidents
The National Academy of Sciences is governed by a 17-member Council elected from its membership, consisting of five officers and twelve councilors with staggered terms generally lasting three to six years.[25] The officers comprise the president, who acts as chief executive and chairs the Council; the vice president; the home secretary, overseeing domestic sections and committees; the international secretary, managing foreign memberships and relations; and the treasurer, handling financial affairs.[25] [26] The Council directs the Academy's activities, including oversight of advisory work through the National Research Council, which the president also chairs.[27] The president is nominated by the Council and elected by a majority vote of the membership for an initial six-year term, with eligibility for re-election to successive terms.[28] As of October 2025, Marcia McNutt holds the position, with her term set to expire on June 30, 2026; Neil H. Shubin, an evolutionary biologist, has been nominated and approved by the Council as her successor, effective July 1, 2026.[25] [28] Presidents are selected for their scientific distinction and leadership in advancing the Academy's mandate of providing objective advice on policy matters.[26] The following table lists all presidents with their terms of service:| President | Term |
|---|---|
| Alexander Dallas Bache | 1863–1867 |
| Joseph Henry | 1868–1878 |
| William Barton Rogers | 1879–1882 |
| Othniel Charles Marsh | 1883–1895 |
| Wolcott Gibbs | 1895–1900 |
| Alexander Agassiz | 1901–1907 |
| Ira Remsen | 1907–1913 |
| William Henry Welch | 1913–1917 |
| Charles Doolittle Walcott | 1917–1923 |
| Albert Abraham Michelson | 1923–1927 |
| Thomas Hunt Morgan | 1927–1931 |
| William Wallace Campbell | 1931–1935 |
| Frank Rattray Lillie | 1935–1939 |
| Frank Baldwin Jewett | 1939–1947 |
| Alfred Newton Richards | 1947–1950 |
| Detlev Wulf Bronk | 1950–1962 |
| Frederick Seitz | 1962–1969 |
| Philip Handler | 1969–1981 |
| Frank Press | 1981–1993 |
| Bruce Alberts | 1993–2005 |
| Ralph Cicerone | 2005–2016 |
| Marcia McNutt | 2016–2026 |
| Neil H. Shubin | 2026– |
Historical Development
Civil War to World War I
The National Academy of Sciences was chartered by an Act of Congress signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3, 1863, during the American Civil War, with the mandate to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters of national importance.[2] The academy originated from proposals by scientists including Alexander Dallas Bache, superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey, who sought to formalize expert counsel amid wartime needs for innovations in telegraphy, ordnance, and engineering; it began operations with 50 charter members drawn from prominent figures in physics, astronomy, geology, and biology.[29] Bache served as the inaugural president from 1863 to 1867, during which the academy provided limited but targeted advice, such as on submarine signaling and explosive devices, though its influence remained modest due to the organization's nascent status and the war's demands on resources.[13] Following the Civil War, under president Joseph Henry from 1868 to 1878, the academy prioritized independence from government directives, emphasizing pure scientific inquiry over applied engineering and issuing reports on topics including standardization of weights and measures, improvements to the lighthouse service, and geological surveys.[29] Henry's tenure, marked by a focus on long-term scientific advancement rather than immediate policy utility, saw slow institutional growth, with membership expanding gradually to around 100 by the early 1900s through elections of leading researchers based on original contributions.[2] Successors William Barton Rogers (1879–1882) and Othniel Charles Marsh (1883–1895) continued this trajectory, overseeing advisory work on public health, conservation, and infrastructure, such as sanitation for the Panama Canal and water resource management, while navigating internal debates over the balance between theoretical science and practical applications.[29] By the early 20th century, presidents including Ira Remsen (1907–1913) and Charles D. Walcott (from 1917) guided the academy toward greater engagement with emerging national challenges, culminating in World War I mobilization.[29] In 1916, at President Woodrow Wilson's request, the academy established the National Research Council (NRC) as a subsidiary body to coordinate scientific resources for the war effort, drawing in specialists beyond the academy's membership.[2] During the conflict, the NRC directed research in ballistics, chemical warfare agents, submarine detection via acoustics and optics, and medical countermeasures like vaccines and antiseptics, involving thousands of scientists and engineers and demonstrating the academy's evolving role in causal linkages between fundamental research and strategic outcomes.[30] In 1918, Wilson's executive order rendered the NRC a permanent entity, solidifying the academy's framework for wartime and peacetime advisory functions.[2]World War II Mobilization
Under President Frank B. Jewett, elected in 1939, the National Academy of Sciences rapidly mobilized its resources to support the U.S. war effort following the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939.[31] Jewett, leveraging his experience from World War I and position on the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), established by executive order on June 27, 1940, drove the Academy's advisory role to the government.[31][32] The NDRC, with Jewett as a member, coordinated scientific research for defense, including radar and atomic energy projects, and its headquarters were located in the NAS building in Washington, D.C.[31][32] The creation of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) on June 28, 1941, under Director Vannevar Bush, further integrated NAS expertise, with OSRD staff reaching 130 by December 1941, including 66 NAS members.[31] NAS established 98 wartime research committees between 1941 and 1945, advising on priorities such as the Advisory Committee on Uranium (formed 1940), which produced reports on atomic fission in May and July 1941 that informed the Manhattan Project.[31] The Academy managed 34 war-related contracts totaling $5,162,910 from 1940 to 1945 and surveyed facilities at 725 colleges and universities to allocate resources.[31] Additionally, in June 1942, NAS helped create the National Roster of Scientific Personnel to track and deploy experts.[31] NAS contributions spanned multiple fields, including radar development yielding over 150 systems through the MIT Radiation Laboratory and the proximity fuze by Section T, first used in combat in 1944.[31] In medical research, the Committee on Medical Research (CMR), established in 1941, oversaw 593 contracts worth $24 million, involving 5,431 investigators, and advanced penicillin production critical for treating wounded soldiers ahead of the Normandy invasion on June 6, 1944.[31] For atomic energy, OSRD allocated $85 million in contracts by 1943 to support plutonium isolation (achieved April 1942) and bomb development.[31] The War Metallurgy Committee, formed in 1941, addressed materials shortages.[31] Overall, OSRD, drawing on NAS mobilization, administered 2,515 contracts by December 1945, expending over $500 million on wartime R&D.[31] These efforts demobilized with OSRD in 1947, laying groundwork for postwar science policy.[31]Cold War and Space Race Era
During the presidency of Detlev W. Bronk from 1950 to 1962, the National Academy of Sciences intensified its advisory role amid escalating Cold War tensions and the onset of the Space Race. Bronk, a biophysicist, chaired the National Research Council and served on key government panels, including the President's Science Advisory Committee (PSAC) established in 1957, providing counsel on scientific mobilization for national security.[33] The Academy supported defense-related research during the Korean War (1950–1953), managing 38 contracts for federal agencies focused on military technologies.[34] A pivotal initiative was the U.S. participation in the International Geophysical Year (IGY) from July 1957 to December 1958, organized under NAS auspices with a U.S. National Committee formed in March 1953. This global effort, involving 20,000 to 30,000 scientists and $14 million in federal funding allocated in 1955–1956, encompassed early space observations and satellite launches, directly catalyzing the Space Age. The IGY's Vanguard satellite program, initiated by President Eisenhower, represented a U.S. push into orbital technology amid Soviet advances. Following the Soviet Sputnik 1 launch on October 4, 1957, NAS through PSAC contributed to the influential report Introduction to Outer Space (March 1958), advocating expanded U.S. space efforts that informed the creation of NASA on July 29, 1958.[34][33] In response to Sputnik, the Academy established the Space Science Board in 1958, chaired by Lloyd V. Berkner, to guide non-military space research priorities and advise NASA on objectives. This board produced reports such as U.S. Space Science Program: Report to COSPAR (1960), emphasizing systematic exploration including the discovery of Earth's radiation belts by James A. Van Allen via Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958. Concurrently, NAS addressed Cold War security concerns, forming a 1955 committee on clearance policies that resulted in a 1956 stance safeguarding unclassified research freedom, and issuing a June 1956 report via the Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation (BEAR) Committee on radiation hazards.[34] Amid U.S.-Soviet rivalry, NAS facilitated limited scientific exchanges, including a July 1959 agreement with the Soviet Academy of Sciences signed by Bronk and Nesmeyanov, enabling visits despite geopolitical strains. The Academy also aided over 1,200 Hungarian refugee scientists after the 1956 uprising, integrating them into U.S. institutions. These efforts underscored NAS's commitment to advancing science for national defense and international cooperation, balancing isolationist pressures with empirical collaboration. Under successor Frederick Seitz (1962–1969), the Academy continued space advising, but the era's foundational mobilizations under Bronk laid groundwork for U.S. triumphs like the Apollo program.[34][33]Post-1980s Expansion and Challenges
Following the Cold War era, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) underwent substantial expansion in membership and advisory output under successive presidents starting with Frank Press (1981–1993). During Press's tenure, the academy intensified its policy engagement, notably commissioning a 1980 assessment of carbon dioxide's climatic effects at the request of President Jimmy Carter, which underscored growing federal reliance on NAS expertise for environmental policy.[35] This period marked increased report production on emerging fields like biotechnology and global environmental risks, aligning with broader U.S. scientific internationalization. Membership, which stood at around 1,400 in the early 1980s, expanded to reflect disciplinary diversification, reaching over 2,000 U.S. members by the early 2000s.[36] Subsequent leaders, including Bruce Alberts (1993–2005), Ralph J. Cicerone (2005–2016), and Marcia McNutt (2016–2020), further broadened the NAS's scope through integration with the National Academies framework, encompassing engineering and medicine. By the 2020s, total membership exceeded 2,700 U.S. members and 500 international associates, with annual elections adding dozens based on distinguished contributions.[3] Report output surged, with the National Academies issuing hundreds annually on topics from climate adaptation to technological competitiveness, supported by a budget heavily derived from government contracts—over 80% federal funding in recent years. This growth facilitated influential advisories, such as those on genomic editing ethics and pandemic preparedness, but strained resources and administrative capacity.[36] Challenges emerged alongside expansion, including critiques of institutional biases and funding dependencies that could compromise perceived independence. The NAS's endorsement of anthropogenic climate change consensus, via reports aligning with IPCC findings, drew accusations from skeptics of prioritizing orthodoxy over dissenting empirical analyses, though academy officials maintain rigorous peer review.[37] In public health, a 2021 NAS report on non-opioid chronic pain treatments faced rebuke from clinicians for allegedly understating certain interventions' risks, with claims of pharmaceutical influence undermining countervailing expert scrutiny.[12] Internal governance issues also surfaced, such as 2014 proposals to amend bylaws increasing annual membership elections from 60 to 120 to accommodate field growth, sparking debates over dilution of selectivity.[38] Broader systemic critiques highlighted stagnating scientific disruption since the 1980s, attributing part to NAS-like bodies' emphasis on consensus-driven policy over high-risk innovation, amid rising administrative burdens and reproducibility concerns in affiliated outlets like Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.[39] These pressures prompted efforts to reaffirm merit-based processes while navigating politicized science debates, underscoring tensions between advisory expansion and core independence.[37]Activities and Outputs
Government Advisory Reports
The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) fulfills its congressional charter by producing expert consensus reports to advise the U.S. federal government on scientific and technical matters, often commissioned by agencies such as the Department of Defense, National Institutes of Health, or Congress.[5] These reports emerge from ad hoc committees composed of volunteer members and non-members selected for expertise, who deliberate on evidence gathered through public meetings, site visits, and data analysis, culminating in peer-reviewed findings that aim for objectivity and independence from sponsors.[40] [41] The process emphasizes transparency, with committees responding to external reviewer comments on evidence quality and logical consistency, though critics have noted potential for sponsor influence despite safeguards like the Federal Advisory Committee Act exemptions for NAS.[42] During World War II, NAS mobilized rapidly under President Frank B. Jewett to provide urgent advice, forming committees that contributed to developments in radar, sonar, proximity fuzes, and penicillin production scaling, while also assessing the feasibility of atomic weapons through consultations with figures like J. Robert Oppenheimer.[43] Postwar, NAS reports influenced foundational policies, such as the 1945 "Science, the Endless Frontier" framework (prepared via the Office of Scientific Research and Development but aligned with NAS advisory roles), which advocated federal funding for basic research and spurred creation of the National Science Foundation in 1950.[44] In the Cold War era, reports addressed nuclear strategy, space exploration, and environmental monitoring, including early assessments of atmospheric nuclear testing effects released in 1957.[36] In recent decades, NAS has issued hundreds of reports annually as part of the broader National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) output, covering topics from immigration's economic impacts—such as the 2016 analysis finding net fiscal benefits from high-skilled immigration but costs from low-skilled—to federal research deregulation options in 2025 aimed at enhancing U.S. competitiveness. [45] These documents are frequently cited by policymakers; for instance, a 2022 analysis showed NASEM reports referenced in over 1.6 million federal agency downloads and academic works, underscoring their role in shaping regulations on issues like voting infrastructure security and highway modernization.[46] [47] However, the consensus-driven methodology, while rigorous, relies on committee composition that may reflect institutional biases prevalent in academia, potentially marginalizing dissenting empirical views.[46]Publications Including PNAS
The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) is the flagship peer-reviewed journal of the National Academy of Sciences, established in 1914 to advance the dissemination of multidisciplinary scientific findings.[48] First issued in January 1915, it publishes weekly and covers original research articles, brief reports, reviews, perspectives, commentaries, and special features spanning the biological, physical, and social sciences.[48] With over 18,000 direct submissions received annually—comprising more than 75% of its content—PNAS selects and publishes upwards of 3,500 research papers each year, positioning it as one of the most highly cited journals in multidisciplinary science.[48] Its 2023 impact factor stands at 9.1, with a five-year impact factor of 10.6, reflecting sustained influence across fields.[49] Manuscripts follow one of two tracks: direct submissions, handled by professional editors with external peer review for scientific merit and significance; or contributed submissions, restricted to two per NAS member annually, where the member endorses the work and proposes at least two reviewers who have agreed to evaluate it.[50] [51] The contributed track, designed to spotlight academy members' research, historically permitted expedited or abbreviated review, which analyses have shown correlated with variable post-publication citation outcomes compared to direct submissions, though recent editorial reforms have imposed stricter standards, including mandatory external review for all accepted papers.[52] [53] Beyond PNAS, the NAS maintains PNAS Nexus, a gold open-access journal launched in 2022 to foster interdisciplinary work in biological, medical, physical, social, political sciences, engineering, and mathematics, with an initial impact factor of 2.2.[54] The academy also produces the Biographical Memoirs series, ongoing since 1877, featuring peer-written accounts of deceased members' lives, contributions, and selected bibliographies to preserve institutional history.[55] These outlets collectively support the NAS mandate under its congressional charter to document and promote scientific progress, independent of federal funding for PNAS operations, which rely on subscriptions and author fees.[48]Awards and Honors
The National Academy of Sciences administers a diverse array of awards to honor exceptional contributions across the physical, biological, and social sciences, with the program originating in 1886 and recognizing over 1,000 individuals to date.[56] These awards encompass medals, prizes, and lectureships, often targeting specific disciplines while prioritizing early-career researchers and those without prior major national or international recognition. Nominations are solicited annually, with recipients announced and ceremonies held to celebrate advancements that advance scientific knowledge or its applications.[57] The Public Welfare Medal stands as the academy's most prestigious honor, awarded yearly for the distinguished application of science to benefit public welfare, such as in health, policy, or societal improvement. Notable recipients include molecular biologist Nancy Hopkins in 2024 for advocacy in women's equality in science, and geneticist Mary-Claire King in 2025 for pioneering research on BRCA1 mutations enabling breast cancer screening.[58] [59] [60] Other awards recognize specialized achievements, including:- Alexander Agassiz Medal for contributions to oceanography.
- Comstock Prize in Physics for recent innovative research.
- Henry Draper Medal for investigations in astronomical physics.
- James Craig Watson Medal for contributions to astronomy.
- Jessie Stevenson Kovalenko Medal for advances in medical sciences.
- John J. Carty Award for the advancement of science broadly.
- NAS Award in Chemical Sciences for original research.
- NAS Award in Molecular Biology for young investigators.
- NAS Award in the Neurosciences for significant discoveries.
- Richard Lounsbery Award for young scientists in various fields.
- Selman A. Waksman Award in Microbiology for outstanding work.