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Flensing

Flensing is the process of stripping the blubber or skin from the carcass of a whale, seal, or similar marine mammal, primarily to extract oil and other valuable products during whaling operations.^[1] The term originates from the Danish word flense, first recorded in English in 1814, and traces back to Germanic roots meaning "to split" or "to splice," derived from the Proto-Indo-European *(s)plei-.^[2] Historically, flensing emerged as a key technique in the whaling industry during the 17th and 18th centuries, coinciding with the expansion of open-sea hunting for species like sperm whales, whose deep-water habitats necessitated onboard processing rather than shore-based methods.^[3] In early American whaling around Nantucket and New Bedford, it was often conducted ashore using specialized tools, contributing to the economic boom of the industry, which peaked in the mid-19th century with annual sales exceeding $11 million by 1853.^[4] By the 19th century, advancements allowed flensing at sea: whales were towed to ships or hauled onto decks tail-first, where teams of workers used large knives and spades to cut the blubber into horse-shaped pieces or long strips, separating it from the meat and bones.^[5] The process evolved significantly with the introduction of steam-powered factory ships in the early 20th century, particularly before World War I, enabling efficient, high-volume operations that minimized waste—blubber was rendered into oil via steam digesters, while meat and bones were processed into meal for fertilizers and animal feed.^[3] Whale oil from flensing was vital for lighting, lubrication, soap, and margarine production until the rise of petroleum and synthetic alternatives in the 20th century, leading to the decline of commercial whaling.^[5] As of 2025, flensing is primarily limited to regulated indigenous, scientific, and a small amount of commercial whaling in countries like Norway and Japan, following Iceland's halt to commercial whaling in 2025, despite the International Whaling Commission's moratorium on commercial whaling since 1986, reflecting ethical and conservation concerns over historical practices.^[3]

Terminology and Etymology

Origins of the Term

The term "flensing" originates from the Dutch verb flensen, meaning "to strip off" or "to cut flesh," which was adopted into English during the 17th century through interactions between English and Dutch whalers in the burgeoning Arctic whaling industry.^[1] Dutch dominance in early modern whaling, particularly in the Spitsbergen fisheries from the 1610s onward, facilitated the transmission of nautical terminology, including flensen, as English crews collaborated on techniques for processing large marine mammals.^[6] This borrowing reflects the broader linguistic exchange in European maritime trade during the Age of Sail, where specialized whaling vocabulary evolved from continental European roots to suit English-speaking operations.^[2] The first documented use of "flensing" in English appears in 1820, in William Scoresby's seminal work An Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History and Description of the Northern Whale-Fishery, where it describes the methodical removal of blubber from captured whales using specialized tools like blubber-spades. Scoresby, a veteran whaling captain and naturalist, employed the term to detail the process in the context of British Greenland fisheries, marking its integration into formal whaling literature amid the industry's expansion in the early 19th century. Prior to this, related forms may have circulated orally among sailors, but Scoresby's publication standardized its application in print. Regional variations of the term emerged in whaling dialects, such as "flench" and "flinch" (or "flinching"), particularly in the Shetland Islands, where Norse-influenced Scots preserved older phonetic forms tied to local shore-based whaling.^[7] In Shetland accounts from the 19th century, "flench" denoted the stripping of blubber from beached or hunted whales, adapting the Dutch-derived word to insular dialects amid the islands' role as a key outpost for British Arctic voyages.^[8] Over the 17th and 18th centuries, during the Age of Sail, "flensing" evolved from a general term for flaying or butchering large animals—rooted in broader European meat-processing practices—to a whale-specific application, driven by the demands of pelagic whaling where efficiency in blubber extraction was essential for oil production. This specialization coincided with technological shifts, such as the use of shipboard platforms for processing, distinguishing it from land-based butchery and embedding it firmly in global whaling lexicon by the early 1800s.

Key Terms and Variations

In whaling operations, flensing involves several specialized terms that describe the precise stages of separating blubber from the whale carcass, ensuring efficient processing for oil extraction. These terms, rooted in the practical needs of 19th-century whalemen, facilitate clear communication among crew during the labor-intensive cutting process. Understanding them is essential for grasping the technical aspects of traditional whaling. Regional variations in terminology reflect the distinct whaling traditions of different cultures. In Norwegian whaling, the process is often referred to as hvalflensning, emphasizing the stripping of blubber (flensning) from the whale (hval), a term derived from Old Norse practices of skinning marine mammals. In contrast, American whaling integrated flensing more closely with the subsequent "trying-out" phase, where blubber was rendered into oil aboard ship, leading to terms that blurred the lines between cutting and processing. Flensing must be distinguished from related post-capture processes: it specifically denotes the initial removal of blubber layers, whereas "mincing" refers to the finer chopping of blubber into thin slices for easier rendering, and "trying" (or "trying-out") is the boiling of that blubber to extract oil. These distinctions highlight flensing as the preparatory cutting stage, separate from the mechanical breakdown and chemical extraction that follow.

Core Glossary of Flensing Terms

Historical Context

Early Whaling Practices

Early whaling practices involving flensing, the process of stripping blubber from cetaceans, originated among indigenous communities and evolved through medieval European efforts, primarily targeting smaller species with rudimentary tools. Around 1000 AD, the Thule culture, ancestors of the modern Inuit, developed sophisticated techniques for hunting bowhead whales in Arctic waters using umiaks—large, open-skin boats—and harpoons made from bone, stone, or later iron.^[14] These hunters pursued whales in open water, thrusting multiple harpoons to secure the animal before towing it to shore or ice for flensing, where communities manually cut away blubber layers with stone or bone knives to yield oil for fuel, meat for sustenance, and bones for tools and shelter.^[14] Similarly, in the Basque region of the Iberian Peninsula, whalers from the 11th century onward exploited stranded right whales in the Bay of Biscay, initially processing them on beaches by manually stripping blubber with iron blades.^[15] This coastal method focused on small cetaceans and beached larger ones, emphasizing communal labor to separate the fatty integument for oil used in lighting and lubrication.^[16] Medieval European whaling in the Bay of Biscay built on Basque traditions, centering on right whales valued for their floatability after death, which facilitated beaching and manual flensing. Hunters used watchtowers to spot migrating whales and pursued them in slender rowboats called biscayennes, driving animals toward shore for clubbing or harpooning before stripping the carcass on the beach with large knives to remove long blubber strips.^[3] This process, documented from the 11th to 15th centuries, involved entire coastal communities in the labor-intensive task, yielding baleen for textiles and bones for construction, though overexploitation led to local depletions by the late medieval period.^[15] From the 16th to 18th centuries, European whaling shifted toward more mobile operations with improved harpoons, yet flensing remained rudimentary, often conducted alongside ships or on rudimentary shore setups without specialized vessels. Hand-thrown toggle harpoons, adapted from indigenous designs, secured whales for towing, after which crews used basic iron spades to cut blubber in horizontal and vertical incisions, peeling it away in manageable pieces for rendering into oil.^[3] These methods persisted in small-scale fleets targeting right and bowhead whales, relying on manual labor rather than mechanized tools.^[17] A pivotal development occurred in 1614 with the establishment of organized whaling stations in Spitsbergen by Dutch and English companies, introducing structured flensing crews to process bowhead whales efficiently. Following the discovery of rich grounds near Jan Mayen Island, shore stations featured platforms where teams of workers, often numbering in the hundreds seasonally, towed killed whales to land and systematically flensed them using coordinated knife work to maximize blubber yield for the burgeoning European oil trade.^[18] This marked the transition to semi-industrial operations, with crews dividing labor to cut, store, and try out blubber on-site.^[19]

19th-Century Developments

In the early 19th century, the American whaling industry experienced rapid expansion, particularly in sperm whaling, as fleets ventured into distant waters like the Pacific Ocean for longer voyages. Centered in ports such as New Bedford, the U.S. fleet grew from 10 vessels in 1815 to 36 by 1820, peaking at 329 ships in 1857 and employing approximately 50,000 men, with flensing conducted directly at sea by securing captured whales alongside the vessel and stripping their blubber using cutting spades and hooks from suspended wooden planks.^[20]^[21] British whaling fleets also contributed to this growth, mounting sperm whaling expeditions to regions including the North-West of Australia and Indonesian waters throughout the 1800s, often collaborating with or competing against American operations in global hunts.^[22] This shift to at-sea flensing, supported by basic tools like long knives, marked a departure from shore-based processing and accommodated the increasing scale of operations.^[4] A key innovation was the adoption of shipboard tryworks starting in the 1750s, brick furnaces equipped with iron pots installed on deck to render blubber into oil immediately after flensing, thereby extending voyage durations from months to years and reducing spoilage risks.^[4] Prior to this, blubber was often stored raw, but tryworks transformed whaling ships into floating factories, allowing crews to process catches efficiently amid the demands of deep-sea pursuits.^[20] Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick (1851) offers vivid accounts of 19th-century flensing, detailing crew roles such as mates like Starbuck and Stubb using spades to initiate cuts along the whale's body, harpooneers like Queequeg inserting blubber hooks to revolve the carcass, and the main crew heaving windlasses in unison to hoist the resulting strips aboard while fending off sharks.^[23] These descriptions underscore the coordinated labor and dangers involved, reflecting the hierarchical structure where officers directed the precise incisions and indigenous harpooneers handled the heavy lifting. The era's commercialization drove a surge in whale catches, rising from around 2,000 annually in the early 19th century to about 20,000 by mid-century, primarily by American and British fleets targeting sperm and right whales, which necessitated streamlined flensing protocols to maximize yields from each vessel.^[24] This intensification, evident in regional data like over 13,000 southern right whales taken around New Zealand and eastern Australia between 1827 and 1900, highlighted the industry's shift toward industrialized efficiency but also accelerated depletion pressures.^[25]

Traditional Techniques

Open-Boat Flensing Process

In traditional open-boat whaling, the flensing process, also known as "cutting-in," began immediately after a whale was killed and towed alongside the ship, typically on the starboard side, to prevent the vessel from listing under the weight of the blubber. The carcass was secured using heavy chains fastened around the flukes or tail, often supplemented by a wooden beam inserted through the lower jaw or head to keep it buoyant and positioned correctly beside the hull. This mooring was critical, as rough seas could cause the whale to swing violently, complicating the operation.^[26]^[27] The initial step involved severing the head, or "head case," to access valuable internal components. For sperm whales, the massive head—comprising up to one-third of the animal's length—was cut free and hoisted aboard using blocks and tackles attached to the mainmast, allowing crews to extract the waxy spermaceti from the case and junk. Right whales and other baleen species required removal of the upper jaw to retrieve the flexible baleen plates, while the rest of the head was often discarded or processed separately. Following decapitation, the chief mate, positioned on a staging platform suspended from the ship's side, made a deep incision with a long-handled blubber spade—typically 15 feet in length—between the eye socket and flipper to loosen the outer layer. A blubber hook was then inserted into this cut, and the crew hauled on tackles connected to the ship's windlass or capstan to peel away the first large strip of blubber, known as a "blanket piece," measuring about 5 feet wide, 15 feet long, and 10 to 20 inches thick, weighing up to a ton.^[26]^[28]^[27] Subsequent strips were removed in a spiral fashion from tail to head, with the crew making circumferential cuts through the blubber layer while rotating the carcass using additional tackles to expose new sections. This methodical stripping continued until the underlying flesh was reached, after which the tail flukes were severed and the remaining meat, bones, and offal discarded at sea. The entire flensing sequence relied on coordinated efforts from 20 to 30 crew members—virtually the full complement excluding the captain—who operated in teams: some wielded spades and knives from the staging, others managed the hauling gear, and a few processed the blubber below decks into smaller "horse pieces" for storage or rendering. Blocks and tackles, rigged from the mast and yardarms, were essential for flipping the massive carcass and lifting the heavy blanket pieces aboard without capsizing the boat or ship. The process typically lasted 1 to 3 hours per whale, though high winds, swells, or a particularly large specimen could extend it, demanding precision to avoid wasting valuable blubber.^[26]^[28]^[27]^[29] Safety risks were inherent to open-boat flensing, exacerbated by the blood-slicked decks, dangling tackles, and the sheer mass of falling blubber sections that could crush workers or knock them overboard. Crew members often balanced on narrow planks or the whale's slippery surface, heightening the chance of falls into shark-infested waters surrounding the carcass, where scavengers tore at the remains. Fatigue compounded these hazards during prolonged efforts in adverse weather, and historical logs record near-fatal incidents, such as captains slipping between the whale and ship during securing or cutting. One such account from the 19th century describes a captain nearly drowning after tumbling overboard amid the chaos of attaching chains, underscoring the perilous proximity of the operations. These dangers contributed to the high injury and mortality rates in whaling, as seen in broader perils like the 1820 sinking of the Essex, where crew survival hinged on navigating similar open-sea hazards post-attack.^[26]^[27]^[29]

Shore and Bay Whaling

Shore and bay whaling involved adapting flensing techniques to process whales directly on beaches or in protected coastal areas, where captured animals were towed to land for dissection rather than being handled at sea.^[30] In this method, whalers first struck the whale using open boats launched from shore stations, then secured lines to tow the carcass back to the beach, often navigating strong currents and swells over distances of several miles.^[12] Upon arrival, crews waited for low tide to beach the whale fully, allowing access to the underside for vertical incisions that exposed the blubber layer; scaffolds or elevated platforms were erected alongside the carcass to support workers as they made precise cuts with long-handled spades and knives, peeling off large blanket pieces of blubber in a systematic manner from head to tail.^[30] This land-based approach contrasted with open-boat flensing by enabling more stable footing and collaborative labor.^[12] Historical examples illustrate the scale and regional variations of these operations in the 19th century. In California, Portuguese-led stations at Monterey Bay targeted migrating gray whales starting around 1851, processing approximately 20 whales per season during peak years in the 1850s, yielding up to 800 barrels of oil annually per outfit through efficient beach flensing.^[30] Similarly, in Australia, shore stations at Twofold Bay, New South Wales, operated from 1828 onward, where crews towed southern right whales to sheltered bays for flensing on sandbars, supporting a fleet of up to 10 boats and contributing to the local economy through blubber rendering into oil and bone extraction.^[12] These sites exemplified how bay whaling leveraged coastal geography to sustain multi-decade industries.^[31] The primary advantages of shore and bay flensing stemmed from its logistical simplicity compared to pelagic methods. Land access facilitated the deployment of larger crews—often 20 to 30 men per station—for coordinated cutting and transport, while fixed try-pots on the beach or nearby platforms allowed immediate boiling of blubber into oil, minimizing spoilage during processing.^[30] This setup reduced reliance on shipboard storage and enabled year-round operations near migration routes, boosting yields in regions like California's Pacific coast where over 4,000 whales were flensed across 15 stations from 1854 to 1900.^[31] Despite these benefits, shore whaling faced significant challenges tied to environmental and temporal constraints. Tidal timing was critical, as high tides could prevent beaching and low tides risked stranding boats or incomplete processing, leading to operational delays and lost catches.^[12] In warmer climates, rapid carcass decomposition posed a severe issue, with blubber turning rancid within hours if not promptly rendered, contributing to the decline of Australian bay stations by the 1870s as overexploitation compounded inefficiencies and product waste. By the late 19th century, such factors, alongside whale population reductions, rendered many operations unprofitable, hastening the shift away from coastal flensing.^[31]

Pelagic Whaling

Pelagic whaling, conducted far from shore, relied on small, steam-powered catcher boats launched from larger mother ships to pursue, kill, and initially process whales at sea. After harpooning and lancing the whale, the crew towed the carcass alongside the kills ship, where flensing began immediately to prevent sinking or loss to sharks. Crews positioned boats or portable cutting stages near the floating body, using long-bladed knives to make circumferential and longitudinal cuts, dividing the blubber into large, manageable sections known as horse pieces from the lower body and blanket pieces from the upper torso. These sections were hooked and hoisted aboard or sometimes towed separately to reduce the load on the boats, prioritizing efficiency given the limited space and manpower on the vessels.^[32]^[33] The historical peak of this method occurred from the 1860s to the 1910s, when Norwegian fleets ventured into Antarctic waters to target abundant populations of blue whales, the largest species and a prime source of high-quality oil. Norwegian whalers, building on Svend Foyn's 1860s innovations like the explosive harpoon and steam-powered catchers, established pelagic operations that processed thousands of rorquals annually in southern oceans, with Antarctic expeditions intensifying by the 1890s. This era saw pelagic flensing evolve to handle the massive scale of blue whales, up to 100 feet long, though constrained by boat mobility and weather.^[32]^[33]^[34] Innovations in the 1880s included the widespread adoption of mincing knives on whaling boats, specialized tools with broad, serrated blades that sliced blubber strips into thinner pieces without penetrating the skin, significantly reducing bulk for easier towing and storage aboard the cramped vessels. This allowed crews to process more efficiently during extended pelagic hunts, minimizing waste and adapting to the demands of far-off whaling grounds.^[13] However, the open-sea environment posed severe risks, particularly in rough Antarctic waters where storms could interrupt flensing and lead to incomplete processing. Early 1900s accounts describe crews struggling against high swells, with blubber sections breaking free or sinking during gales, resulting in substantial losses—sometimes entire carcasses were abandoned to prevent boat capsizing. The combination of powered mobility and unpredictable seas often forced rushed cuts, heightening dangers like falls from stages or crushing between the whale and ship.^[29]^[32]

Modern Methods

Factory Ship Innovations

The introduction of factory ships in the 1920s revolutionized pelagic whaling by enabling on-board processing of whales at sea, eliminating the need for shore stations and allowing operations in remote areas like the Antarctic. Norwegian engineers pioneered the stern-slipway design, first successfully implemented in 1925 on the Lancing, a converted whale catcher that featured a ramp at the ship's stern for hauling carcasses directly onto the deck.^[35] This innovation was refined in purpose-built vessels such as the Kosmos and Vikingen by 1928, incorporating reinforced decks and slipways with a gentle slope to facilitate the towing of large whales weighing up to 100 tons.^[35] These designs marked a shift from earlier towing methods, where whales were floated alongside ships, to integrated floating factories capable of immediate flensing and product extraction. The flensing process on factory ships combined manual skill with mechanical aids for efficiency. Once hauled up the slipway using powerful steam winches and steel cables attached to tail grabs (hval klo), the whale was positioned on the deck, where the chief flenser initiated cuts with specialized long-handled knives to strip blubber in wide strips.^[3] Winches and capstans then pulled the blubber sections away, while additional mechanized systems, including conveyor belts and steam-driven cutters introduced in the 1930s, accelerated the separation of meat, bone, and organs.^[36] Blubber was fed into on-deck digesters for oil extraction, and the entire operation allowed a single ship to process up to 10-15 whales per day during peak activity, depending on species size and crew coordination.^[37] This mechanized approach reduced processing time from days to hours per whale, enabling fleets to sustain high-volume operations far from land. Factory ship innovations peaked during Antarctic expeditions following the 1925 breakthrough, with operations expanding rapidly in the Southern Ocean's summer seasons. By the 1930s, fleets supported by 41 factory ships and over 200 catcher boats harvested approximately 40,000 whales annually in Antarctic waters, primarily blue and fin whales, driving industrial-scale production of oil, meat meal, and fertilizers.^[34] These expeditions, often departing from bases like South Georgia, relied on the ships' self-sufficiency, including onboard refrigeration and fuel processing, to sustain months-long voyages.^[35] The scale of factory ship whaling began to decline after the 1960s due to International Whaling Commission (IWC) quotas aimed at preventing stock depletion. Established in 1946, the IWC imposed initial limits, but escalating catches prompted stricter measures by the mid-1960s, including blue whale sanctuaries in 1966 and reduced allocations that curtailed pelagic operations.^[38] By the 1970s, quotas had halved Antarctic catches from their 1960s peak, leading to the decommissioning of many factory ships and a broader shift toward regulated, smaller-scale whaling.^[38]

Contemporary Shore-Based Operations

Contemporary shore-based flensing operations occur primarily in a few countries under strict international regulations, focusing on small-scale, quota-limited hunting of species like minke whales. In Norway, commercial whaling targets North Atlantic minke whales within its exclusive economic zone, with catches processed at land-based stations after being towed ashore by catcher boats.^[39] Similarly, Japan conducts coastal whaling for minke, Bryde's, and sei whales near its shores, where carcasses are hauled to dedicated landing stations for butchering and distribution; in 2024, Japan launched the new factory ship Kangei Maru to support expanded commercial operations within its waters.^[40]^[41] These operations emphasize efficiency and resource use, contrasting with the high-volume pelagic methods of the past. As of 2025, Norway continues commercial whaling under its objection to the IWC moratorium, while Iceland, which previously operated under a reservation, has canceled its whaling season for economic reasons.^[42] The 1986 International Whaling Commission (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling includes exceptions for aboriginal subsistence whaling to meet cultural and nutritional needs of indigenous communities, without profit motives.^[43] For instance, Alaskan Inuit communities in the United States conduct subsistence hunts for bowhead whales under IWC-allocated strike quotas, with processing at coastal sites using traditional and modern tools to strip blubber and meat.^[44] Japan withdrew from the IWC in 2019 to resume unrestricted commercial hunts within its waters.^[39] In modern shore-based flensing, whale carcasses are towed to stations using powered vessels, often within 20 miles of the coast, and winched onto platforms via slipways for processing.^[45] Workers employ specialized knives to peel blubber in systematic cuts, separating it from meat and bone, with the entire carcass handled mechanically to minimize labor intensity compared to historical hand-powered methods.^[46] Since the 1980s, stations have incorporated updated winching systems for safer carcass elevation, though core flensing remains manual to preserve meat quality.^[47] A notable example is the grindadráp in the Faroe Islands, a community-driven pilot whale hunt not regulated by the IWC, where pods are driven ashore and flensed collectively using spinal lances and knives to sever necks and remove blubber.^[48] Annual catches average around 700 long-finned pilot whales, distributed equally among participants from nearby communities, fostering social cohesion through shared labor in beaching, killing, and processing. This tradition, dating back centuries, involves all able-bodied locals and emphasizes rapid handling to ensure fresh products.^[49] Post-2000 sustainability efforts in regulated whaling prioritize full carcass utilization to reduce waste and align with environmental standards, such as Japan's Blue Whale Unit system that incentivizes processing all parts into meat, oil, and meal.^[50] Norwegian operations similarly convert nearly the entire animal, with byproducts used for animal feed and fertilizers, supporting claims of ecological responsibility under monitored quotas.^[51] In aboriginal contexts like Greenland's minke hunts, communities aim for zero-waste processing, integrating traditional knowledge with quotas to maintain stock health.^[52]

Tools and Equipment

Blubber Knives and Cutting Tools

Blubber spades, the primary cutting tools in traditional whaling flensing, typically featured long wooden poles measuring 12 to 13 feet attached to iron or steel blades about 9 to 13 inches long and 4 to 5 inches wide, allowing whalers to slice thick strips of blubber from the carcass while standing on the deck or boat.^[53] These spades, often weighing between 5 and 12 pounds depending on design, were sharpened on one or both edges for efficient separation of the blubber layer from underlying flesh.^[54] In 19th-century American whaling, such as operations out of Nantucket and New Bedford, these tools were essential for the open-boat process, where crews cut blanket pieces of blubber directly from the floating whale.^[55] Specialized variants included the head spade, a heavier implement with a robust blade up to 10 inches long and 3.5 inches wide, designed for severing tough bones and extracting oil-rich cases from the whale's head.^[56] The horse knife, a broad, double-edged blade around 30 inches long mounted on a short handle, was used for secondary cuts to divide larger blubber strips, known as horse pieces, into smaller segments for processing. Other variants, like the sliver spade with a wider 6- to 8-inch blade, facilitated finer slicing and decapitation tasks during flensing.^[53] Material evolution in blubber knives and spades reflected advancements in metallurgy, shifting from wrought iron blades with wooden handles in the pre-1850s era to more durable cast steel alloys by the mid-19th century, improving edge retention and reducing breakage under the strain of cutting thick blubber layers.^[53] This transition, evident in tools from the 1850s onward, enhanced efficiency in industrial-scale whaling.^[56] Iconic examples of Nantucket-style blubber knives, characterized by their lunate blades and heavy iron construction, are preserved in whaling museums and exemplify 19th-century craftsmanship from the peak of American whaling.^[54] These artifacts, often forged in New England foundries, highlight the tool's role in transforming whales into valuable oil and byproducts.

Supporting Gear and Safety Measures

In 19th-century whaling, supporting gear for flensing primarily consisted of blocks, tackles, and ropes designed to secure and manipulate the whale carcass alongside the ship, enabling the efficient removal of blubber. The cutting tackle, a key component, featured a lower block strapped with multiple ropes and equipped with a shackled blubber hook inserted into a grommet for gripping blubber sections; this was connected via additional ropes to upper blocks suspended from the mainmast, allowing crews to hoist heavy "horse pieces" of blubber—often weighing hundreds of pounds—using the ship's windlass or capstan for mechanical advantage.^[57]^[28] Chains supplemented these systems in some operations, particularly for anchoring the tail or stabilizing larger sections during pelvic whaling. Hemp ropes formed the backbone of this equipment, with specialized whale lines lubricated for pliability and capable of sustaining a tensile load of approximately 6,000 pounds to handle the immense forces involved in carcass positioning.^[58]^[59] Safety measures during flensing evolved in response to the inherently hazardous nature of the work, where crews faced frequent risks of severe injury. Decks became treacherously slick with blood, oil, and seawater, leading to slips and falls; workers were also vulnerable to deep lacerations from sharp cutting tools, crushing by dislodged blubber chunks, and scalding from boiling oil in adjacent tryworks.^[33] In traditional open-boat and shore-based operations, minimal protective protocols existed, relying on crew experience and basic ship features like deck railings to prevent overboard falls, though injuries remained commonplace across voyages. By the 1920s, the advent of factory ships introduced more structured safeguards, including reinforced deck railings around flensing platforms to contain movements and reduce slip hazards during high-volume processing.^[33] Historical adaptations addressed environmental challenges, such as low visibility in Arctic whaling grounds during the 18th century, where crews occasionally performed nighttime or twilight flensing using whale oil lanterns to illuminate the carcass and tools amid prolonged darkness.^[60] Incident data from the mid-20th century underscores the persistence of risks; for instance, 1940s records from Antarctic factory ship operations document numerous crew injuries from slips and cuts during flensing, prompting enhanced deck grating and non-slip surfacing to improve traction. In modern, limited whaling contexts—such as indigenous subsistence hunts—personal protective equipment like non-slip boots and safety harnesses has become standard post-1950s, drawing from broader maritime regulations to mitigate falls and cuts on wet processing areas.^[33]

Cultural and Economic Impact

Role in Whaling Economies

Flensing played a pivotal role in the profitability of whaling economies by enabling the efficient extraction of blubber, the primary commodity driving the industry. Blubber, rendered into oil, served as a key illuminant for lamps, a lubricant for machinery, and a base for soaps and other products, with a single whale typically yielding 30-50 barrels of oil depending on species and size.^[61]^[62] In the mid-19th century, this output fueled a booming U.S. industry that peaked at approximately $11-12 million in annual value during the 1840s and 1850s, ranking it among the nation's top economic sectors.^[63]^[64] The labor-intensive nature of flensing contributed to high operational costs but also incentivized skilled participation through premium compensation structures. Whaling crews operated on a "lay" system of profit-sharing rather than fixed wages, where flensers—as highly skilled workers responsible for precise blubber removal—received larger shares than ordinary seamen, often equivalent to 1/100 to 1/120 of voyage proceeds compared to 1/150-1/200 for sailors.^[65] For a typical four-year voyage yielding $50,000 in net oil sales, this could translate to $400-500 total for a flenser versus $250-300 for a common sailor, reflecting the premium for their expertise despite the risks involved.^[66] In key ports like New Bedford, Massachusetts—the epicenter of American whaling—flensing supported massive annual outputs that underscored the process's economic scale. By the early 1850s, the port's fleet produced over 300,000 barrels of whale oil yearly from flensed carcasses, accounting for roughly half of the global catch and generating wholesale values exceeding $10 million in peak seasons.^[67]^[64] In modern contexts, flensing remains integral to limited quota whaling operations, particularly for byproducts like omega-3-rich blubber used in supplements and traditional foods. Since the 1990s, indigenous subsistence hunts—such as those for bowhead whales in Alaska—and limited commercial hunts in objecting nations like Norway and Japan have leveraged blubber's high EPA and DHA content for health products, providing nutritional and economic value in subsistence economies while adhering to international quotas. In 2025, Iceland canceled its commercial whaling season due to economic unviability from declining demand and surplus unsold meat, signaling further challenges for the practice.^[68]^[69]^[70]

Legacy in Literature and Culture

Flensing, the process of stripping blubber from whale carcasses, has left a profound mark on literature, particularly through Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851). In Chapter 67, "Cutting In," Melville offers a detailed and graphic depiction of the flensing operation aboard the whaling ship Pequod, describing the crew's use of sharp tools to methodically peel away layers of blubber amid the blood-soaked deck, emphasizing the labor-intensive and visceral nature of the task.^[23] This chapter's vivid imagery not only serves as a technical exposition but also symbolizes the dehumanizing grind of industrial whaling, influencing 20th-century novels that grapple with themes of exploitation and the sea's harsh realities, such as Peter Matthiessen's Far Tortuga (1975), which echoes Melville's blend of adventure and ecological introspection.^[71] In visual art, flensing scenes captured the imagination of 19th-century American printmakers, notably Currier & Ives, whose lithographs romanticized yet realistically portrayed whaling's dangers and routines. Their 1863 print The Whale Fishery: Attacking a "Right Whale" --and "Cutting In" illustrates the transition from harpooning to flensing, showing crews balanced on the whale's floating body as they slice into the blubber with long knives, highlighting the perilous teamwork involved.^[72] These engravings, widely circulated in homes and taverns, helped embed flensing as a symbol of American maritime prowess and the untamed ocean in popular culture. Norwegian cultural practices post-1900 have preserved flensing's legacy through museum-based traditions tied to the nation's whaling heritage. In Sandefjord, the Whaling Museum (Hvalfangstmuseet) features the restored hvalbåt Southern Actor, the last surviving whale catcher from the pelagic era, and hosts events that reenact elements of whaling operations, including demonstrations of historical processing techniques like flensing to educate on Norway's role in global whaling.^[73] These activities, emerging after the industry's peak around 1905, foster a sense of cultural continuity amid declining practices. In modern media, flensing's ethical implications have been scrutinized in documentaries addressing marine mammal hunts. The 2009 film The Cove, directed by Louie Psihoyos, exposes the Taiji dolphin drive in Japan, where captured animals are slaughtered and processed in a hidden cove, evoking flensing's brutality through hidden footage of the bloodied waters and ethical debates over such traditions.^[74] This Oscar-winning work has amplified global discussions on the moral costs of whaling-related practices, influencing activist narratives in environmental cinema.

References

[1]
FLENSE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
verb ˈflen(t)s flensed; flensing transitive verb : to strip of blubber or skin flense a whale Examples of flense in a Sentence
[2]
Flense - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
"Flench," from Danish "flense" (1814), means cutting or splitting, linked to Germanic words like "flint," from PIE root *(s)plei- meaning "to splice, split.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[3]
A history of whaling | National Science and Media Museum
Feb 10, 2022 · Hunting sperm whales changed the nature of whaling: expeditions became longer and whales could be flensed onboard.Ancient whaling · Whaling for profit: The open sea · Whaling for profit: Modern times
[4]
The History of Whaling in America | American Experience - PBS
For hundreds of years, whale oil lit up the world and powered industry. Explore a timeline of major events.
[5]
Whaling spade – Works – collections.sea.museum/
HistoryAfter killing the whale the first processing task was to strip off the valuable oil-producing blubber which lay beneath the skin (flensing). Early ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
FLENSE definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary
C19: from Danish flense; related to Dutch flensen ... flense in American English. (flɛns ). verb transitiveWord forms: flensed, ˈflensingOrigin: < Du vlensen or ...
[7]
FLENSE Definition & Meaning - Dictionary.com
verb (used with object) flensed, flensing. to strip the blubber or the skin from (a whale, seal, etc.). to strip off (blubber or skin).
[8]
WHALE HUNI'ING IN THE SHETLANDS. - jstor
and by their receiver handed over to the finders to "flench". This they did easily enough as to the upper parts; but having no possibility of turning the ...
[9]
A Glossary of Whaling Terms - Clifford W. Ashley
### Extracted Terms Related to Flensing, Blubber Processing, Cutting Terms, and Definitions
[10]
[PDF] GLOSSARY OF WHALING TERMS, - Cincinnati Digital Library
Blanket Piece, As the whale is being flensed, the spademen stand on the cutting in stage and slice the blubber as it is being hauled on board.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[11]
[PDF] The Technology of Whaling in Australian Waters in the 19th Century
The large 'blanket pieces' were cut into 'horse pieces', strips 15 inches long by 4 inches wide, using a flensing knife or a boat spade. The term 'horse piece'.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[12]
Whaler's Mincing Knife | National Museum of American History
Cut in this fashion, the sections of whale blubber and skin were known as “bible leaves” because they resembled the pages of a book. Object Name: mincing-knife.Missing: making junk
[13]
Prehistoric Inuit whalers affected Arctic freshwater ecosystems - PMC
Whaling was carried out in open water, with one or more umiaks pursuing a whale. Once adjacent to the whale, one or more harpoons were thrust into the animal.
[14]
(PDF) A review of old Basque whaling and its effect on the right ...
Aug 6, 2025 · A review of old Basque whaling and its effect on the right whales of the North Atlantic. Authors: Alex Aguilar at University of Barcelona.
[15]
A history of whaling in the Basque country - World Cetacean Alliance
Apr 11, 2023 · To begin with, hunting consisted of driving the whales towards shore to force them to beach. Then, little by little, sailors started hunting ...
[16]
Harpoons - Robert Hellman Whaling Collection
The whaling harpoon, or “iron” as it was called by the men who used it, was little more than a huge fishhook. Its purpose was to fasten and hold the “fish” ...
[17]
Industrial Whaling in the Arctic and Antarctic (Chapter 16)
Mar 24, 2023 · Figure 16.1 Historical whaling stations in Spitsbergen. After the Dutch discovery of the Arctic island of Jan Mayen in 1614, Dutch whaling ...
[18]
Whaling - Svalbard Museum
The dead whale was towed ashore or alongside the ship, where the crew would flense it, cutting loose long strips of blubber. On land, these strips were cut ...
[19]
Yankee Whaling - New Bedford Whaling Museum
Decline of Yankee Whaling. Beginning in the 1860s the American whaling industry suffered a gradual decline. Decade by decade, the value of whale oil dwindled ...Missing: 1800-1860 | Show results with:1800-1860
[20]
British Sperm Whaling Activity to the North-West of Australia and in ...
Feb 20, 2022 · Charts over 1450 sperm whale sightings. The data comprises 970 British sightings extracted from the logs of 14 British whaling voyages covering ...
[21]
Moby Dick; or The Whale | Project Gutenberg
Below is a merged summary of the flensing process and crew roles in *Moby-Dick*, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into tables in CSV format where appropriate, while retaining narrative summaries for broader context. The response includes all details from the segments, with references to relevant chapters and URLs.
[22]
Two Intense Decades of 19th Century Whaling Precipitated Rapid ...
Apr 1, 2014 · To convert the oil and baleen data reported in those sources to numbers of whales, one whale was estimated to have produced 4.18 tuns of black ...
[23]
Whaling The Old Way | National Endowment for the Humanities
A new American Experience documentary by Ric Burns, is alive with the all-or-nothing ethos of the nineteenth-century whaleman.
[24]
The Real Story of the Whaler: Whaling, Past and Present by A. Hyatt ...
This book has been written to give a true and unvarnished idea of the whalemen's lives, their adventures and hardships, the means by which their quarry was ...
[25]
Flensing Whales - Doric Columns - WordPress.com
Flensing: The Blubber was cut from the Whales in Strips (“Making off” or “Cutting in”). This usually took place at Sea. The British Greenland Whalers ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[26]
Cutting In and Trying Out — Silas J. Costello
Aug 11, 2023 · As the head was being managed, the blanket pieces would be lowered below decks to the blubber room to be cut into smaller chunks (horse pieces) ...Missing: flensing definition
[27]
[PDF] Fish Bulletin No. 6. A history of California shore whaling - eScholarship
The whales were taken from small boats, stripped of their blubber (flensed) while 'alongside' of the ship, and the body cast adrift. The oil was tried out and ...
[28]
California shore whaling 1854 to 1900 - ScholarWorks
Jan 1, 2021 · California shore whaling 1854 to 1900. More than 4,000 whales, chiefly gray and humpback, were killed by men operating from fifteen stations ...
[29]
[PDF] Whales and Whaling - National Bureau of Economic Research
Later in the nineteenth century, Americans hunted the eastern regions more regularly. Whaling for bowheads in the Western Arctic began in 1848 and continued ...
[30]
Whales and Hunting - New Bedford Whaling Museum
The harpoon, known to crews as the “whale iron,” was used to fasten the whale to the whaleboat, rather than to kill it. It was designed to penetrate blubber and ...<|separator|>
[31]
[PDF] A Summary of Industrial Whaling Catches in the 20th Century
ABSTRACT—Late 19th century tech- nological advances for capturing whales, when combined with the expansion of pro- cessing capabilities in the early 20th cen-.
[32]
The Factory Ship - Whaler's Memory Bank
A breakthrough occurred in 1925 with the Lancing, which featured a successful stern slipway design. ... Whaling factory ship Southern Harvester. Source ...
[33]
Naval Gazing Main/Merchant Ships - Whaling
Jan 17, 2021 · The wounded whale would then flee, dragging the boat with it, a process known as a Nantucket sleighride, which could reach over 20 kts and was ...
[34]
The Shore Station - Whaler's Memory Bank - South Georgia Museum
... whaling factory and the fleet of whale catchers. Stores supervision also ... At Grytviken, up to 30 whales could be processed daily, involving butchers ...
[35]
RISE AND FALL OF WORLD WHALING: The Tragedy of the ... - jstor
The sharp decline in the 1960s was caused partially by increasingly stringent quotas imposed by IWC. A barrel of oil is 170 kg. or about 1/6 of a long ton ...
[36]
Commercial Whaling - International Whaling Commission
The IWC is responsible for setting catch limits for commercial whaling (with the exceptions of Norway and Iceland under an objection and reservation to the ...
[37]
Whaling in Japan - Whale & Dolphin Conservation USA
Japan resumed commercial whaling in July 2019 to hunt minke, Bryde's and sei whales. Other hunts also take place in the North Pacific and it previously ...
[38]
Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling in the Arctic
Aboriginal subsistence whaling does not seek to maximise catches or profit. It is entirely separate to commercial whaling and not subject to the moratorium.
[39]
Description of the USA Aboriginal Subsistence Hunt: Alaska
Subsistence whaling is a way of life for the Inupiat and Siberian Yupik people who inhabit the Western and Northern coasts of Alaska.
[40]
[PDF] Japan's Small-type Coastal Whaling
An average hunt takes about 13 hours, with the vessels nearly always returning to port each night. Minkes are usually taken within 20 miles from shore. Before ...
[41]
[PDF] Japanese Whaling Culture; Continuities and Diversities
These involved, firstly, bringing the whale from the sea onto shore by means of a handpowered winch (rokuro) which was then used to strip the blubber from the ...
[42]
[PDF] Modern Whaling - National Bureau of Economic Research
When the factory ship and its catchers moved into a hunting area, the catchers would bring whales to the mother ship, where they would be processed alongside.
[43]
Ritual Slaughter: The Tradition of Pilot Whale Hunting on the Faroe ...
The entire hunt lasted 5 h; the actual process of killing 98 animals-−12 min. First, the leader of the pod is killed (the female leader, given the matrilinear ...
[44]
Whaling in the Faroe Islands - Wikipedia
Each year, an average of around 700 long-finned pilot whales are caught, alongside varying numbers of Atlantic white-sided dolphins.
[45]
450 Years of Statistics - - whaling.fo
The numbers show that since 1584 there have been almost 2000 pilot whale catches. Of these, 67 % have occurred between July and September.
[46]
[PDF] Lifting the International Whaling Commission's Moratorium on ...
whale, the BWU system incentivized the use of the whole carcass and reduced the amount of waste. This system was somewhat successful, as it resulted in the.Missing: minimization | Show results with:minimization
[47]
https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c8288/c8288.pdf
[48]
[PDF] WHITE PAPER ON MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF LARGE ...
The document includes: ▫ A brief review of our long whaling history. ▫ An update of the current status of the stocks of large whales found around Greenland. ▫ A ...
[49]
Spades - Whalecraft.net
Blade is 7-5/8" wide, 13-1/2" long, 3/16" thick, overall length is 21". Bottom: Sliver spade on short pole for use in blubber room. Blade is 8" wide, 9-1/2" ...Missing: dimensions | Show results with:dimensions
[50]
Blubber spade – Works – collections.sea.museum/
A blubber spade was used to cut flesh from the blubber of whales, and was an important tool in the whaling industry.Missing: materials | Show results with:materials
[51]
flensing knife – Collection - eMuseum
Institutional Credit LineCourtesy of the New Bedford Whaling Museum. DescriptionAn unmarked Norwegian-style hand flensing knife with a lunate blade, a heavy ...
[52]
Spades - Whalesite
The broadest of all spades was the sliver spade, which had a blade six to eight inches wide It was used primarily in decapitating a whale during the cutting-in ...Missing: dimensions materials
[53]
Cutting-tackle used in "cutting in" the whale. - Whalesite
Dec 26, 2022 · The cutting-tackle uses a blubber hook to direct the hook into the blubber, and the cutting-falls lead to the windlass.Missing: flensing gear
[54]
Harpoons - Whalesite
Three types of hand-darted harpoons were basic to the whaling industry: the two-flued iron, the single-flued iron, and the toggle iron. The two-flued irons and ...
[55]
The whale fishery and its appliances - James Temple Brown - 1883
May 23, 2025 · The best cast steel is used for the heads, and wrought iron for the sockets and shanks. About thirty cutting-spades without poles are included ...
[56]
Whale Ships and Whaling A Pictorial History of Whaling ... - Whalesite
Try-works were erected on the beach and the blubber, after being sliced and minced, was "tryed out" and the oil barrelled for later shipment to Boston. After ...
[57]
Sperm Whale Oil - Petroleum History Institute
The blubber can be as much as 18 inches thick on the shoulder and back. About 25 to 40 barrels of whale oil could be had from a sperm whale in the average ...
[58]
Ask a Nineteenth-Century Whaling Expert - Crooked Timber
Jan 31, 2005 · A whaling expedition would be a success if a crew of 40 men captured the oil from 40 whales in 48 months. Each whale produced about 40-50 barrels of oil.Missing: factory | Show results with:factory
[59]
The Golden Age of Whaling - Slices of Blue Sky
Dec 15, 2012 · The mid-19th century was the “golden age” of whaling in America, with hundreds of ships making long voyages – often into uncharted parts of the oceans – to ...
[60]
[PDF] THE NEW BEDFORD FLEET IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ...
The real value of the industry's total output was about $1.2 million in 1820, it had reached $12 million by mid-century, but it had fallen to less than $1.2 ...
[61]
Pay, Ranks, and Roles Aboard — Silas J. Costello
Mar 4, 2023 · The pay structure of whaleships was unique in that no one, regardless of rank, received a wage. Instead they were paid in what was called a 'lay'.
[62]
Whaling Industry's Unique Compensation - Check Technologies
at its peak in 1880 it contributed $10 million to the United States GDP, ...
[63]
[PDF] New Bedford, the American Civil War, and a Changing Industry
May 1, 2020 · In 1851, New Bedford whalers brought in 328,483 barrels of whale oil and in 1843 they produced 166,985 barrels of sperm oil. These two years ...
[64]
[PDF] Human Health Implications of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids in ...
Our study documents the importance of bowhead whale blubber as a source of omega-3 fatty acids for some subsistence communities. The harvest of bowhead whales.<|separator|>
[65]
molecular and biochemical adaptations in sharks and whales for ...
Jul 25, 2025 · Long-chain omega-3 PUFAs in whale blubber have shown strong potential to improve vessel function and reduce atherosclerotic plaque formation in ...
[66]
8 Areas of Culture 'Moby-Dick' Influenced - Publishers Weekly
Jul 27, 2012 · The novel has inspired philosophical reflection. Although Moby-Dick is laden with comedic touches, it is extremely serious. We need to recall ...
[67]
Ives - The Whale Fishery: Attacking a "Right Whale" --and "Cutting In ...
This print depicts an vigorous attack on a Right whale, a species of large baleen whales found in the North Atlantic, the North Pacific, or in the south seas ...
[68]
The Whaling Museum - Vestfoldmuseene
Mon: Closed, Tue-Sun: 11am-4pm. Thu: Open until 7pm if special events. For more info. Entrance. Adult NOK 100, children (0-6) free,
[69]
'The Cove': A Stirring Crusade Against A Grim Trade - NPR
and movingly — documents the sale and slaughter of dolphins captured by Japanese fishermen.