Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Composition B

Composition B is a high-performance, melt-castable explosive formulation primarily used in military applications, consisting of 59.5% RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), 39.5% TNT (trinitrotoluene), and 1% wax as a desensitizer by weight.^[1] This mixture combines the high detonation velocity of RDX with the stability and castability of TNT, resulting in a versatile explosive with a density of approximately 1.71 g/cm³ (cast) and a detonation velocity of about 7.9 km/s.^[2] Developed during World War II, it has been a staple in munitions for its reliability in shaped charges, boosters, and artillery shells.^[3] The origins of Composition B trace back to British efforts at the Woolwich Arsenal, where researchers mixed RDX with TNT to improve handling and transportation stability, naming the resulting product Composition B.^[1] The United States enhanced its production through the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) and Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), adopting the efficient Bachmann process for RDX synthesis, which enabled large-scale manufacturing at facilities like the Holston Army Ammunition Plant by Tennessee Eastman Company.^[1] By 1944, it had become integral to the Manhattan Project, selected by explosives expert George Kistiakowsky as the "fast" high-explosive component in the lens system for the implosion-type atomic bomb.^[1] This design, pairing Composition B with slower explosives like Baratol, generated the precise converging shockwaves needed for the plutonium core compression in the Trinity test on July 16, 1945, and the subsequent Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki.^[1] Key properties of Composition B include its ability to be cast into complex geometries without cracking, a critical advantage for precision applications, along with a failure diameter of approximately 5 mm in unconfined conditions.^[2] Its plasticity and detonation velocity make it ideal for primers, boosters, and shaped charges in both military and limited commercial blasting operations.^[3] However, as a sensitive high explosive, it poses risks during storage and transport, prompting modern research into insensitive alternatives like IMX-101 and IMX-104 to mitigate accidental detonation hazards as of 2025.^[1] Despite these developments, Composition B remains in widespread use for its proven performance in conventional ordnance.^[2]

History and Development

Origins and Invention

Composition B emerged from British military research in the late 1930s, when scientists at the Woolwich Arsenal sought to harness the high brisance of RDX—first synthesized in the 1890s—for practical munitions applications. RDX, or cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (also known as hexogen), offered greater explosive power than TNT but was too sensitive for direct use, prompting efforts to blend it with TNT to create a castable high explosive suitable for artillery shells and bombs. This initial formulation addressed the need for a material that combined RDX's detonation velocity with TNT's melt-pour properties, marking a key advancement in ordnance design during the pre-World War II buildup.^[4] The invention gained momentum through Anglo-American collaboration following the Tizard Mission in 1940, which transferred UK RDX technology to the United States National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). In response, American chemist Dr. Werner E. Bachmann developed an innovative synthesis process in 1940–1941 that dramatically increased RDX yields while minimizing nitric acid consumption, enabling scalable production. Early laboratory tests of RDX-TNT mixtures around 1940–1942 confirmed their superior brisance over pure TNT, with detonation performance metrics showing approximately 30% greater shattering power, while retaining castability for loading into shells. These evaluations were documented in military research reports, highlighting the mixture's potential for anti-submarine depth charges and other ordnance.^[4]^[5] The Tennessee Eastman Company played a pivotal role in industrializing the invention, receiving an NDRC contract in January 1942 to establish pilot plants for RDX and Composition B. Production ramped up with the Wexler Bend RDX facility operational in February 1942, followed by the first batch of the RDX-TNT mixture at the Horse Creek plant on April 7, 1942. Key early documents, including Ordnance Department reports and process patents related to hexogen-TNT blends (e.g., U.S. Patent No. 2,386,937 for related nitration methods), referenced these formulations for military use, solidifying Composition B's foundational role in high-explosive development.^[4]

World War II Adoption

Composition B saw widespread adoption by Allied forces, particularly the United States and United Kingdom, beginning in 1942–1943, as a superior alternative to TNT and amatol in artillery shells, bombs, and other ordnance due to its significantly higher detonation velocity of approximately 8,040 m/s compared to TNT's 6,900 m/s. This enhanced performance allowed for more effective explosive power in munitions, enabling greater destructive capability against armored targets and fortifications during key campaigns in Europe and the Pacific. The transition marked a shift from earlier fillers like amatol, which were less stable and powerful, to this castable RDX-TNT mixture that improved reliability in high-impact applications.^[6]^[7] Mass production of Composition B ramped up rapidly to support wartime demands, with the Holston Ordnance Works (later Holston Army Ammunition Plant) in Kingsport, Tennessee, becoming operational in 1943 under management by the Tennessee Eastman Company. Authorized in June 1942, the facility focused on synthesizing RDX and mixing it into Composition B, producing millions of pounds monthly for artillery projectiles, aerial bombs, and torpedoes by mid-1943. By the end of the war, Holston alone had manufactured over 858 million pounds of RDX and Composition B, contributing to the filling of vast quantities of ordnance that powered Allied offensives, including the D-Day invasion and island-hopping campaigns in the Pacific. This scaling replaced amatol in many applications, ensuring a steady supply for over 40 million tons of total U.S. ammunition produced during the conflict. By war's end, U.S. production of Composition B totaled approximately 434,000 tons across multiple facilities, underscoring its pivotal role in both conventional and nuclear ordnance.^[8]^[9]^[4] A critical application of Composition B during World War II was its use in the explosive lenses of implosion-type atomic bombs, such as the "Fat Man" device detonated over Nagasaki in August 1945. The high-explosive lenses, combining Composition B with slower-burning explosives like Baratol, were essential for symmetrically compressing the plutonium core to achieve criticality, a design refined at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Additionally, Composition B filled specific conventional munitions like the AN-M65 1,000-pound general-purpose bomb, deployed by aircraft such as the P-47 Thunderbolt and B-26 Marauder for strategic bombing missions.^[10]^[11]^[12]

Chemical Composition

Components

Composition B primarily consists of two key explosive ingredients: RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, also known as hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine) and TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene). RDX, with the chemical formula \ce{C3H6N6O6}, is a white crystalline solid that serves as the main high explosive component due to its high brisance, which refers to its ability to shatter or fragment materials effectively upon detonation.^[13]^[2]^[14] Its molecular structure features a strained heterocyclic ring composed of three methylene (\ce{-CH2-}) groups alternating with three nitroamine (\ce{-N(NO2)-}) groups, contributing to its energetic properties. RDX is typically produced through the nitrolysis of hexamethylenetetramine (hexamine) using concentrated nitric acid, often in the presence of ammonium nitrate or acetic anhydride.^[15] TNT, with the chemical formula \ce{C7H5N3O6}, acts as a meltable binder that facilitates the casting process by liquefying at relatively low temperatures (around 80°C) to incorporate the RDX crystals. It is a pale yellow crystalline solid with moderate explosive power compared to RDX, valued for its chemical stability and insensitivity to shock. The structure of TNT consists of a benzene aromatic ring substituted with a methyl group and three nitro groups at the 2,4, and 6 positions, which enhance its explosive characteristics while maintaining meltability. TNT is synthesized via the stepwise nitration of toluene using a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids, progressing from mononitrotoluene to dinitrotoluene and finally to the trinitro form. A small amount of phlegmatizer, typically 1% beeswax, is included to desensitize the mixture by reducing its sensitivity to impact and friction, while also improving the flow properties during the melting and casting of the explosive.^[16]^[17] This addition helps prevent unintended initiation and ensures uniform distribution of the components without altering the overall explosive performance significantly.

Formulation Ratios

Composition B is typically formulated with 59.5% RDX, 39.5% TNT, and 1% wax by weight, though it is often approximated as a 60/40 RDX/TNT mixture without the wax for simplicity in discussions of core components.^[16]^[18] This precise ratio ensures the explosive's castability while optimizing its energetic performance for military applications. The wax component, usually beeswax, is added at 1% to serve as a desensitizer, reducing the mixture's sensitivity to shock and friction without significantly diminishing its explosive power.^[17] The rationale for these proportions centers on the complementary properties of the ingredients to facilitate melt-casting, the primary production method. TNT, with a melting point of approximately 80°C, acts as the matrix that liquefies during manufacturing, allowing the higher-melting RDX crystals (melting point around 205°C) to be suspended and evenly distributed without dissolving completely, which preserves RDX's high detonation velocity and brisance.^[19] This balance enables the pourable slurry to fill complex munition casings effectively while maintaining structural integrity upon cooling. The small wax addition further enhances processability by improving flow and reducing voids, but its primary role is desensitization to mitigate handling risks associated with RDX's inherent sensitivity.^[20] Variations in formulation ratios have been employed historically and in related compositions to adapt to specific performance needs. More recent or specialized variants include ratios such as 63% RDX, 36% TNT, and 1% wax, which slightly increase energetic yield while retaining melt-cast properties.^[16] A closely related explosive, Cyclotol, features higher RDX content at 65-75% with correspondingly less TNT (25-35%), emphasizing greater brisance for applications requiring enhanced fragmentation effects, though it demands careful handling due to reduced binder content.^[21] These ratios directly influence the explosive's stability and safety profile, with higher RDX percentages boosting detonation power and velocity but elevating sensitivity to initiation stimuli like impact or friction. The standard 60/40 balance was selected to provide sufficient insensitivity for reliable storage and transport in munitions, while the wax helps stabilize the mixture against unintended reactions; deviations toward higher RDX, as in Cyclotol, necessitate additional safety measures to manage increased hazard potential. This optimization reflects military priorities for a versatile, high-performance filler that minimizes risks during operational use.^[22]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Characteristics

Composition B appears as a yellowish to yellow-brown solid in its cast form, exhibiting a somewhat crystalline texture due to the dispersion of RDX crystals within the TNT matrix.^[7] This appearance results from the standard formulation where RDX comprises 59-60% and TNT 39-40%, with 1% wax added for phlegmatization, leading to a homogeneous yet textured solid upon cooling from the molten state.^[7] The material has a density of approximately 1.65 g/cm³ in cast form, which can vary slightly to 1.71 g/cm³ depending on processing conditions and wax content.^[7] Its melting point ranges from 78-80°C, primarily influenced by the lower melting TNT component that dominates the mixture's thermal behavior during casting.^[7] Composition B demonstrates good thermal stability, remaining unaffected up to 120°C and showing only very slight exudation around 71°C under prolonged exposure; it begins to decompose above 255°C.^[7]^[2] Solubility is low in water, rendering it practically insoluble and suitable for applications requiring resistance to aqueous environments.^[7] However, it exhibits higher solubility in organic solvents such as acetone, benzene, and toluene.^[7] Under dry storage conditions, Composition B maintains stability with a shelf life of 20-30 years or more, as evidenced by lots remaining viable after 31 years without significant property degradation.^[23] Moisture ingress accelerates degradation, particularly through hydrolysis of the RDX component, leading to acid formation such as formic acid and potential instability.^[24]

Explosive Properties

Composition B exhibits a detonation velocity of approximately 8,040 m/s when loaded to its standard density of 1.71 g/cm³.^[2] This high propagation speed contributes to its effectiveness as a high explosive, enabling rapid energy release in confined charges. The explosive demonstrates strong brisance and power, with a relative effectiveness (RE) factor of 1.35 compared to TNT (RE = 1.0).^[25] Its heat of explosion is approximately 1.24 kcal/g, reflecting efficient energy output during detonation.^[26] In terms of TNT equivalence, Composition B delivers 1.35–1.4 times the blast effect of TNT under typical conditions.^[27] The Gurney energy, utilized in calculations for fragment velocities from encased charges, is approximately 0.71 kcal/g, supporting predictions of metal acceleration in munitions.^[28] The reaction mechanism involves a deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT), where initial subsonic combustion accelerates to supersonic detonation under confinement or shock initiation.^[29] Under ideal conditions, detonation results in complete combustion, yielding primary products of CO₂, H₂O, and N₂.^[30]

Production and Manufacturing

Preparation Methods

Composition B is prepared industrially through a melt-casting process, in which TNT acts as a fusible binder melted and combined with solid RDX particles to form a homogeneous explosive mixture suitable for casting into munitions. The standard formulation consists of approximately 60% RDX, 39% TNT, and 1% wax as a desensitizer.^[16] The process commences with melting TNT flakes in a steam-jacketed kettle at 80–90°C to achieve a liquid state, typically around its melting point of 81°C. Wet RDX powder, ground to a fine grade with particle sizes generally below 100 μm (often 12–23 μm average for optimal homogeneity), is then added slowly to the molten TNT to prevent clumping. A small quantity of wax is incorporated simultaneously to enhance flow and reduce sensitivity.^[22]^[31]^[32] The mixture is heated and vigorously stirred in the kettle until all water from the wet RDX evaporates, ensuring complete dissolution of any soluble components and uniform dispersion of the RDX particles, which partially dissolve in the hot TNT at temperatures between 127°C and 187°C without reaching RDX's melting point of 205°C. This batch mixing step, conducted in explosion-proof facilities, homogenizes the slurry while minimizing air entrapment and thermal hazards.^[22] Once homogenized, the molten Composition B is poured into preheated molds or projectile shells at approximately 86°C to facilitate flow and reduce viscosity. For smaller charges (up to 7.5 lbs), a single continuous pour is used; larger ones (8–15 lbs) require multiple increments with intermediate cooling to control shrinkage and prevent cavitation voids, often aided by a steam-heated probe inserted post-pour to maintain openness during solidification. The cast material is then cooled gradually in controlled environments to solidify into a dense, crack-free explosive charge.^[32] During World War II, production relied on manual batch processes in steam-jacketed kettles at dedicated ammunition plants, such as the Holston Ordnance Works, which manufactured over 858 million pounds of RDX and Composition B by the end of the war. These facilities operated in large-scale batches, processing tons of material daily under strict safety protocols in remote, explosion-proof setups.^[8] In modern manufacturing, the process has evolved to incorporate automated pouring systems and mechanized handling, such as multi-station "mechanical cow" setups capable of processing 60 shells per cycle, enhancing efficiency and safety while maintaining batch production at tonnage scales in updated government-owned plants like the Holston Army Ammunition Plant, which continues to produce Composition B as of 2025.^[32]^[33]

Quality Assurance

Quality assurance for Composition B involves rigorous testing protocols to verify structural integrity, uniformity, and performance consistency post-manufacturing, ensuring it meets military safety and efficacy standards. Non-destructive methods such as X-ray computed tomography are employed to detect internal voids and defects in cast charges, which could compromise detonation reliability. Density is assessed through water displacement techniques, targeting a theoretical maximum of approximately 1.71 g/cm³ to confirm proper consolidation without excessive porosity. Additionally, gap tests measure detonation velocity propagation across samples, using standardized setups like the small-scale gap test to evaluate shock sensitivity and ensure velocities exceed 7,500 m/s under controlled conditions.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] Military standards, including MIL-STD-1751, dictate requirements for homogeneity, mandating uniform distribution of RDX and TNT phases to prevent localized weaknesses. Impurity limits are strictly enforced, with metallic contaminants capped at less than 0.1% to avoid catalytic decomposition or sensitivity alterations. Stability is evaluated via the vacuum stability test, where gas evolution must remain below 1 mL/g at 100°C over a specified period, confirming long-term chemical integrity.^[38]^[39] Defect mitigation during processing includes sieving RDX particles to specific size ranges, typically 10-50 μm, to inhibit graining that could lead to uneven melting or phase separation in the cast mixture. Humidity is meticulously controlled below 50% relative humidity in production environments to prevent TNT recrystallization, which might introduce crystalline flaws affecting charge uniformity.^[35]^[40] Final certification requires batch testing and approval by facilities such as the U.S. Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC), where samples undergo comprehensive validation against performance criteria before munitions loading. This ensures each lot complies with DoD explosives qualification protocols, minimizing risks in deployment.^[41]^[38]

Applications

Military Applications

Composition B has been widely employed as a high explosive filler in various military ordnance since World War II, particularly in artillery shells, aerial bombs, rockets, mines, and grenades. In artillery applications, it serves as the primary charge in 155 mm high-explosive projectiles like the M107, where approximately 6.99 kg of the mixture provides enhanced blast and fragmentation effects compared to TNT alone.^[42] For aerial bombs, Composition B was used in general-purpose munitions during WWII to achieve reliable detonation and high energy output in fragmentation and blast roles.^[12] It also fills warheads in rockets and projectiles for anti-personnel and anti-materiel effects, as well as in land mines and hand grenades for short-range explosive delivery against personnel and light vehicles.^[12] A critical military application of Composition B lies in its role within nuclear weapons, specifically as part of the explosive lenses in implosion-type fission devices. During WWII, it was integral to the "Fat Man" plutonium bomb dropped on Nagasaki, where precisely shaped charges of Composition B, combined with slower explosives like Baratol, compressed the fissile core symmetrically to initiate criticality.^[10] This application underscored Composition B's suitability for high-precision explosive configurations requiring uniform wave propagation. Post-WWII, Composition B became a standard filler in NATO munitions through the Cold War era, remaining in widespread use until the 1990s for its reliability in diverse delivery systems. It continues to be employed in legacy stockpiles and select high-performance rounds, though phase-outs have begun in favor of insensitive alternatives; as of 2025, it persists in certain US military applications such as fuzes.^[43]^[44] The advantages of Composition B in these applications stem from its melt-castable nature, allowing it to be molded into intricate shapes for optimized charge geometries in shells and lenses, and its high detonation velocity—approximately 7,980 m/s—which enhances armor penetration and fragmentation efficiency over pure TNT.^[45] These properties make it particularly effective for munitions requiring both stability in storage and powerful, directed explosive effects in combat.^[46]

Other Uses

Composition B, primarily developed and classified as a military explosive, has limited non-military applications due to stringent regulatory controls imposed by agencies such as the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), which categorizes it as a high explosive requiring federal licensing for possession, storage, and use by civilians.^[47] These restrictions, aligned with international frameworks like United Nations conventions on conventional arms, prioritize safer alternatives such as water-gel emulsions or ammonium nitrate-fuel oil (ANFO) mixtures for most civilian blasting needs, limiting Composition B's adoption to specialized, licensed scenarios. In commercial demolition and mining operations, Composition B serves as a cast booster to initiate detonation in less sensitive blasting agents, particularly in high-power quarry and surface mining activities where precise energy delivery is required. For instance, in regulated U.S. mining contexts, it is employed under strict permitting to enhance the reliability of large-scale blasts in hard rock formations, though its use remains rare compared to commercial-grade explosives due to cost and availability constraints. Its castable nature allows for molding into booster units that interface effectively with detonating cords or caps in these environments.^[48] Research and testing represent another niche for Composition B, where it is utilized in controlled explosive simulations to study seismic wave propagation and ground response, aiding geophysical surveys and hazard assessments. Experiments have employed small Composition B charges to analyze differences in seismic radiation compared to other explosives like ANFO, providing data on wave amplitudes and frequencies essential for non-destructive testing in civil engineering projects.^[49] Such applications occur in academic and governmental laboratories under secure protocols, contributing to broader understandings of blast dynamics without direct military involvement. Surplus Composition B from demilitarized military stockpiles has been explored for repurposing in civilian seismic exploration and limited blasting, offering an eco-friendly alternative to open detonation or landfill disposal through extraction and reformulation processes. Recovery techniques, such as solvent-based separation of RDX and TNT components, enable reuse in low-volume geophysical surveys where high detonation velocity is beneficial for generating clear seismic signals.^[50] However, these efforts are constrained by quality assurance challenges and regulatory hurdles, with most surplus directed toward destruction rather than redistribution.^[48]

Safety, Sensitivity, and Handling

Sensitivity Profile

Composition B demonstrates moderate impact sensitivity compared to its primary components, RDX and TNT. In standardized drop hammer tests (e.g., ERL Type 12A with sandpaper), the 50% probability of initiation (Dh50) height for Composition B ranges from approximately 35 cm to 62 cm depending on the test method, indicating lower sensitivity than pure RDX (Dh50 ≈ 37 cm) but higher sensitivity than TNT (Dh50 ≈ 61 cm).^[51]^[23] This positioning arises from the desensitizing effect of the TNT binder on the more sensitive RDX crystals, resulting in an overall profile suitable for castable munitions but requiring careful handling.^[23] Friction sensitivity is notably low, with no explosive reaction observed in the ARDC friction pendulum tester using either fiber or steel shoes, classifying it as friction-insensitive under standard testing conditions.^[23] Thermal initiation begins at an onset temperature of approximately 213°C as measured by differential thermal analysis (DTA), with full explosion occurring around 260°C in 5-second exposure tests; autoignition is reported at 177°C.^[23] These thermal thresholds reflect the stability of the RDX-TNT matrix, though aging can slightly elevate onset temperatures without compromising overall performance.^[23] In large-scale gap tests simulating shock propagation, the 50% initiation distance is about 2.2 inches, further underscoring its moderate shock sensitivity.^[23] The addition of 1% wax in the formulation coats RDX crystals, mitigating sharp-edge induced sensitivity and enhancing overall stability, contributing to partial compliance with IM standards for reduced unintended initiation.^[52] Despite these attributes, Composition B is considered moderately sensitive overall and is increasingly supplemented or replaced in modern designs to meet full IM criteria.

Handling Precautions

Composition B requires meticulous handling protocols to mitigate its risks as a high explosive prone to mass detonation upon initiation. These protocols encompass storage, transportation, personal protective equipment (PPE), operational procedures, and disposal, all aligned with military and regulatory standards to ensure safety and environmental protection.^[53]

Storage

Composition B, classified as Hazard Division 1.1D, must be stored in dedicated ammunition magazines segregated from incompatible materials such as initiators, detonators, and other ammunition and explosives (AE) groups to prevent sympathetic detonation.^[53] Storage facilities should maintain controlled environmental conditions, including temperatures below 40°C and relative humidity under 50% where possible, to minimize degradation from heat or moisture, though specific thresholds may vary by facility guidelines.^[54] All storage operations necessitate electrostatic discharge (ESD) grounding for personnel and equipment to counteract static electricity risks, as Composition B exhibits sensitivity to initiation from sparks exceeding its thresholds detailed in sensitivity profiles.^[55] Strict inventory controls, including first-in-first-out rotation and regular inspections for damage or leakage, are mandatory to uphold stability.^[53]

Transportation

Under U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations, Composition B is designated UN 0118, Hexolite, dry or wetted, in Class 1.1D, indicating a mass explosion hazard with no significant fire or projection risks beyond blast. It must be transported in UN-approved metal containers, such as drums or boxes, equipped with shock-absorbing materials like cushioning or dividers to protect against impacts, vibrations, and stacking stresses during transit by road, rail, or air.^[56] Vehicles require placarding as per 49 CFR Part 172, with no smoking, open flames, or incompatible cargoes permitted; separation from Class 1.1A initiators is enforced to avoid chain reactions. Emergency response plans, including spill containment and evacuation distances based on quantity, are required during shipment.

PPE and Procedures

Handlers must don anti-static suits, conductive footwear, and grounded wrist straps to eliminate ESD hazards, as static discharges can initiate Composition B despite its relative insensitivity to friction compared to primary explosives.^[55] Operations prohibit the use of grinding, milling, or spark-generating tools, favoring non-sparking implements and grounded workstations to prevent accidental ignition.^[53] Composition B is compatible with most construction metals like steel and aluminum but corrodes copper, necessitating avoidance of copper-based fittings, wiring, or containers to prevent contamination and structural weakening. All procedures demand trained personnel under supervision, with hazard analyses conducted for any non-routine tasks, and strict housekeeping to remove dust accumulations that could exacerbate sensitivities.^[54]

Disposal

Disposal of Composition B follows EPA guidelines under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), prioritizing methods that ensure complete destruction while minimizing emissions and residues.^[57] Open-pit burning or open detonation in controlled sites is commonly employed for bulk quantities, using donor charges to achieve full combustion and reduce unexploded remnants, with post-disposal soil remediation for any RDX or TNT residues.^[57] For demilitarization, solvent extraction processes react the mixture with organic amines at ambient temperatures to neutralize components into non-explosive byproducts, avoiding detonation and complying with waste management standards.^[57] All activities require site-specific permits, emissions monitoring, and adherence to Department of Defense Explosives Safety Board (DDESB) criteria for safe zones and fragment control.^[58]

Incidents and Legacy

Notable Incidents

One of the most tragic incidents involving Composition B occurred on July 29, 1967, aboard the USS Forrestal during operations off Vietnam. A misfired Zuni rocket struck an A-4 Skyhawk aircraft on the flight deck, igniting a fire that rapidly spread to adjacent planes loaded with ordnance. The degraded Composition B filler in several aging M65 bombs—rendered unstable by prolonged storage and exposure—underwent premature detonations, triggering a chain reaction of explosions that destroyed 21 aircraft and severely damaged the carrier. This catastrophe resulted in 134 fatalities and 161 injuries among the crew, marking the deadliest U.S. naval accident since World War II.^[59]^[60] During World War II, production of Composition B at the Holston Ordnance Works in Tennessee was marred by explosions between 1943 and 1944, which temporarily halted operations and highlighted risks in the manufacturing process. The facility, which ramped up to produce over 1 million pounds of explosives daily by early 1944, saw these events underscore early challenges in scaling safe production.^[61] The collective lessons from these incidents emphasized the critical need for ongoing degradation monitoring in Composition B munitions, particularly tracking acid buildup from RDX hydrolysis triggered by trace moisture. This process can sensitize the mixture, elevating detonation risks over time, and prompted enhanced protocols for storage, inspection, and disposal to mitigate such failures.^[62]^[63]

Modern Replacements

Due to increasing emphasis on safety in military applications, the U.S. Department of Defense formalized its Insensitive Munitions (IM) policy in the early 1990s, requiring new munitions to demonstrate reduced sensitivity to unintended stimuli such as impact, fire, and fragments while maintaining operational performance.^[64] This policy accelerated the phase-out of more sensitive explosives like Composition B in favor of formulations that minimize accidental detonation risks during storage, transport, and combat.^[65] One early replacement, Composition H-6, was developed in the mid-20th century as an aluminized variant offering improved blast effects and relative stability compared to standard RDX/TNT mixes.^[66] Composed primarily of RDX (45%), TNT (30%), aluminum powder (20%), and wax (5%), it has been used since the 1950s in applications like underwater ordnance and bombs, providing enhanced energy output with moderated sensitivity for specific high-blast needs.^[12] In the 2010s, the U.S. Army introduced IMX-101 as a melt-pour insensitive explosive for 155 mm artillery shells, such as the M795 projectile, replacing traditional fills like TNT and addressing limitations of Composition B.^[43] Formulated with 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), 5-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (NTO), and nitroguanidine (NQ), IMX-101 exhibits significantly lower sensitivity to impact (drop height >100 cm versus ~18 cm for RDX in Composition B), friction, and thermal stimuli, while delivering equivalent detonation velocity and fragmentation performance.^[67] Similarly, IMX-104 serves as a direct insensitive replacement for Composition B in mortar rounds and grenades, including 60 mm, 81 mm, and 120 mm systems, as well as variants like the M768 and Spider grenade.^[68] This DNAN-based melt-pour explosive, qualified in 2011, passes IM tests for bullet impact and fast cook-off with non-violent responses, reducing the risk of sympathetic detonation or rapid deflagration compared to Composition B, and it maintains near-equivalent explosive power in confined charges. Although newer insensitive formulations like IMX-101 and IMX-104 are being integrated into active U.S. inventories, Composition B persists in legacy stockpiles for backward compatibility and in certain non-U.S. systems.^[69] These modern replacements lower overall cook-off risks through milder reactions to heat and fragments—potentially reducing storage hazard classifications from 1.1 to 1.6—while preserving at least 90-100% of Composition B's energy output in key metrics like detonation velocity.^[67]

References

[1]
Full article: The Trinity High-Explosive Implosion System
I. The summer of 1944 at Los Alamos was a defining moment for the Manhattan Project.1 Not only did the focus and direction of technical research and ...
[2]
SCCM 13 Comp B Paper - IOP Science
Composition B (63% RDX, 36% TNT, 1% wax) is still a widely used energetic material whose shock initiation characteristics are necessary to understand. It is now ...
[3]
[PDF] Chapter 2 EXPLOSIVES
A lower heat of explosion means a lower energy output and thereby less efficient blasting. Antacids. Antacids are added to an explosive compound to increase its ...
[4]
[PDF] HOLSTON ORDNANCE WORKS - DTIC
It includes a discussion of local history before World War II; the development of. Tennessee Eastman Corporation; the RDX story; and other aspects of the ...<|separator|>
[5]
[PDF] WERNER EMMANUEL BACHMANN - National Academy of Sciences
In the conventional British process for making RDX, hexamethylenetetramine is treated with 98-100 per- cent nitric acid, as is shown in equation (1). CGH12N4 + ...
[6]
[PDF] 9546041.pdf - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
... B-1 and B-2. 0. 6-2 thru 6-4. 0. Index 1 and Index 2. 3. 7-1 thru 7-20. 0. Index 3 ... Invention of Fireworks and Black Powder. a. Fireworks. Fireworks are ...
[7]
[PDF] Engineering Design Handbook: Explosives Series Properties of ...
Apr 13, 2025 · Ammonium Nitrate. 21. Ammonium Perchlorate. 26. Ammonium Picrate—See. Explosive D. Baratol. 29. Baronal. 33. Black Powder.Missing: UK | Show results with:UK
[8]
[PDF] Holston Army Ammunition Plant - FACT SHEET
Known then as the. Holston Ordnance Works, it produced more than 858 million pounds of RDX and Composition B by the end of WWII. In. 1946, Holston Ordnance ...
[9]
[PDF] HoIston Army Ammunition, Plant, ; RDX-and-Composition - Loc
w -.xkm.' HISTORIC AMERICAN ENGINEERING RECORD. HOLSTON ARMY AMMUNITION PLANT,. RDX-AND-COMPOSITION-B MANUFACTURING LINE 9.
[10]
[PDF] LA-UR-21-20794 - OSTI.GOV
Jan 28, 2021 · Here we focus on the development of the convergent explosive implosion system that was employed in the Trinity “Gadget” test device and in the ...
[11]
M65 1000-lb. Bomb - Air Force Museum
The P-47 Thunderbolt could carry two M65s, while the B-26 medium bomber could carry four. The AN-M65 is on display in the World War II Gallery. Click here to ...Missing: Composition | Show results with:Composition
[12]
Explosives - Compounds - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 7, 2011 · Composition B is used by the military in land mines, rockets and projectiles. ... Block III was first used in the September 1995 Bosnia ...
[13]
Cyclonite | C3H6N6O6 | CID 8490 - PubChem - NIH
RDX stands for Royal Demolition eXplosive. It is also known as cyclonite or hexogen. The chemical name for RDX is 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine.
[14]
Properties of Selected High Explosives - PacSci EMC
Explosives which detonate and propagate at velocities greater than 1000 m/s, are high explosives and include the secondary explosives RDX, HMX, HNS, DIPAM, ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[15]
[PDF] MERITS OF RDX - DRDO Publications
*. RDX is superior to all other modern high explosives, such as TNT, CE,. PETN etc. in many respects. The properties of an high explosive which make it.
[16]
Synthesis of RDX by nitrolysis of hexamethylenetetramine in ...
Feb 11, 2008 · In the conventional process for making RDX, hexamethylenetetramine is treated with 98–100% nitric acid in the presence or absence of ammonium ...
[17]
Experimental Characterization of Cast Explosive Charges Used in ...
Apr 3, 2025 · Over eighty TNT and Composition B charges (comprising 60% RDX, 39% TNT, and 1% wax) were prepared using spherical molds made of thin aluminum, ...
[18]
Composition B – Knowledge and References - Taylor & Francis
Composition B is a high-energy military explosive made of a castable mix of RDX with TNT and a small addition of desensitizing beeswax.Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[19]
[PDF] Characteristics of Composition B Particles from Blow-in-Place ... - DTIC
Jun 5, 2006 · Analyses of individual Comp B particles show that their TNT/RDX ratio varies considerably from the manufactured 39–60 ratio. We see no ...
[20]
Studies of thermal dissolution of RDX in TNT melt. - AIP Publishing
Comp B is comprised of two components: TNT which melts at near 81 °C and RDX with higher melting temperature around 205 °C. Upon heating of the mixture solid- ...
[21]
[PDF] Surfactants and Desensitizing Wax Substitutes for TNT ... - DTIC
resins) that are effective emulsifiers for microcrysta line or selected substitute desensitizing waxes in AFX-644 TNT melt cast bomb explosive. Ganex resins ...
[22]
[PDF] TNT Equivalence - OSTI.GOV
The CJ pressure can be quite accurately estimatedwhen one knows the density and detonation velocity (Ref. 2), both obtained by rather simple straight forward.
[23]
Detonation Performance Measurements of Cyclotol 80/20
Cyclotol is a melt-castable high explosive composed of RDX and TNT, and typically a small amount of HMX. The term Cyclotol may apply to other mixtures of these.Missing: ratio | Show results with:ratio
[24]
[PDF] Cookoff of a melt-castable explosive (compb-B) - OSTI.GOV
However, the RDX seems to dissolve in the hot TNT showing a slight endothermic reaction at temperatures well below the melting point of RDX. Results support the.Missing: history | Show results with:history
[25]
[PDF] The Effect of Aging on the Properties of Composition B - DTIC
Composition B from recent lots. The tests included impact sensitivity, fric ... The calculations show that. Comp B is very stable, even though the aged explosive ...
[26]
[PDF] Toxicological Profile for RDX
RDX has been identified at 31 out of the 1,699 hazardous waste sites that have been proposed for inclusion on the EPA National Priorities List (NPL) (HazDat ...
[27]
None
Below is a merged summary of the explosive properties of Composition B as detailed across the provided segments from TC 3-21.76 Ranger Handbook. To retain all information in a dense and organized format, I will use tables where applicable, followed by a narrative summary and a list of useful URLs. The information is consolidated to avoid redundancy while ensuring completeness.
[28]
[PDF] NUREG/CR-7201, "Characterizing Explosive Effects on ...
As of November 1999, you may electronically access. NUREG-series publications and other NRC records at. NRC's Library at www.nrc.gov/reading-rm.html.
[29]
[PDF] ^T^SZ- - OSTI.GOV
The Gurney method, which yields simple equations for evaluating the velocity of metals driven by detonating explosives in many geometries, is reviewed. The ...
[30]
[PDF] Transition from Deflagration to Detonation in Granular Explosives
Dec 13, 1972 · the other hand, Composition B appeared to produce a more vigorous reaction than did Explosive D since the tubes were split axially into two ...
[31]
[PDF] Calorimetric Determinations of the Heat and Products of Detonation ...
Apr 5, 1982 · Table 17« Heat and products of detonation of Composition B.a. Experimental conditions. Detonation. Charge density» g/crn^. 1.74. Percent of TMD.
[32]
The Microstructure Characteristics of RDX and Their Effect on the ...
Small particle compositions were made from Class 5 material where the RDX typically had an average particle size based on volume of 12–23 microns.
[33]
[PDF] AMMUNITION LOADING TECHNIQUES - DTIC
2. All standard present day melt-loaded explosives melt at a temperature of about 1760F {00oC). However, the optimum casting or loading ...
[34]
Microcomputed X-Ray Tomographic Imaging and Image Processing ...
Oct 12, 2020 · Microstructural characterization of composite high explosives (HEs) has become increasingly important over the last several decades in ...
[35]
[PDF] Determining the Density of Explosives Precisely - OSTI
Precise and accurate density determination requires weight measurements in air and water using sufficiently precise analytical balances, knowledge of the ...
[36]
Segmentation of RDX and TNT in X‐Ray Computed Tomography ...
Dec 20, 2024 · Comp B contains approximately 60% RDX and 40% TNT by weight, and Cyclotol contains 75% RDX and 25% TNT. RDX contains small amounts of HMX (1,3,5 ...
[37]
[PDF] the small-scale gap test (ssgt) at picatinny arsenal - DTIC
... MIL-STD-1751A Donor Composition A-5 RDX. Shock sensitivity. 16. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF: 17. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT. SAR. 18. NUMBER OF PAGES. 15 a. REPORT.
[38]
[PDF] DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE TEST METHOD STANDARD SAFETY ...
Aug 20, 1982 · Composition B, PBXN-9, or PBXN-109, that are used as the final ... larger kettles used in melt-casting operations. The various ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
[PDF] The Vacuum Thermal Stability Test for Explosives - DTIC
Oct 28, 1970 · Compatibility testing using the vacuum stability procedure and test equipment has been used for years to screen materials for specific explosive ...
[40]
Humidity control in explosive & munition manufacturing
Humidifiers and humidity control in the explosives, fireworks and munitions industry from Condair, the world's leading humidification specialist.Missing: TNT recrystallization
[41]
[PDF] American Ordnance LLC ) ASBCA No. 54718 ) Under Contract No ...
Dec 8, 1993 · Comp B in the manufacturing process, the 1955 study stated: [F]or TNT casts, temperatures below 65ºF. resulted in severe cracking due to ...
[42]
[PDF] ERDC/CRREL TR-06-13, Comparison of Explosives Residues from ...
Jun 13, 2006 · The M107 projectiles contain 6.99 kg of Composition B (Comp B) explosive, made up of 60% RDX, 39% TNT, and 1% plasticizer (wax). The RDX ...Missing: shells | Show results with:shells
[43]
[PDF] The Manhattan Project Nuclear Science and Technology ... - OSTI
Nov 16, 2021 · The implosion design of the Fat Man atomic bomb relied on precision-engineered high explosives (HE) to sym- metrically compress a solid ball of ...
[44]
Amm 105mm x617 TK L7 CN105F1 Mecar | PDF - Scribd
For use with 105mm tank guns - US M68, UK L7 and French CN105F1, to provide blast and fragmentation effect against equipment, structures and personnel.<|separator|>
[45]
Soldiers to get safer artillery rounds | Article | The United States Army
Apr 1, 2013 · Army and Marine Corps artillery units will be the first to receive IMX-101 deliveries next year, in the form of 155mm M795 artillery shells.
[46]
[PDF] COMPOSITION B4, A NON-EXUDING EXPLOSIVE FILLER ... - DTIC
B with 0.5% calcium silicate (except the 1% desensitizing wax is eliminated) can replace the currently standard Composition B, even though the Compo- sition ...
[47]
Artillery Ammunition
INSTRUCTOR NOTE: Discuss differences between TNT and Comp B, show HE fragmentation, composition B provides 4% more fragmentation. ... the 155mm Howitzer. SADARM, ...
[48]
https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA498789.pdf
[49]
[PDF] Can Re-Use of Demil Explosives and Propellants in Commercial ...
Aug 16, 1994 · Some modern commercial blasting agents such as ANFO are of an oxygen balanced ... Composition B, consisting of 40 % TNT and 60 % RDX, is the ...
[50]
Seismic signature of small underground chemical blasts linked to ...
Sep 16, 2015 · The small explosions studied by Stroujkova were fueled by either an ammonium nitrate and fuel oil combination or Composition B, an explosive mix ...
[51]
Extraction-based recovery of RDX from obsolete Composition B
Abstract. Recovery of explosives from obsolete ammunition has been considered an eco-friendly alternative to conventional dumping or detonation disposal methods ...
[52]
[PDF] LLNL Small-Scale Drop-Hammer Impact Sensitivity Test
Of the explosives listed in the previous section, PETN, RDX, and Comp B-3 are routinely used to calibrate the Drop Hammer machine. These materials cover ...
[53]
[PDF] RDX/Polyethylene Wax Compositions as Pressed Explosive, - DTIC
The low melting point of TNT (80.9°C [1]) has enabled Australian munitions to be filled with melt—cast TNT—based explosive compositions, which.
[54]
[PDF] BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY DESR 6055.09_DAFMAN91-201 ...
Jun 18, 2025 · This manual establishes Department of the Air Force (DAF) policy for explosives safety criteria, identifies hazards, and states safety ...
[55]
[PDF] Process Safety Management for Explosives and Pyrotechnics ...
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. “To assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women; by authorizing.Missing: appearance solubility
[56]
https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-49/subtitle-B/chapter-I/subchapter-C/part-173/subpart-C/section-173.52
[57]
49 CFR 173.52 -- Classification codes and compatibility groups of ...
Compatibility group letters are used to specify the controls for the transportation, and storage related thereto, of explosives and to prevent an increase in ...Missing: Composition metals copper
[58]
[PDF] Handbook on the Management of Ordnance and Explosives at ...
This handbook provides guidance to EPA staff. The document does not substitute for EPA's statutes or regulations, nor is it a regulation itself.Missing: shelf | Show results with:shelf
[59]
https://www.historynet.com/flaming-flattops/
[60]
Flaming Flattops: Deadly Fires Struck U.S. Aircraft Carriers - HistoryNet
Aug 19, 2020 · Planes blaze on the deck of USS Forrestal in July 1967. ... However, the degraded Composition B explosive in the old bombs had become unstable.
[61]
H-008-6 USS Forrestal Disaster
On 29 July 1967, Forrestal (CVA-59) experienced a severe fire while operating on Yankee Station off Vietnam that killed 134 Sailors and aviators, injured 161, ...Missing: degraded | Show results with:degraded
[62]
RG 156 - Office of Chief of Ordnance, Historical Reports - Holston ...
Sep 12, 2022 · Folder 6: December 1943- March 1944. ▫ Placing women in men's jobs as the war creates labor shortage. ▫ Explosions accidents shut down ...
[63]
[PDF] control of static electricity in industry - ISSEHS
Steps necessary to prevent accidents from static electricity in explosives manufacturing operations and storage areas vary considerably with the static ...
[64]
Characteristics of Composition B particles from blow-in ... - PubMed
We sampled residues from high-order and low-order blow-in-place detonations of mortars and projectiles filled with Composition B (Comp B), a TNT and RDX ...Missing: 1980s demilitarization moisture
[65]
[PDF] Insensitive Munitions and Ageing. - FOI
MNA depletion can be measured during propellant aging to estimate service-life [20]. ... Another alternative to Composition B is PBX formulations based on FOX-7, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Degradation of Dissolved RDX, NQ, and DNAN by Cathodic ...
Degradation of (a) RDX, (b) NQ, and (c) DNAN over time by alkaline hydrolysis within batch reactors at different pH. Data fits to pseudo-first order rate ...
[67]
[PDF] Base Hydrolysis Process for the Destruction of Energetic Materials
In FY 99, PM ACWA decided to conduct additional work to optimize the hydrolysis process for energetic materials, an intermediate processing step used to de- ...
[68]
Army and Air Force Insensitive Munition programs
On 20 August 1992, the Army issued an Insensitive Munitions Handbook70 covering such items as objectives, responsibilities, prioritization, technical approach, ...
[69]
[PDF] INSENSITIVE MUNITIONS (IM) TECHNOLOGIES AND ... - DTIC
“Technological advances in the design of explosive ordnance are making possible the development of a range of munitions termed Insensitive. Munitions (IM) or ...
[70]
[PDF] Some Properties of Australian Produced Explosive Composition H-6
Scanning electron and optical microscopes were used to determine the aluminium and RDX distribution in the TNT matrix while explosive stability was assessed ...
[71]
None
### Summary of IMX-101 Development and Properties
[72]
[PDF] Large Scale Manufacturing of Insensitive Explosive IMX-104 at ...
An insensitive melt-pour explosive to replace Composition. B for Mortar Applications. • IMX-104 and all starting ingredients manufactured at.
[73]
A Review on IMX‐101 and IMX‐104 Melt‐Cast Explosives
Aug 7, 2025 · IMX-101 and IMX-104 are novel insensitive melt-pour explosives developed and produced by BAE Systems at the Holston Army Ammunition Plant (HSAAP).