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Eye liner

Eyeliner is a cosmetic product applied around the contours of the eyes to define their shape, enhance the appearance of the lashes, and draw attention to the eye area.^[1] It is typically available in various formulations, including pencil, liquid, gel, and felt-tip varieties, each offering different levels of precision and longevity for aesthetic enhancement.^[2] Originally derived from natural pigments, modern eyeliners come in a wide range of colors and finishes, from classic black to metallic or glitter-infused shades, and are formulated with ingredients selected to minimize microbial growth while adhering to safety standards.^[1] The use of eyeliner dates back thousands of years, with its earliest known applications in ancient Egypt around 3000 BCE, where it was crafted from kohl—a black powder made from minerals such as galena, soot, and manganese oxide—to line the eyes of both men and women.^[3] In Egyptian culture, kohl eyeliner served multiple purposes beyond aesthetics, including protection from the harsh desert sun's glare, warding off the "evil eye," and providing medicinal benefits for eye health.^[4] This practice spread across regions like Mesopotamia and ancient India, evolving into traditional forms known as surma or kajal in South Asia and the Middle East, often referenced in religious texts such as those in Islam for daily use by figures like the Prophet Muhammad to promote eye hygiene and spiritual observance.^[5] Throughout history, eyeliner's popularity waxed and waned across cultures; it declined in Europe following the fall of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages due to associations with decadence, only to resurge in the 20th century as a symbol of bold femininity in Western fashion, popularized by icons like silent film stars in the 1920s and the dramatic winged looks of the 1960s.^[4] Today, eyeliner remains a staple in global cosmetics, valued for its versatility in creating everything from subtle enhancements to dramatic statements, though regulatory bodies like the FDA prohibit traditional lead-containing variants such as kohl in commercial products due to health risks.^[6] Its enduring appeal underscores its role as both a practical tool for eye definition and a marker of cultural identity and self-expression.^[5]

History

Ancient Origins

The earliest known use of eyeliner traces back to ancient Egypt around 4000 BCE, where it was formulated as kohl from naturally occurring minerals such as galena (lead sulfide) for black pigment and malachite (copper carbonate) for green, often mixed with binders like burnt almonds or animal fat to create a paste.^[7]^[8] This application served dual purposes beyond aesthetics: the dark lining reduced sun glare on the eyes in the harsh desert environment, while its antimicrobial properties from galena helped ward off infections like trachoma, a common ailment in the Nile Valley.^[9]^[10] In parallel, similar practices emerged in ancient Mesopotamia and India by the third millennium BCE, where soot-based formulations were applied as daily and ritualistic adornments. Mesopotamians mixed soot with oils or resins to outline the eyes, enhancing expressiveness in both men and women during religious ceremonies and social interactions.^[11] In ancient India, surma—derived from lampblack soot or antimony sulfide—was used similarly for eye definition, believed to promote eye health and spiritual clarity in Vedic rituals.^[12]^[13] Egyptian eyeliner application was a widespread cultural norm encompassing both men and women across social classes, symbolizing vitality, status, and divine favor from gods like Horus, whose eye motif represented protection and wholeness.^[14]^[15] Elaborate lines extending to the temples were achieved using tools such as bronze rods or carved ivory applicators, often stored in ornate cosmetic palettes depicting animals like fish or gazelles.^[16]^[8] By the Greco-Roman period (circa 800 BCE–500 CE), these mineral-based eyeliners evolved with regional adaptations, as Greek and Roman women incorporated soot mixed with antimony for subtler darkening, marking an early shift toward refined, less mineral-heavy blends influenced by trade and Hellenistic aesthetics.^[17]^[18]

Modern Developments

The commercialization of eyeliner in the Western world accelerated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as the burgeoning cosmetics industry shifted from homemade recipes to mass-produced products, driven by advances in manufacturing and the rise of advertising.^[19] By the 1920s, eyeliner gained widespread popularity through Hollywood's influence, with silent film stars and flappers adopting dramatic dark lines to emulate ancient Egyptian aesthetics popularized in films like the 1917 Cleopatra starring Theda Bara, who used heavy kohl-inspired liner to define her eyes.^[20] This era marked eyeliner's integration into mainstream beauty standards, emphasizing bold, elongated eye shapes that symbolized modernity and rebellion against Victorian restraint.^[21] From the 1920s through the 1960s, eyeliner's prominence surged further, fueled by cinematic icons and shifting fashion. Hollywood glamour in the 1930s and 1940s refined the look with precise wingtips, while the 1950s saw softer, almond-shaped lines inspired by stars like Elizabeth Taylor.^[22] The 1960s mod era elevated eyeliner to iconic status through models like Twiggy, whose exaggerated, graphic black lines paired with long lashes defined the youthful, doll-like aesthetic of London's swinging scene.^[23] During this decade, liquid eyeliners emerged as a key innovation, allowing for smoother, more dramatic applications that aligned with the era's bold experimentation.^[24] Brands like Maybelline played a pivotal role in the 1960s by developing felt-tip and liquid applicators, which provided unprecedented precision and ease for creating sharp, defined lines—revolutionizing everyday use and making eyeliner accessible beyond professional makeup artists.^[22] In the 1970s and 1980s, subcultures reshaped eyeliner's image, with punk and goth movements embracing smudged kohl for a raw, rebellious vibe; figures like Siouxsie Sioux of Siouxsie and the Banshees popularized thick, uneven black rims around the eyes, blending Victorian influences with post-punk defiance.^[25] This aesthetic challenged polished beauty norms, using eyeliner as a tool for self-expression and anti-establishment identity.^[26] The 2000s saw eyeliner transcend traditional gender boundaries with the rise of "guyliner," a term coined to describe men's use of the product, popularized by musicians like David Bowie—whose androgynous Ziggy Stardust persona from the 1970s laid early groundwork—and Johnny Depp, whose heavily lined eyes as Captain Jack Sparrow in the 2003 Pirates of the Caribbean film normalized it in mainstream pop culture.^[27] Depp's off-screen adoption further challenged norms, sparking discussions on masculinity and beauty.^[28] Post-2010, social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok democratized eyeliner trends, amplifying graphic and colorful variations that moved beyond black monochrome. Influencers and viral challenges in the 2010s and 2020s promoted bold designs—such as geometric shapes, neon hues, and asymmetrical wings—turning eyeliner into a canvas for creativity and inclusivity, with Gen Z favoring vibrant, experimental looks over classic subtlety.^[29] By 2025, these digital-driven styles had solidified eyeliner's role in diverse beauty expressions, from festival-ready multicolored flicks to everyday artistic statements.^[30]

Formulation and Types

Chemical Composition

Eyeliner formulations typically consist of a blend of waxes, oils, and pigments that provide structure, smoothness, and color, with waxes comprising a significant portion of the solid content to ensure durability and ease of application. Common waxes include beeswax (Cera alba) for its emollient properties and binding ability, and Japan wax (derived from the fruit of the wax tree, Toxicodendron succedaneum) or its synthetic equivalents, which contribute to the product's firmness and resistance to smearing. Oils such as castor oil (Ricinus communis seed oil) are incorporated to enhance creaminess and glide during application, preventing the formula from feeling dry or dragging on the skin. Pigments like iron oxides (CI 77491, CI 77492, CI 77499) provide opaque black, brown, or metallic shades, while ultramarines (sodium aluminum sulfosilicates) offer vibrant blues and violets, all selected for their stability and non-reactive nature on ocular skin.^[31]^[32]^[33] Binders such as stearic acid, a saturated fatty acid derived from vegetable or animal sources, help emulsify and stabilize the mixture, ensuring even distribution of pigments and preventing separation over time. Preservatives like parabens (e.g., methylparaben, propylparaben) are added in low concentrations to inhibit bacterial and fungal growth, extending shelf life and maintaining product integrity without compromising texture; however, as of 2025, many formulations use paraben-free alternatives such as phenoxyethanol due to consumer preferences for clean beauty and concerns over endocrine disruption. These components collectively contribute to the eyeliner's longevity on the skin, with stearic acid also aiding in moisture retention to avoid cracking. Vegan variants often substitute animal-derived waxes like beeswax with plant-based options such as candelilla or carnauba wax.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37] In waterproof variants, silicones such as dimethicone (a polydimethylsiloxane) form a hydrophobic film that repels water and sweat, enhancing wear time while providing a silky, non-greasy finish. This silicone layer integrates with the base waxes and oils, improving adhesion without altering the formula's overall flexibility.^[38]^[39] Historically, traditional eyeliners like kohl relied on lead sulfide for intense black pigmentation, but modern formulations have shifted to safer synthetic dyes approved by regulatory bodies, such as FD&C colors (e.g., FD&C Black No. 2), to eliminate toxicity risks while preserving vibrancy. This transition prioritizes eye safety and compliance with standards from agencies like the FDA.^[6] To minimize irritation around the sensitive eye area, eyeliner formulations are balanced to a pH range of typically 6.0 to 8.0, aligning closely with the tear film's natural pH to reduce stinging or inflammation.^[40]^[41]

Physical Types

Eyeliners are categorized by their physical form and delivery method, which influence their ease of application, precision, and finish on the skin. Common forms include pencils, liquids, gels or creams, and traditional kohl or powders, each suited to different levels of control and blending. These variations allow users to achieve effects ranging from subtle definition to dramatic lines, with usability differences stemming from texture and applicator design.^[42] Pencil eyeliners consist of a solid, retractable or sharpenable stick, often encased in wood or plastic, making them portable and straightforward to use. They typically feature a wax-based formula that glides smoothly and allows for easy smudging along the lash line or waterline, rendering them ideal for beginners seeking versatile, everyday application. Traditional pencils provide moderate precision for lining the upper or lower lids, while kohl variants offer a softer, creamier texture for more diffuse effects.^[43]^[42] Liquid eyeliners are housed in a bottle or pen with a fine brush or felt-tip applicator, delivering a fluid pigment that dries quickly to form sharp, defined lines. This form excels in creating precise wings or graphic styles due to its controlled flow, though it requires a steady hand to avoid smudges during application. The quick-drying nature prevents bleeding but can make corrections challenging once set.^[44]^[42] Gel and cream eyeliners are semi-solid products stored in small pots or jars, applied using a separate angled brush for customizable thickness. Their creamy consistency blends effortlessly for smoky or diffused looks, offering a balance of precision and forgiveness compared to liquids, and they adhere well for long wear. These are particularly user-friendly for achieving even coverage without tugging the skin.^[43]^[45] Kohl eyeliners trace back to ancient formulations and appear as soft, malleable sticks or loose powders, often applied with fingers or brushes for intense, matte black lines. The powder form provides a subtle, buildable intensity suitable for natural enhancement, while stick versions allow for bold, smudgeable application in cultural or traditional makeup practices. Both deliver a velvety texture that emphasizes the eyes with minimal fallout when used sparingly.^[43]^[42] Specialized variants across these forms incorporate shimmer or metallic particles to add reflective effects, enhancing dimension and sparkle for evening or artistic looks. These finishes, available in pencils, liquids, or gels, reflect light to create luminous lines without altering the core physical structure.^[44]^[45]

Application Techniques

Basic Methods

Before applying eyeliner, proper preparation of the skin and eye area is essential to ensure the product adheres smoothly and lasts throughout the day. Begin by cleansing the face to remove any oils or residues, followed by priming the eyelids with a lightweight eye primer or a thin layer of foundation to create a smooth base that prevents creasing and enhances longevity. This step is particularly important for oily skin types, as it helps the liner stay in place without smudging. The core technique for drawing the eyeliner involves starting from the inner corner of the upper eyelid and working toward the outer corner in short, controlled strokes to maintain precision and avoid wobbling. Use varying pressure with the applicator: light for thinner lines near the inner corner and firmer for thicker lines toward the outer edge, which creates a natural wing or tapered effect. For beginners, connecting a series of small dashes along the lash line before filling them in can simplify the process and reduce errors. Application differs between the upper and lower lids to achieve balanced definition without overwhelming the eye. On the upper lid, a thin, even line along the lash line enhances the eyes' shape and makes lashes appear fuller, typically extending slightly beyond the outer corner for subtle emphasis. In contrast, the lower lid requires a subtler approach—apply a fine line only on the outer third or along the waterline to add depth, avoiding full coverage to prevent a heavy or aging appearance. Removing eyeliner, especially waterproof varieties, demands gentle yet effective methods to avoid irritating the delicate eye area. Oil-based removers or micellar waters formulated for eye makeup work best, as they break down the product's water-resistant polymers without excessive rubbing; soak a cotton pad with the remover, hold it against the lid for 10-20 seconds, then wipe away gently. For non-waterproof liners, a simple oil-free makeup remover suffices, but always follow with a cleanser to prevent residue buildup. Common mistakes in basic application include uneven lines due to shaky hands or inconsistent pressure, which can be corrected by using a cotton swab dipped in makeup remover to erase and redraw sections precisely. Another frequent error is applying liner over unprimed skin, leading to quick fading; to fix minor smudges without full removal, dab concealer along the edges with a small brush for seamless blending. Practicing on the hand first can help build steady technique and minimize these issues during actual application.

Tools and Accessories

Various applicators facilitate precise and hygienic eyeliner application. Angled brushes, often with synthetic bristles, are particularly suited for gel eyeliners, enabling controlled strokes to create sharp wings or defined lines along the lash line.^[46] Disposable wands, typically made of plastic with fine tips, are used with liquid eyeliners to prevent bacterial contamination by replacing the original applicator after each use.^[47] Pencil eyeliners require regular maintenance with specialized cosmetic sharpeners to achieve a fine point for accurate application. These tools feature stainless steel blades calibrated for softer cosmetic formulas, reducing breakage compared to standard office sharpeners, and often include adjustable sizes for slim or jumbo pencils along with shavings collectors.^[48]^[49] Setting products enhance eyeliner longevity by securing the product against movement. Translucent powders, applied lightly with a small brush over the lined area, absorb excess oil and create a matte barrier to minimize smudging, while setting sprays provide a flexible, all-over lock that extends wear without altering the line's appearance.^[50] Proper storage solutions maintain eyeliner efficacy by protecting against environmental degradation. Store in a cool, dry environment away from direct sunlight, heat, and humidity to prevent formula separation, drying out, or bacterial proliferation in pencils and pots.^[51] Hygiene tools support clean and refined eyeliner results. Q-tips, dipped in makeup remover or micellar water, enable targeted corrections for smudges near the lash line without disturbing the overall application. Lash curlers, used prior to lining, lift and separate lashes to provide a smooth base that enhances eyeliner visibility and precision.^[52]^[53]

Styles and Variations

Classic Styles

Classic styles of eyeliner emphasize timeless techniques that enhance the eyes' natural shape while creating dramatic or subtle effects, often drawing from mid-20th-century Hollywood glamour. These looks, such as the winged and cat eye, prioritize precision and balance, using liquid or pencil formulas for clean lines. Tightlining and smoky variations offer versatility for everyday or evening wear, building on basic application methods by focusing on specific aesthetic outcomes.^[54]^[55] Winged eyeliner features a sharp flick extending from the outer corner of the upper lash line, creating an uplifted appearance. To achieve it, start by drawing a thin line along the upper lashes, then create the wing by flicking upward from the outer corner at a 45-degree angle toward the eyebrow; the length should match the eye's shape for symmetry, such as shorter for almond eyes or longer for round ones to maintain balance. This technique, popularized in the mid-20th century, uses liquid eyeliner for precision and is ideal for most eye shapes when adjusted accordingly.^[56]^[54]^[57] The cat eye style extends the winged liner with a more elongated tail, mimicking a feline shape for a seductive, vintage allure. Inspired by 1950s icons like Audrey Hepburn, who wore subtle winged liner in films such as Breakfast at Tiffany's, it involves first lining the upper lash line, then connecting an angled flick at 45 degrees outward, elongating the tail slightly beyond the eye's corner for drama. Hepburn's makeup artist used liquid formulas to achieve this precise, almond-enhancing look, often paired with heavy mascara.^[58]^[56]^[58] Tightlining provides a subtle enhancement by applying liner directly to the base of the upper lash line, filling gaps between lashes without visible product on the skin. This technique exposes the waterline by gently lifting the lid, then uses short strokes of a waterproof pencil to deposit color, preventing smudging and creating fuller-looking lashes. Waterproof formulas are essential for longevity, especially for those with oily lids or during humid conditions.^[59]^[60]^[61] Smoky liner diffuses the line for a softer, blended effect, often layered with eyeshadow to add depth and intensity. Begin by applying a base line along the upper and lower lash lines, then use a smudging brush or fingertip to blend outward; layer matching eyeshadow tones, starting with a medium shade and building to darker ones, to create a gradient that fades into the crease. This method, suitable for beginners, achieves a sultry look without harsh edges.^[62]^[63]^[64] Historical icons like Elizabeth Taylor exemplified bold eyeliner in 1960s films, such as Cleopatra (1963), where she applied heavy, dramatic cat-eye lines herself to accentuate her violet eyes. Taylor's style shifted trends toward intense liner paired with bold shadows, influencing enduring glamorous aesthetics.^[65]^[66]

Permanent and Specialized Forms

Permanent eyeliner tattoos, also known as micropigmentation, involve the implantation of pigment into the dermal layer of the skin to create a long-lasting eyeliner effect, providing low-maintenance eye definition for individuals with busy lifestyles or dexterity challenges.^[67] The procedure typically lasts 1 to 3 years before fading, depending on skin type, sun exposure, and pigment quality, though touch-ups can extend its appearance up to 5 years.^[68] During the procedure, a topical anesthetic is applied to numb the eyelid area, minimizing discomfort.^[67] A specialized hand-held device or tattoo gun, equipped with a fine needle, punctures the skin hundreds of times per minute to deposit iron oxide-based pigment into the middle layer of the dermis, similar to the technique used in microblading for eyebrows.^[67] The process usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and patients can often return to normal activities immediately, though initial swelling and redness may persist for 2 to 7 days, requiring aftercare such as avoiding water exposure and applying ointments.^[68] Specialized forms of eyeliner extend beyond traditional applications to address specific needs or enhance temporary effects. Magnetic eyeliner incorporates iron oxide particles into a liquid formula, allowing magnetic false lashes to adhere directly without glue for a reusable, all-day hold that mimics enhanced liner definition.^[69] Augmented reality (AR)-enhanced eyeliner tools use AI-driven virtual try-on features via mobile apps, enabling users to preview various styles—such as cat eyes or subtle wings—in real-time on their face for temporary, non-committal experimentation before purchasing physical products.^[70] Hypoallergenic eyeliners, formulated without common irritants like talc or fragrances, cater to sensitive skin by providing smooth, long-wearing application that minimizes redness or itching, as seen in ophthalmologist-tested options from brands like Almay and Clinique.^[71] The primary advantages of permanent eyeliner include time-saving convenience, smudge-proof results, and benefits for those with allergies to conventional makeup or conditions like arthritis that hinder daily application.^[68] However, drawbacks encompass gradual fading requiring maintenance, potential color shifts over time, and risks of allergic reactions to pigments, which can be tested prior but may still occur.^[67] Specialized options like magnetic and AR variants offer pros such as ease of use and damage-free removal but cons including thicker formulas that are harder to apply precisely or dependency on technology for visualization.^[69] In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies permanent makeup inks, including those for eyeliner, as cosmetics rather than medical devices or procedures, regulating them under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act without premarket approval for injection use, though safety issues like contamination prompt warnings and recalls.^[72] This oversight emphasizes the importance of choosing licensed practitioners who follow sterile protocols to mitigate risks.^[72]

Cultural Significance

Fashion and Subcultures

In the punk and goth subcultures of the 1970s and 1980s, eyeliner served as a bold marker of rebellion and nonconformity, often applied in thick, smudged black lines to evoke a dramatic, otherworldly aesthetic. Pioneered by figures like Siouxsie Sioux of the post-punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees, this style featured heavy dark eyeliner that complemented kabuki-inspired makeup and back-combed hair, symbolizing defiance against mainstream norms during the era's cultural upheavals.^[73]^[74] The goth movement, emerging from punk's ashes in the late 1970s, amplified this look as a core element of its dark romanticism, with black eyeliner framing pale faces to project themes of melancholy and the macabre, influencing generations of youth seeking alternative identities.^[75]^[76] The emo subculture of the early 2000s built on these foundations, emphasizing emotional vulnerability through heavy, often smudged eyeliner that highlighted the under-eye area to convey introspection and raw sentiment. This style, characterized by thick black lines extending beneath the eyes, became synonymous with the scene's fashion, pairing with side-swept bangs and skinny jeans to express personal turmoil amid the post-hardcore music wave.^[77]^[78] Male participants, in particular, adopted "guyliner" as a staple, blurring gender lines and challenging traditional masculinity within the subculture's androgynous ethos.^[79] Eyeliner's role in promoting gender fluidity gained prominence in the 2000s rock scene and extended into K-pop post-2010, where male artists normalized its use as a tool for expressive, boundary-breaking personas. In rock, Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz popularized guyliner during the mid-2000s emo-pop explosion, wearing bold black lines onstage to embody vulnerability and androgyny, which mainstreamed the trend among young male fans.^[27] Similarly, K-pop idols from groups like BTS and EXO began incorporating eyeliner into everyday looks beyond performances, fostering a culture of fluid beauty standards that encouraged male grooming as self-expression rather than novelty.^[80] High fashion runways in the 2020s have reinterpreted eyeliner through bold, graphic applications, drawing from subcultural roots to push avant-garde boundaries. Designers like Alexander McQueen, under Sarah Burton's direction, have featured dramatic linear accents in recent collections, using stark black lines to enhance ethereal, narrative-driven silhouettes that echoed punk's rebellious edge while elevating it to couture artistry.^[81] This trend reflects a broader revival of experimental eye makeup on catwalks, where graphic eyeliner amplifies thematic storytelling in shows by Pat McGrath collaborators. As of 2025, runway trends continue this evolution with a revival of smudged and graphic styles in grunge glam and siren eyes, blending emo and goth influences into contemporary aesthetics.^[82] Social media platforms like Instagram have accelerated eyeliner's evolution in fashion subcultures by democratizing tutorials and viral trends, enabling rapid cycles of adoption and adaptation. User-generated content, such as winged and graphic liner challenges, has influenced youth aesthetics by blending subcultural staples—like emo's smudged under-eye—with contemporary twists, often garnering millions of views and shaping global beauty dialogues.^[83] Academic analyses highlight how these platforms perpetuate historical trends, such as 1960s-inspired wings, through accessible video content that empowers diverse creators to remix subcultural styles for modern expression.^[84]

Global and Historical Contexts

In Middle Eastern, African, and South Asian traditions, kohl or surma—a finely ground powder typically made from galena or antimony sulfide—has been applied around the eyes for millennia to ward off the evil eye and provide protection against environmental hazards like the sun's glare and insects. This practice holds deep cultural and spiritual significance, often extending to newborns and infants, where it is believed to safeguard their health and shield them from malevolent forces; for instance, in Indian and Pakistani communities, surma is ritually applied shortly after birth as a protective measure rooted in ancient customs. In regions like Saudi Arabia and parts of North Africa, its use is socially revered, sometimes exchanged as gifts during religious pilgrimages, underscoring its role in communal identity and ritual purity.^[85]^[86]^[12]^[13]^[87]^[88] Across East Asian cultures, eyeliner variations emphasize aesthetic ideals tied to grace and youthfulness. In Japan, geisha (geiko) traditionally apply bold, sharp black lines around the eyes using rice powder-based cosmetics and natural pigments, creating a dramatic, elongated effect that symbolizes artistry, discipline, and ethereal beauty; this style, with its winged extensions, dates back to the Edo period and serves as a performative element in cultural entertainment. In Korea, subtle enhancements to the aegyo-sal—the natural fatty pad beneath the lower eyelids—are a hallmark of modern beauty practices, where light shading or highlighting with soft liners accentuates a playful, doe-eyed innocence associated with aegyo (cuteness), reflecting broader societal values of youthful vitality and emotional expressiveness in daily and performative contexts.^[89]^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93] Indigenous North American peoples have long incorporated natural dyes into eye and face adornments for ceremonial and spiritual purposes, drawing from berries such as pokeweed or elderberry to produce vibrant reds and purples mixed with animal fats or clays for application. These paints, applied around the eyes to outline contours or symbolize visions, served to connect wearers to ancestral spirits, mark rites of passage, or invoke protection during rituals like vision quests or tribal gatherings, embodying harmony with the land and communal narratives.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97] European colonialism disrupted these indigenous practices worldwide, imposing Eurocentric standards that stigmatized traditional cosmetics as uncivilized or heathen, leading to forced suppression through missionary efforts and assimilation policies that erased cultural symbols like eye paints and kohl applications. In post-colonial periods, particularly from the late 20th century onward, communities in Africa, Asia, and the Americas have revived these rituals—such as Alaskan Indigenous women reclaiming chin tattoos or South Asian groups re-embracing surma—as forms of resistance and cultural sovereignty, transforming suppressed aesthetics into empowered expressions of heritage.^[98]^[99]^[100]^[101]^[102] Globalization in the 21st century has fostered hybrid eyeliner styles that blend non-Western traditions into multicultural beauty paradigms, with Bollywood's iconic winged kohl looks—characterized by thick, dramatic lines evoking both ancient surma and cinematic flair—influencing diaspora communities and international trends, as seen in fusion makeup among South Asian youth in the UK and US that merges Indian ritual elements with global pop aesthetics.^[103]^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107]

Health and Safety

Potential Risks

Allergic reactions to eyeliner preservatives, such as parabens, can manifest as skin sensitization leading to irritation, redness, swelling, intense itching, and urticated erythema, particularly around the eyes, lips, ears, and neck.^[108]^[109] These reactions occur due to contact with cosmetic ingredients that trigger immune responses in sensitive individuals.^[110] Bacterial infections from sharing eyeliner applicators pose significant risks, including the transmission of pathogens that cause styes or conjunctivitis. Styes develop from bacterial infections, often involving Staphylococcus, which block oil glands in the eyelids, resulting in painful, red bumps.^[111] Conjunctivitis, or pink eye, can spread through contaminated makeup, leading to inflammation, redness, and discharge, with creamy or liquid eyeliners serving as breeding grounds for bacteria if hygiene is poor.^[112]^[113] Permanent eyeliner procedures, such as tattoos, carry risks of scarring, pigment migration, and allergic reactions to inks. Scarring may result from procedural trauma or chronic inflammatory responses, while pigment migration involves the unintended spread of ink particles beyond the intended line, potentially causing blurred or uneven appearance.^[114] Allergic reactions to tattoo pigments can lead to dermatitis, granulomatous changes, or fibrosis, exacerbating ocular discomfort.^[115]^[116] Long-term use of waterproof eyeliner formulas can contribute to dry eyes by blocking meibomian glands, which produce essential oils for tear film stability, leading to evaporation issues and ocular surface irritation. Recent studies as of 2025 indicate that eye makeup use, including eyeliner, is a significant risk factor for meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD) in adolescents and young adults, particularly when applied frequently or not fully removed.^[117]^[118]^[119] Additionally, cheap imported eyeliners, particularly traditional varieties like kohl or kajal, often contain trace lead levels exceeding safety limits (e.g., up to 720,000 ppm in some samples versus the U.S. limit of 10 ppm), posing risks of systemic lead poisoning that affects the brain, heart, and other organs over time. Recent investigations as of 2024 have documented cases of elevated blood lead levels in families using surma, a traditional eyeliner, highlighting ongoing risks from contaminated products sold in the U.S.^[6]^[120]^[121] Studies show traditional eyeliners have median lead concentrations of 10 ppm, significantly higher than nontraditional products at 0.06 ppm.^[5] Contact lens wearers face heightened risks from eyeliner, including lens deposits, eye irritation, allergies, injury, and infections, as particles can adhere to lenses and compromise ocular health if not removed properly.^[122]^[123] Individuals with blepharitis are particularly vulnerable, as eyeliner can exacerbate eyelid inflammation, crusting, and bacterial overgrowth, potentially worsening the condition through contamination or allergic responses.^[124]^[125]

Safe Practices

To minimize health risks associated with eyeliner use, maintaining strict hygiene is essential. Always wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water before applying or removing eyeliner to prevent the transfer of bacteria to the eye area.^[112] Similarly, clean application tools such as brushes or sharpeners regularly; for pencil eyeliners, sharpen with a dedicated tool and wipe it clean after each use to avoid contamination.^[126] Never share eyeliner products or tools with others, as this can spread bacteria and increase the risk of infections like conjunctivitis.^[127] Replace eye makeup, including eyeliner, every three months, or sooner if it changes color, texture, or smell, to prevent bacterial growth.^[112] Before using a new eyeliner product, perform a patch test to check for allergic reactions. Apply a small amount to the inner forearm or behind the ear, then wait 24 to 48 hours while monitoring for redness, itching, or swelling; if no reaction occurs, it is generally safe to proceed.^[128] Introduce only one new product at a time to isolate potential allergens.^[112] Safe application techniques further reduce irritation. Apply eyeliner outside the lash line rather than on the inner waterline or rim, unless using a waterproof formula specifically designed for that area, to avoid blocking oil glands or scratching the cornea.^[112] Remove all eyeliner nightly using a gentle, oil-free cleanser or makeup remover, such as a micellar water or baby shampoo diluted with water, and rinse thoroughly to prevent residue buildup that could lead to clogged pores or infections.^[127] Avoid applying makeup in moving vehicles to prevent accidental injury from jostling.^[112] For permanent eyeliner procedures, also known as cosmetic tattooing, select a licensed and regulated artist operating in a facility that follows strict sterilization protocols to minimize infection risks from unsterile equipment.^[72] After the procedure, adhere to aftercare instructions, which typically include keeping the area clean and dry for the first 24-48 hours, applying prescribed ointments, and avoiding direct sun exposure, swimming, or makeup on the treated area for at least 7-10 days to promote healing and prevent complications.^[72] When selecting eyeliner products, choose those formulated specifically for the eye area and labeled as FDA-compliant, meaning they use only approved color additives and avoid prohibited ingredients like certain heavy metals found in traditional kohl.^[127] Look for hypoallergenic labels, which indicate the product is formulated to produce fewer allergic reactions compared to standard cosmetics, though this term is not strictly regulated by the FDA.^[129] Always check ingredient lists for known personal allergens and discontinue use if irritation occurs, consulting a healthcare provider as needed.^[127]

References

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Both men and women in the Nile Valley wore eyeliner that was made of ground minerals (usually galena or malachite), generically called kohl. Containers for kohl.
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Misusing cosmetics when you wear contacts can lead to problems, including: Deposits on the lens. Eye irritation. Allergy. Injury. Infection.
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