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Flagellin

Flagellin is the principal structural protein that constitutes the long, helical filament of bacterial flagella, serving as the primary component enabling motility in many prokaryotic organisms, particularly Gram-negative bacteria such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli.^[1]^[2]^[3] Composed of approximately 494 amino acids with a molecular weight of around 55 kDa, flagellin monomers feature a conserved four-domain architecture: the central D0 and D1 domains form a tubular core essential for polymerization, while the outer D2 and D3 domains, including a hypervariable central region, contribute to structural flexibility and antigenicity.^[1]^[2]^[3] In bacterial physiology, flagellin subunits self-assemble into a rigid, hollow helical filament up to 15 micrometers long, comprising roughly 30,000 monomers, which rotates as a propeller driven by a basal motor to facilitate swimming, tumbling, and chemotaxis through polymorphic supercoiling.^[1] The protein is exported in an unfolded state through a narrow central channel of the flagellar structure and polymerizes at the distal tip, often capped by accessory proteins like HAP2 to ensure proper growth and stability.^[1] Beyond motility, flagellin acts as a potent pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), recognized by the host immune system's Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) on epithelial and immune cells, primarily through its conserved D1 domain, triggering innate inflammatory responses via MyD88-dependent signaling pathways that activate NF-κB and produce cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-8.^[2]^[3] This dual role has positioned flagellin as a key virulence factor in bacterial pathogenesis while also highlighting its therapeutic potential as a vaccine adjuvant, enhancing both humoral and cellular immunity in applications against pathogens like influenza, malaria, and even tumors, with ongoing clinical trials demonstrating its efficacy in boosting Th1, Th2, and Th17 responses without excessive toxicity.^[2]^[3]

Overview

Definition and Discovery

Flagellin is the primary structural protein that constitutes the filamentous portion of bacterial flagella, serving as the globular subunit that assembles into a helical propeller-like structure essential for motility in many prokaryotes. Composed of approximately 500 amino acids with a molecular weight of 50-55 kDa, flagellin monomers polymerize in a head-to-tail manner to form the extracellular flagellar filament, which can extend up to several micrometers in length. This polymerization occurs specifically in flagellated bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella species, where flagellin subunits are exported through a dedicated secretion apparatus and added distally to elongate the filament.^[4]^[5] The discovery of flagellin traces back to early 20th-century investigations into bacterial motility, building on observations of flagella by Robert Koch in the late 19th century through microscopic imaging. In the 1930s and 1940s, Claes Weibull at Uppsala University pioneered the purification of flagellar filaments from Proteus vulgaris and Bacillus subtilis, isolating the protein component via mechanical shearing, acid dissociation, and ultracentrifugation, initially estimating its molecular weight at around 41 kDa. Weibull, in collaboration with William Astbury, performed the first X-ray diffraction analysis of intact flagella in 1949, revealing their helical architecture and leading to the formal naming of the protein as "flagellin" in 1955. Subsequent work in the 1950s by Henry Koffler at Purdue University corroborated these findings through further biochemical characterization.^[5]^[6]^[7] In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese researchers, including Sho Asakura and colleagues, advanced the understanding of flagellin through studies on Salmonella typhimurium, where they achieved the first in vitro polymerization of purified flagellin monomers into functional filaments under controlled pH and salt conditions, demonstrating the protein's self-assembly properties. These efforts established flagellin as a model for studying protein polymerization and bacterial ultrastructure. Evolutionarily, flagellin exhibits high conservation as a substrate of the type III secretion system (T3SS), which exports it across the bacterial membrane; this system underpins flagellar assembly in Gram-negative bacteria and analogous structures in some Gram-positive species, reflecting a shared ancestral origin across diverse prokaryotes.^[8]^[9]

General Functions

Flagellin serves as the primary structural subunit of the bacterial flagellar filament, enabling the rotation of this appendage by the basal body motor to generate propulsive force for locomotion. This motility is crucial for bacteria to navigate their environments, particularly through chemotaxis, where cells bias their movement toward favorable chemical gradients such as nutrients or away from harmful substances like toxins. In peritrichously flagellated bacteria like Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica, the coordinated bundling and rotation of multiple flagella, composed of polymerized flagellin, facilitate runs and tumbles that optimize directed migration.^[10]^[11] Beyond propulsion, flagellin contributes to bacterial adhesion and the initial stages of biofilm formation in diverse environments, including host tissues and abiotic surfaces. The flagellar filament, formed by flagellin polymerization, can directly interact with host mucus or extracellular matrices to promote attachment, as seen in pathogens like Clostridioides difficile, where flagellin-mediated adhesion to mucosal hydrogels enhances colonization. In species such as Vibrio vulnificus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, flagellin homologs or modifications facilitate surface sensing and irreversible binding, aiding the transition from planktonic to sessile lifestyles in biofilms. This dual role in motility and adhesion underscores flagellin's importance in environmental adaptation.^[12]^[13]^[14] Flagellin also plays a key role in bacterial phase variation, allowing switching between antigenically distinct forms to evade host defenses. In Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, phase variation alternates expression between two flagellin genes, fliC (phase 1, H1 antigen) and fljB (phase 2, H2 antigen), mediated by DNA inversion, which alters the exposed epitopes on the filament surface. This antigenic switching enables immune evasion by presenting novel flagellar antigens to the host, reducing recognition by antibodies and promoting persistent infection. The structural basis for such polymerization into variable filaments is detailed in the molecular structure section.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Molecular Structure

Primary and Domain Organization

Flagellin monomers are polypeptides typically ranging from 450 to 550 amino acids in length, with molecular weights varying between species, such as approximately 51 kDa for the FliC flagellin in Escherichia coli strain K12.^[4] The primary amino acid sequence features highly conserved N-terminal and C-terminal regions that flank a central hypervariable domain responsible for antigenic diversity. The N-terminal conserved segment encompasses about 180 residues, while the C-terminal conserved portion includes roughly 100 residues; these conserved areas are rich in hydrophobic residues that facilitate inter-subunit interactions during assembly.^[1] Structurally, the flagellin monomer is divided into four domains: D0, D1, D2, and D3, progressing from the inner core to the outer surface. The D0 domain, composed of the N-terminal segment (approximately residues 1–43) and the C-terminal segment (approximately residues 455–494), forms the innermost conserved core essential for polymerization into protofilaments. Adjacent to it, the D1 domain, comprising the N-terminal segment (residues approximately 44–176) and the C-terminal segment (approximately residues 406–454), contributes to the inner tube of the filament through alpha-helical interactions. The outer D2 and D3 domains (spanning the central hypervariable region) are exposed on the filament surface, exhibiting significant sequence variability across bacterial species and influencing serotype specificity. In solution, the flagellin monomer adopts a boomerang-shaped conformation, with the D0 and D1 domains forming an elongated arm and the D2/D3 domains curving outward.^[1] Post-translational modifications of flagellin are uncommon in most bacteria but occur in certain species, notably Pseudomonas aeruginosa, where the protein undergoes O-linked glycosylation. In P. aeruginosa strains expressing a-type flagellin (e.g., PAK), multiple heterogeneous glycans, including rhamnose-based structures, are attached to specific serine and threonine residues in the D3 domain, potentially modulating filament stability and host interactions. Similarly, b-type flagellin in strains like PAO1 is glycosylated with phospho-rhamnose moieties, adding up to 700 Da of mass. These modifications are encoded by a genomic island and are absent in non-glycosylating species like E. coli.^[18]^[19]

Filament Assembly and Polymorphism

The bacterial flagellar filament assembles through a self-polymerization process where flagellin monomers are exported from the cytoplasm via the type III secretion system (T3SS), which transports them through a narrow central channel approximately 2 nm in diameter. Upon reaching the distal tip of the growing filament, flagellin subunits polymerize unidirectionally, forming a helical structure composed of about 20,000 to 30,000 monomers arranged in 11 protofilaments. This results in a hollow tubular filament with a diameter of roughly 20 nm and a length that can extend up to 15 μm, capped at the tip by the FliD (HAP2) protein to prevent subunit leakage and facilitate ordered addition.^[1]^[20] Polymorphic transitions in the filament enable adaptive motility by allowing the structure to switch between distinct helical conformations, primarily a left-handed normal form (L-state) and a right-handed curly form (R-state). These changes occur through reversible conformational shifts in individual protofilaments, where subunits slide relative to one another, driven by interactions between the conserved terminal domains of adjacent flagellin molecules. In the L-state, protofilaments adopt a longer, gently tilted conformation forming an 11-start left-handed helix with a pitch of about 2.5 turns per 26 subunits, promoting smooth forward propulsion during "runs." Conversely, the R-state features shorter protofilaments with steeper tilts, resulting in a right-handed supercoil that induces tumbling for reorientation, a process triggered by reversal of the flagellar motor and modulated by environmental signals.^[21]^[20] The stability of the assembled filament relies on robust inter-subunit contacts primarily within the D0 and D1 domains, where hydrophobic interactions and α-helical coiled-coils form a rigid inner core, ensuring structural integrity across the 11-start, 5-start, and 16-start helical symmetries. These core interactions, covering an interfacial area of approximately 1900 Å² between subunits separated by +5 and +11 positions, provide mechanical strength to withstand hydrodynamic forces during rotation at up to 1000 Hz. The outer D2 and D3 domains, which are more exposed and flexible, contribute additional polar contacts but permit sequence variability, facilitating antigenic diversity without compromising overall filament cohesion.^[1]^[21]^[20]

Biosynthesis and Genetics

Gene Structure and Expression

In enteric bacteria such as Salmonella enterica, flagellin is primarily encoded by two genes: fliC, which produces phase 1 flagellin, and fljB, which encodes phase 2 flagellin, allowing for phase variation in flagellar antigen expression.^[22] In contrast, Escherichia coli possesses a single flagellin gene, fliC, responsible for all flagellin production.^[20] The flagellin genes are integrated into the bacterial chromosome as part of the flagellar gene clusters, which include the flg (flagellar rod), flh (flagellar motor), and fli (flagellar hook and filament) operons, often organized in pathogenicity island-like regions in species like Salmonella.^[23] Specifically, fliC is located within a class 3 operon, transcribed from promoters recognized by the alternative sigma factor σ²⁸ (encoded by fliA), which directs late-stage flagellar gene expression after the completion of basal structures.^[24] These promoters feature a conserved -10 and -35 consensus sequence tailored for σ²⁸-RNA polymerase binding, ensuring coordinated transcription of filament components.^[25] Flagellin expression occurs constitutively during motile phases, with cells producing tens of thousands of flagellin subunits per filament to assemble multiple flagella,^[1] and fliC transcription is temporally linked to the expression of upstream hook (fli) and basal body (flh) genes through the hierarchical flagellar regulon.^[26] While core operon architecture is conserved in Gram-negative bacteria, gene organization shows minor variations across species, such as the absence of phase 2 genes in non-Salmonella enterics.^[22]

Regulation and Variations Across Species

Flagellin production in bacteria is regulated through a hierarchical transcriptional cascade that ensures coordinated assembly of the flagellar structure. In many Gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica, the flagellar regulon is organized into three classes of genes. Class 1 genes, including the master regulator operon flhDC, are transcribed by the primary sigma factor σ⁷⁰ (RpoD). The FlhDC complex then activates class 2 genes, which encode components of the basal body, hook, and the flagellum-specific sigma factor σ²⁸ (FliA), often under σ⁷⁰ control. Class 3 genes, encompassing the flagellin structural genes like fliC, are transcribed by the σ²⁸-RNA polymerase holoenzyme, with the anti-sigma factor FlgM sequestering σ²⁸ until the hook is completed to prevent premature flagellin expression.^[27]^[28]^[24] In species like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the regulatory hierarchy incorporates the alternative sigma factor σ⁵⁴ (RpoN). Here, the enhancer-binding protein FleQ acts as a master regulator, activating σ⁵⁴-dependent transcription of class 2 genes involved in flagellar biosynthesis, including those for the motor and export apparatus, while also repressing certain genes in the absence of the signaling molecule cyclic di-GMP.^[29]^[30] FleQ's dual role as activator and repressor allows fine-tuned control of flagellin expression in response to cellular metabolic states.^[31] Flagellin expression is further modulated by environmental cues, including temperature and quorum sensing. In pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes, flagellar genes, including those encoding flagellin, are upregulated at lower environmental temperatures (22–30 °C) to promote motility and biofilm formation outside the host, while expression is repressed at mammalian body temperature (37 °C) to evade immune detection.^[20] Quorum sensing systems, such as the LuxS/AI-2 pathway in Vibrio cholerae, induce polar flagellar gene expression at high cell densities, enhancing swarming motility in dense populations.^[32] Variations in flagellin production and flagellar architecture occur across bacterial species, reflecting adaptations to diverse niches. Vibrio species, including V. cholerae, typically assemble a single sheathed polar flagellum using the FlaA flagellin, encoded by the flaA gene, which supports swimming in viscous aquatic environments.^[33] In contrast, Salmonella enterica exhibits peritrichous flagella, with 6–8 unsheathed flagella distributed across the cell surface, primarily composed of FliC (phase 1) or FljB (phase 2) flagellins encoded by the fliC and fljB genes, facilitating run-and-tumble motility in host tissues.^[34] Non-motile pathogens like Shigella species, such as S. flexneri, lack functional flagella due to mutations or deletions in key flagellar genes, including fliF and fliD, eliminating motility to prioritize intracellular invasion strategies.^[35] A notable regulatory variation is phase variation in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, where the bacterium alternates expression between fliC and fljB through site-specific DNA recombination. This process involves the Hin invertase protein catalyzing the inversion of a 995-bp DNA segment adjacent to the fliC promoter, switching it between an active orientation (expressing FliC) and an inactive one (expressing FljB from a separate operon).^[36] The phase variation occurs at frequencies of approximately $10^{-3} to $10^{-4} per cell per generation, enabling antigenic diversity that aids in immune evasion during infection.^[37]

Role in Bacterial Physiology

Motility and Chemotaxis

Flagellin forms the helical filaments of bacterial flagella, which enable motility through rotation driven by the flagellar motor. The motor harnesses the proton motive force across the inner membrane, with stator complexes composed of MotA and MotB proteins facilitating proton influx to generate torque. This powers counterclockwise (CCW) rotation of the flagellar filament at speeds of 100-300 Hz during forward swimming, known as "runs," propelling the bacterium smoothly. Clockwise (CW) reversal, triggered by signaling, causes filament polymorphism and bundling disruption, leading to random reorientation via "tumbles." The filament's polymorphic structure, as detailed in prior sections, supports this hydrodynamic propulsion without deforming the motor itself.^[38]^[39]^[40] Chemotaxis integrates flagellar motility with environmental sensing via the Che protein pathway, allowing directed navigation toward nutrients or away from toxins. Methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), such as Tar for aspartate, detect attractants through temporal sensing, comparing ligand concentrations over seconds rather than spatial gradients. Attractant binding inhibits autophosphorylation of CheA kinase, reducing transfer of phosphate to CheY, which decreases CW motor switching and extends run durations. Adaptation occurs via reversible methylation of MCP glutamates by CheR (methylation) and phosphorylated CheB (demethylation), restoring prestimulus activity levels to enable ongoing comparison. This modulates the run-tumble bias, favoring prolonged runs up to several seconds in favorable conditions.^[41]^[42]^[43] In Escherichia coli, this mechanism yields swimming speeds of up to 25 μm/s during runs, with a baseline run-tumble bias of approximately 90% run time in uniform conditions, enhancing net displacement toward attractants. Under optimal chemoattractant gradients, the bias shifts to over 90% run time, optimizing path efficiency while maintaining exploratory tumbles every 1-2 seconds. These dynamics underscore flagellin's role in precise, energy-efficient locomotion.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]

Virulence and Environmental Adaptation

Flagellin plays a critical role in bacterial virulence by facilitating adhesion and colonization of host tissues. In Helicobacter pylori, the primary constituent of flagellar filaments, flagellin enables motility that is essential for initial colonization of the gastric mucosa, allowing bacteria to navigate the viscous environment and reach attachment sites despite the lack of direct adhesive function by flagellin itself.^[48] This motility-dependent process enhances the pathogen's ability to establish persistent infection in the stomach lining. Similarly, in Salmonella enterica, flagellin promotes host cell invasion through motility that enables bacteria to contact intestinal epithelial cells, with flagellin expression required for efficient entry, as mutants lacking it exhibit drastically reduced rates into host cells.^[49]^[50] Beyond direct pathogenicity, flagellin contributes to environmental adaptation through its involvement in biofilm formation and surface motility. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, flagella composed of flagellin are vital for establishing biofilms in chronic infection sites, such as the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients, where they promote initial attachment and structural development of the biofilm matrix, thereby conferring resistance to antibiotics and host defenses.^[51] This role is particularly pronounced in chronic settings, where flagellar expression supports persistent colonization. Additionally, flagellin-driven flagella enable swarming motility on semisolid surfaces, allowing P. aeruginosa to rapidly expand across nutrient-limited environments and adapt to heterogeneous niches like mucosal surfaces or soil.^[52] Bacteria employing flagellin face adaptive trade-offs, balancing dispersal benefits against energetic costs. In the gut microbiota, flagella facilitate dispersal and colonization of new niches by enabling motile bacteria to resist peristaltic flow and access epithelial surfaces, promoting community diversity and pathogen spread within the intestinal ecosystem.^[53] However, during stationary growth phases under nutrient limitation, flagellar genes, including those encoding flagellin, are downregulated by regulators like the stationary-phase sigma factor RpoS to conserve energy, as continued motility becomes inefficient and flagella may even trigger unwanted immune detection.^[54] This regulation, often tied to broader genetic controls of expression, allows bacteria to prioritize survival over mobility when resources are scarce.^[54]

Host Immune Interactions

Recognition in Mammals

Flagellin is recognized by the mammalian immune system as a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) primarily through Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5), a pattern recognition receptor expressed on the surface of various cell types, including epithelial cells and dendritic cells. TLR5 specifically binds to conserved regions within the D0 and D1 domains of flagellin monomers or those exposed in flagellar filaments, initiating innate immune responses upon detection of bacterial flagella. This recognition is highly specific to bacterial flagellins, as eukaryotic cells lack flagellin, thereby distinguishing prokaryotic pathogens from host components. Upon binding, TLR5 dimerizes and recruits the adaptor protein MyD88, triggering a downstream signaling cascade that culminates in the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). This pathway leads to the transcription of proinflammatory genes, resulting in the production of cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), which promote Th1 and Th2 immune responses to combat infection. The MyD88-dependent nature of this signaling ensures robust activation of innate immunity, with studies in TLR5-deficient mice demonstrating impaired cytokine responses to flagellin.^[55] At the systemic level, high doses of flagellin can induce inflammatory responses, such as flu-like symptoms, through TLR5-mediated cytokine release, though it is generally less toxic than other PAMPs like LPS, highlighting its potent immunostimulatory effects.^[2] In the gastrointestinal tract, TLR5 signaling contributes to intestinal homeostasis by modulating the composition and localization of the gut microbiota, preventing dysbiosis and associated inflammatory conditions.^[56] Genetic variations in TLR5, such as the 392Stop polymorphism (rs5744168), result in a truncated, nonfunctional receptor that impairs flagellin sensing; this variant is negatively associated with Crohn's disease susceptibility, suggesting that reduced TLR5 activity may protect against chronic intestinal inflammation.^[57]

Recognition in Plants

In plants, bacterial flagellin is primarily recognized through the pattern recognition receptor FLAGELLIN-SENSING 2 (FLS2), a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase localized to the plasma membrane. FLS2 specifically binds the flg22 epitope, a conserved 22-amino-acid sequence from the N-terminal region of flagellin, initiating innate immune responses. This perception is crucial for pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), the first line of plant defense against bacterial pathogens. Upon flg22 binding, FLS2 rapidly heterodimerizes with the co-receptor BAK1 (BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE 1-ASSOCIATED RECEPTOR KINASE 1), another leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase, leading to reciprocal phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling. This complex formation triggers a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade, including MPK3 and MPK6, which phosphorylate transcription factors to induce defense gene expression, such as the pathogenesis-related gene PR1. Concurrently, the signaling pathway activates respiratory burst oxidase homolog D (RBOHD), resulting in a rapid burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that reinforces cell wall barriers and contributes to hypersensitive cell death. These events collectively restrict bacterial proliferation, as demonstrated in Arabidopsis thaliana where FLS2-mediated PTI limits infection by Pseudomonas syringae. The specificity of flagellin recognition by FLS2 exhibits evolutionary variation, with allelic differences in the flg22 epitope across bacterial strains influencing binding affinity and immune activation strength. For instance, certain Pseudomonas syringae flagellin variants harbor mutations in flg22 that reduce FLS2 activation, enabling partial evasion of PTI while maintaining bacterial motility. This receptor-ligand interaction in plants parallels the recognition of flagellin by Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) in mammals, highlighting conserved mechanisms in innate immunity across kingdoms. FLS2 orthologs are present in diverse plant species, underscoring the evolutionary conservation of flagellin sensing for broad-spectrum defense.

Biomedical Applications

Vaccine Adjuvants and Immunomodulation

Flagellin functions as a vaccine adjuvant by acting as an agonist for Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5), which triggers innate immune signaling to enhance antigen uptake and presentation by dendritic cells, thereby amplifying CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses and promoting both humoral and cellular immunity.^[58] This mechanism allows flagellin to boost antigen-specific immune responses without requiring additional adjuvants, as demonstrated in preclinical models where flagellin co-administration increased cytokine production and T-cell proliferation.^[58] In vaccine design, flagellin is often engineered as fusion proteins—such as chimeras linking bacterial, viral, or tumor antigens directly to its structure—to improve immunogenicity while reducing the toxicity of native flagellin through targeted modifications that preserve TLR5 binding.^[58] Clinical applications of flagellin as an adjuvant have advanced through Phase I and II trials, particularly for influenza and Salmonella vaccines. The VAX102 vaccine, a recombinant fusion of the influenza M2 ectodomain (M2e) with Salmonella typhimurium flagellin developed by VaxInnate in the 2000s, was tested in healthy adults via intramuscular administration at doses ranging from 0.03 to 10 μg. At 0.3 and 1.0 μg doses, it proved safe and well-tolerated, eliciting robust M2e-specific antibody responses (96% seroconversion after boosting, with geometric mean titers reaching 1.7 μg/mL) without significant interference from anti-flagellin immunity.^[59] For typhoid and invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella, a trivalent conjugate vaccine (TSVC) incorporating Vi polysaccharide and core-O polysaccharides linked to flagellin carrier proteins underwent Phase I evaluation in 2025, demonstrating strong immunogenicity across all components in 22 healthy adults, with flagellin eliciting responses in all high-dose recipients (12.5 μg) and antibody persistence beyond one year post-vaccination.^[60] Flagellin's adjuvant efficacy is dose-dependent, with effective responses observed at low microgram levels (0.3–10 μg), enabling potent enhancement of both systemic and mucosal immunity, as seen in intranasal and oral formulations that promote IgA production and T-cell activation at mucosal sites.^[59] A key challenge is its potential to induce excessive innate inflammation via TLR5 and NLRC4 pathways, leading to reactogenicity at higher doses; this has been mitigated through structural engineering, such as deletions or mutations in the immunogenic D2 and D3 domains, which reduce cytokine release (e.g., lower IL-6 and TNF-α) and anti-flagellin antibodies while retaining adjuvanticity through the conserved D0 and D1 domains essential for TLR5 agonism.^[61] These modifications support repeated dosing and broader clinical utility without compromising immune stimulation.^[61]

Therapeutic and Diagnostic Uses

Flagellin, through its activation of Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5), has been explored for therapeutic applications in modulating inflammation, particularly in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). As a TLR5 agonist, flagellin derivatives like CBLB502, a engineered Salmonella flagellin protein, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by protecting gut mucosal tissue and reducing colitis severity in preclinical models of ulcerative colitis.^[62] CBLB502 advanced to Phase Ib clinical trials in the 2010s as a radioprotectant, demonstrating safety and efficacy in mitigating radiation-induced intestinal injury via immune regulation and metabolic pathways.^[63] Additionally, flagellins from commensal bacteria, such as Roseburia intestinalis, ameliorate colitis by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines and enhancing epithelial barrier function in mouse models.^[64] Flagellin-derived peptides have shown promise in promoting wound healing by stimulating antimicrobial peptide production and epithelial repair. In corneal injury models, flagellin induces the expression of antimicrobial peptides like LL-37 and β-defensin-2, accelerating re-epithelialization and reducing inflammation without excessive immune activation.^[65] These peptides mimic flagellin's TLR5-binding domains, offering a targeted approach to enhance tissue regeneration in mucosal wounds. In diagnostics, anti-flagellin antibodies serve as serological markers for bacterial infections and autoimmune conditions. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) utilizing anti-flagellin antibodies detect Campylobacter jejuni infections with high specificity, identifying flagellin as a key immunogenic target in human serum responses.^[66] For Crohn's disease, elevated anti-flagellin IgG levels act as biomarkers, present in approximately 50% of patients and correlating with disease severity and complicated phenotypes.^[67]^[68] Emerging research focuses on engineered flagellins for advanced applications, including targeted drug delivery leveraging bacterial motility. Modified flagellar systems in engineered bacteria enable precise navigation to tumor sites, facilitating localized release of therapeutics while utilizing flagellin's adjuvant properties to modulate the microenvironment.^[69] In the 2020s, studies on non-immunogenic flagellin variants from gut microbiota, termed "silent flagellins," support microbiota engineering by evading host immune detection, allowing stable colonization and therapeutic modulation of dysbiotic communities without inflammation.^[70]

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A transcriptional activator, FleQ, regulates mucin adhesion and flagellar gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a cascade manner. J. Bacteriol. 179 ...
[32]
Regulation of polar flagellum genes is mediated by quorum sensing ...
Feb 20, 2007 · The expression of the σ70-dependent flhDC operon is controlled by numerous environmental cues besides QS, including temperature, osmolarity, pH ...
[33]
Analysis of the Polar Flagellar Gene System of Vibrio ... - NIH
The flaA, flaB, and flaD genes possessed upstream sequences resembling the consensus ς28-dependent flagellar promoter (TAAA n15 GCCGTTAA [17]), and ...
[34]
Structural and Functional Comparison of Salmonella Flagellar ... - NIH
Salmonella has two flagellin genes, fljB and fliC, and their expression is autonomously regulated to produce either FljB or FliC for filament formation at a ...
[35]
genetic defects that cause loss of flagella of Shigella boydii and ...
Loss of flagella in S. boydii appears to originate in some defect in the fliF operon. S. sonnei IID969 lacked the fliD gene and, in place of it, carried two ...
[36]
Flagellar Phase Variation in Salmonella enterica Is Mediated by a ...
Salmonella enterica has two antigenically distinct flagellin genes, fliC and fljB, that are alternatively expressed. The fljA gene is cotranscribed with fljB ...
[37]
Genetic analysis of the mechanism of the Salmonella phase ...
Phase variation, the alternation of expression of flagellar antigens H1 and H2, in Salmonella typhimurium is mediated by site specific inversion of a 995 bp ...<|separator|>
[38]
Mechanics of torque generation in the bacterial flagellar motor - PNAS
(Bottom) The lowering of the MotA loops exposes the protons in MotB to the cytoplasm, whereupon they are released. This results in a reset of the MotA loops, ...
[39]
The Dynamic Ion Motive Force Powering the Bacterial Flagellar Motor
Apr 12, 2021 · Flagellar rotation is driven by the ion-motive force (IMF), the electro-chemical potential difference built across the membrane during cellular respiration.
[40]
Speed of the bacterial flagellar motor near zero load ... - PNAS
Oct 16, 2017 · The bacterial flagellar motor (BFM) rotates hundreds of times per second to propel bacteria driven by an electrochemical ion gradient.
[41]
Modeling the chemotactic response of Escherichia coli to time ...
Sep 30, 2008 · We study how such signals are processed by Escherichia coli during chemotaxis by developing a general theoretical model based on receptor adaptation and ...
[42]
Attractants and repellents control demethylation of methylated ...
A group of methylated proteins, the methyl-accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCP), has been shown to play a central role in bacterial chemotaxis.
[43]
Importance of Multiple Methylation Sites in Escherichia coli ...
Bacteria navigate within inhomogeneous environments by temporally comparing concentrations of chemoeffectors over the course of a few seconds and biasing ...
[44]
Swimming speed of cell - Bacteria Escherichia coli - BNID 101793
"The rotation speed of the filaments within the bundle is over 100 Hz (cycles s^-1) (124) and generates a swimming speed of around 25µm s^-1 (10 body lengths s^ ...
[45]
Chemotactic adaptation kinetics of individual Escherichia coli cells
In the first method, the tumble bias was determined from a 10-second moving window by calculating the fraction of time the cell spent tumbling within the window ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[46]
Escherichia coli swimming is robust against variations in flagellar ...
Feb 11, 2014 · We find that a simple mathematical expression relates the cell's run/tumble bias to the number and average rotational state of its flagella.
[47]
Role of Flagella in the Pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori - PMC - NIH
Apr 26, 2017 · Its pathogenesis is attributed to colonization and virulence factors. The primary function of H. pylori flagella is to provide motility. We ...
[48]
Flagellin acting via TLR5 is the major activator of key signaling ...
Aug 23, 2004 · ... Salmonella. Flagellin expression was required for Salmonella invasion of host cells and it activated NF-κB via toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5).Missing: exploitation | Show results with:exploitation
[49]
Importance of flagella in acute and chronic Pseudomonas ...
Nov 8, 2018 · Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an environmental microorganism and a causative agent of diverse acute and chronic, biofilm-associated infections.
[50]
Swarming of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Is Dependent on Cell ... - NIH
Swarming in P. aeruginosa is induced on semisolid surfaces (0.5 to 0.7% agar) under conditions of nitrogen limitation and in response to certain amino acids.
[51]
Flagella at the Host-Microbe Interface: Key Functions Intersect ... - NIH
(A) Bacteria use flagellar motility to resist the flow of intestinal contents, maintaining their location within the host GI tract. In the case of Vibrio ...
[52]
Repression of Flagellar Genes in Exponential Phase by CsgD and ...
Here, we found that RpoS, the stationary sigma factor, indirectly represses the expression of flagellar genes during growth in both minimal and rich media. ...
[53]
Involvement of Toll-like receptor 5 in the recognition of flagellated ...
In this study we generated TLR5-deficient mice and investigated the role of TLR5 signaling in the detection of flagellin and antibacterial immune responses to ...Tlr5 Is Required For... · Role Of Tlr5 In Inflammatory... · Role Of Tlr5 Expression In...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[54]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3911157/
[55]
Dominant-negative TLR5 polymorphism reduces adaptive immune ...
Jan 26, 2006 · Dominant-negative TLR5 polymorphism reduces adaptive immune response to flagellin and negatively associates with Crohn's disease · Abstract.Missing: 392Stop | Show results with:392Stop
[56]
Flagellin as an Adjuvant: Cellular Mechanisms and Potential - PMC
TLR5 expression by non-DCs is not sufficient to stimulate a response in the absence of tlr5+/+CD11c+ cells. The markedly enhanced response to flagellin fusion ...Flagellin As An Adjuvant... · Table I. Recombinant... · Figure 1
[57]
Safety and immunogenicity of a recombinant M2e-flagellin influenza ...
Jul 18, 2011 · VAX102 was safe and induced high antibody levels to M2e at 0.3 and 1.0 μg doses. The TLR5 ligand, S. typhimurium flagellin, is a novel ...Missing: VaxInnate | Show results with:VaxInnate
[58]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3756556/
[59]
Structural engineering of flagellin as vaccine adjuvant
Jan 7, 2025 · Flagellin from S. typhimurium can be separated into four domains, D0, D1, D2, and D3, arranged in a boomerang-like structure [35]. The structure ...
[60]
CBLB502 administration protects gut mucosal tissue in ulcerative ...
CBLB502, a toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) agonist derived from Salmonella flagellin, exhibits anticancer and radioprotective activities via modulation of TLRs and ...
[61]
Entolimod as a radiation countermeasure for acute radiation syndrome
Apr 2, 2020 · A truncated form of this protein, known as CBLB502/entolimod, retains the radioprotective ability and stability of flagellin, but largely lacks ...Review · Efficacy In Large Animal... · Concluding Remarks
[62]
Roseburia intestinalis-derived flagellin ameliorates colitis by ...
The results demonstrated that R.I flagellin decreased colitis-associated disease activity index, colonic shortening and the pathological damage of the colon ...
[63]
Flagellin-Induced Corneal Antimicrobial Peptide Production and ...
Feb 26, 2010 · Effects of flagellin on wound healing were assessed in cultured porcine corneas. L94A (a site mutation in TLR5 binding region) flagellin and ...
[64]
Human antibody response to Campylobacter jejuni flagellin protein ...
An ELISA with an N-terminal synthetic peptide derived from the flagellin protein as antigen was not sensitive (60%) for detecting campylobacter infection but ...
[65]
Bacterial flagellin is a dominant antigen in Crohn disease - PMC - NIH
These results identify flagellins as a class of immunodominant antigens that stimulate pathogenic intestinal immune reactions in genetically diverse hosts.
[66]
Crohn's Patients and Healthy Infants Share Immunodominant B Cell ...
Aug 20, 2024 · Nearly half of patients with Crohn's disease exhibit an elevated level of serum immunoglobulin G response to flagellins expressed by the gut ...
[67]
Engineering bacteria as interactive cancer therapies - Science
Nov 24, 2022 · With increasing evidence that microbes colonize tumors, synthetic biology tools are being leveraged to repurpose bacteria as tumor-specific ...
[68]
Silent flagellin delivers insights into how gut bacteria evade the ...
Jan 18, 2023 · Their work addresses the long-standing question of how benign gut microbes evade the immune system and reshapes our understanding of how immune ...