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Foreign worker

A foreign worker is a person who migrates from their country of origin to engage in remunerated labor in another country where they are not a national, often under temporary visas or guest worker programs.^[1] In 2022, international migrant workers totaled 167.7 million globally, accounting for 4.7 percent of the world's labor force and filling critical gaps in sectors such as construction, agriculture, healthcare, and manufacturing where host countries face shortages due to aging populations or insufficient domestic supply.^[1] These workers contribute to host economies by expanding the labor pool, boosting productivity, and generating tax revenues, with empirical analyses showing overall positive effects on GDP growth despite heterogeneous distributional impacts.^[2]^[3] While foreign labor inflows drive economic expansion—evidenced by studies finding net increases in native employment and wages over the long term—they can exert downward pressure on wages and employment opportunities for low-skilled native workers in direct competition, particularly in the short term, as basic supply-demand dynamics predict.^[2]^[3] Remittances from foreign workers to origin countries reached hundreds of billions annually, supporting poverty reduction and consumption but also contributing to dependency and skill shortages in sending nations through brain drain effects.^[4] Controversies surrounding foreign workers frequently center on exploitation risks, including wage theft, substandard conditions, and dependency systems like the kafala sponsorship model in Gulf states, which tie workers' legal status to employers and enable abuses such as passport confiscation and forced labor.^[5]^[6] Policies regulating foreign workers vary widely, from skill-based points systems in countries like Canada to seasonal programs in Europe, balancing economic needs against integration challenges, public service strains, and cultural cohesion concerns.^[7]

Definitions and Terminology

Core Definition and Scope

A foreign worker is defined as an individual who engages in remunerated labor in a country of which they are not a national, typically holding temporary authorization for employment rather than full citizenship rights.^[1] This aligns with the United Nations International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, which describes such persons as those "to be engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a state of which he or she is not a national."^[8] The International Labour Organization (ILO) further specifies international migrant workers as all international migrants of working age who are employed, unemployed, or seeking employment in their host country of residence during a given reference period.^[9] The scope of foreign workers extends across diverse occupational categories, including low-skilled manual laborers, skilled professionals, and seasonal or temporary hires, but excludes those migrating primarily for non-economic reasons such as family reunification or asylum without labor intent.^[10] Legally, foreign workers often require visas or permits tied to specific jobs, distinguishing them from undocumented entrants or permanent immigrants who may later naturalize; however, the term can encompass both authorized and unauthorized cases where employment occurs across borders.^[11] Globally, foreign workers numbered approximately 167.7 million in 2022, comprising 4.7 percent of the world's labor force, with concentrations in sectors like construction, agriculture, and services in high-income destinations.^[1] ^[12] This definition emphasizes economic activity as the primary driver, rooted in cross-border labor supply responding to wage differentials and demand shortages, rather than broader migration motives; empirical data from ILO estimates confirm that over two-thirds of international migrants in 2019 were voluntary workers, underscoring labor's dominant role in global mobility patterns.^[13] The scope excludes intra-national migrants, focusing solely on international flows, and highlights vulnerabilities such as limited rights in temporary programs, where workers may face exploitation due to dependency on employer sponsorship.^[14]

Classifications and Types

Foreign workers, also known as international migrant workers, are classified by international organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) as persons of working age who are employed, unemployed but available for work, or seeking employment in a country other than their country of origin or citizenship.^[9]^[15] Primary classifications include duration of migration, skill level, legal status, and occupational sector, reflecting variations in policy frameworks across host countries. By duration, labour migration divides into temporary and permanent forms. Temporary migration encompasses seasonal work, tied to cyclical demands like agriculture or tourism, where workers return home after the period ends; and circular migration, involving repeated short-term moves between origin and destination countries without permanent settlement.^[16] Permanent migration, in contrast, involves intent to reside and work indefinitely, often leading to pathways for citizenship or long-term residency.^[16] Globally, temporary programs predominate in sectors with fluctuating needs, such as Gulf Cooperation Council countries' kafala system, which binds workers to sponsors for fixed terms.^[17] Skill-based categories distinguish high-skilled, semi-skilled, and low-skilled workers, aligned with frameworks like the ILO's International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). High-skilled migrants include professionals in information technology, engineering, or healthcare, often facilitated by visas for intra-company transfers or talent attraction, comprising about 30% of migrant workers in OECD countries as of recent estimates.^[18]^[19] Low-skilled workers dominate manual sectors like construction and domestic service, facing higher exploitation risks due to limited bargaining power and enforcement gaps in host nations.^[19] Semi-skilled roles bridge these, such as in manufacturing or hospitality. Legal status further differentiates documented foreign workers, who enter via authorized visas or permits, from undocumented or irregular migrants, who lack formal approval but fill labor shortages informally, estimated at 10-20% of global migrant flows in vulnerable sectors.^[1] Guest worker programs represent a hybrid, state-managed temporary schemes like historical U.S. H-2A for agriculture or European seasonal directives, designed to address shortages without settlement rights.^[16] Sectoral types include project-tied construction migrants in Asia and intra-regional service workers in the European Union, with occupational data tracked via ISCO for comparability.^[20] In 2022, international migrant workers totaled 167.7 million, or 4.7% of the global labor force, underscoring the scale of these categories.^[1]

Distinctions from Other Forms of Migration

Foreign workers, defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) as international migrants of working age who are employed or seeking employment in the host country, are distinguished from other migration forms primarily by their economic motivation and structured temporality.^[9] Unlike refugees or asylum seekers, who flee persecution, violence, or war and cannot safely return home, foreign workers migrate voluntarily for job opportunities without facing such existential threats.^[21] ^[22] This voluntary economic driver aligns labor migration with choice-based movements, such as those for education or family reunification, but sets it apart through employer sponsorship and work-specific visas that tie legal status to employment rather than humanitarian protection or relational ties.^[23] A core distinction lies in duration and settlement intent: temporary labor migration typically involves stays of three to twelve months or seasonal cycles, with policies designed to facilitate return and prevent permanent integration, contrasting with permanent migration where individuals seek indefinite residency or citizenship pathways.^[24] ^[25] For instance, programs like guest worker schemes rotate foreign workers to fill labor shortages without conferring long-term rights, often binding them to specific employers and enabling deportation upon job loss, features absent in permanent immigration frameworks that emphasize family formation, naturalization, or unrestricted mobility.^[26] This temporality also differentiates foreign workers from irregular or undocumented migrants, who lack formal work authorization and face enforcement risks unrelated to employment contracts.^[15] Economically, foreign workers contribute remittances and skills transfer aimed at source-country benefits upon return, unlike permanent migrants whose integration focuses on host-country assimilation and consumption patterns that defer less savings.^[27] Data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) highlight how temporary labor programs, such as those in Gulf states or seasonal agricultural visas in Europe and North America, prioritize cyclical inflows over settlement, with over 169 million international migrant workers globally in 2019, many under non-permanent arrangements.^[28] ^[9] These structures underscore causal differences in policy design: labor migration addresses immediate shortages via enforceable returns, whereas other forms like refugee resettlement or student visas accommodate non-economic imperatives with varying degrees of pathway flexibility.^[29]

Historical Development

Pre-Modern and Colonial Era Labor Mobility

In pre-modern Europe, labor mobility for foreign workers was primarily limited to skilled artisans and craftsmen operating within guild systems, where journeymen—intermediate workers post-apprenticeship—traveled across regions and borders to accumulate experience and secure employment before qualifying as masters.^[30] This practice, originating in medieval guilds, involved mandatory wandering periods of one to three years or more, enabling cross-border movement from as early as the late 14th century, as seen in Venetian silk workers traveling abroad under guild permissions.^[30] Such migration was constrained by feudal ties, guild monopolies, and local regulations, restricting it largely to males in trades like textiles, metalworking, and construction, with numbers per craft typically in the dozens to hundreds annually across Europe.^[31] In the early Roman Empire, labor mobility included free provincial migrants supplementing urban workforces, though systemic barriers like property qualifications and slavery from foreign conquests dominated non-citizen labor flows. The colonial era marked a shift to large-scale, organized recruitment of foreign indentured labor to address shortages in European overseas territories, beginning with European servants bound to American plantations and mines. In British North America, indentured servitude emerged post-1607 Jamestown settlement, with contracts typically spanning four to seven years in exchange for passage, food, and eventual freedom dues like land or tools.^[32] Between the 17th and 18th centuries, approximately 50,000 indentured servants arrived in the Chesapeake colonies alone, comprising a majority of white immigrants to Virginia and Maryland during peak tobacco cultivation.^[33] Overall, roughly half of the 307,400 migrants from the British Isles to the Thirteen Colonies between 1680 and 1775 entered as indentured servants, totaling around 150,000 individuals who fueled early colonial economies amid high mortality and exploitation risks.^[34] Following the 1807 abolition of the British slave trade and 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, colonial powers pivoted to Asian indentured systems as a coercive yet nominally voluntary alternative, sourcing millions from India and China for plantation work in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific. Britain initiated Indian indenture with shipments to Mauritius starting in 1834, expanding to Trinidad, Guyana, and Fiji, where about 2 million workers were transported by 1917 under five-year contracts often marred by deception, abuse, and 10-20% mortality en route or during service.^[35] By the late 19th century, over 1.3 million Indians had been dispatched to British colonies including Natal and Ceylon, sustaining sugar and cotton industries while replicating slavery-like conditions despite legal protections. Concurrently, Chinese "coolie" labor, coerced through kidnapping or debt bondage, supplied hundreds of thousands from the 1840s to 1870s to Peru's guano mines, Cuba's sugar fields, and U.S. railroads, with estimates of 100,000-150,000 to Cuba alone amid voyages yielding 20-50% death rates from disease and mistreatment.^[36] These systems, while enabling colonial expansion, entrenched cycles of exploitation and demographic shifts in host territories until international bans in the early 20th century.^[37]

20th-Century Guest Worker Initiatives

The United States initiated the Bracero Program in 1942 as a bilateral agreement with Mexico to recruit temporary agricultural laborers amid World War II shortages, expanding through formal treaties in 1943 and 1951 that brought in nearly 5 million Mexican workers by its termination on December 31, 1964.^[38] The program peaked at approximately 445,000 visas issued in 1956, primarily for seasonal farm work in states like California and Texas, with workers contractually bound to return home after terms ending 56 days or less.^[39] Intended as a short-term measure, it faced criticism for poor working conditions, wage theft, and inadequate protections, contributing to unauthorized migration when formal recruitment ended.^[40] West Germany launched its Gastarbeiter (guest worker) recruitment in 1955 via agreements with Italy, followed by Spain, Greece, and Turkey in 1961, to fuel postwar industrial reconstruction, peaking at over 2.6 million foreign workers by 1973 when recruitment halted due to the oil crisis.^[41] Turkish applicants numbered 2.7 million between 1961 and 1973, with about 750,000 accepted, mainly for manufacturing and construction roles under one-year renewable contracts prohibiting family accompaniment to enforce rotation.^[41] Despite the temporary design, an estimated 14 million entries occurred cumulatively through the 1970s, with many workers staying via family reunification after 1965 policy shifts, altering demographic trajectories.^[42] Switzerland formalized guest worker inflows post-1948 via a treaty with Italy, imposing annual quotas on seasonal permits (typically nine months) to staff construction, hospitality, and industry, reaching 300,000-500,000 foreign workers by the late 1960s amid economic growth.^[43] The system emphasized rotation, with short-term visas barring permanent settlement until 1970 reforms, though the 1970 Schwarzenbach Initiative sought to cap foreigners at 22% of the population via referendum, reflecting native concerns over housing and welfare strains.^[44] France relied on informal recruitment of ouvriers étrangers from southern Europe and North Africa starting in the 1950s, with immigrant workers comprising 6.3% of the total workforce (1.25 million) by 1968, including 20% of industrial laborers, often under bilateral pacts lacking strict temporariness. Programs targeted mining, auto assembly, and infrastructure, drawing from Algeria, Morocco, Portugal, and Spain, but evolved into de facto settlement as economic ties and family migration persisted beyond initial contracts.^[45] The United Kingdom, facing postwar labor gaps, eschewed formal guest worker schemes in favor of open Commonwealth entry under the 1948 British Nationality Act, recruiting via the European Volunteer Worker program for 91,000 displaced persons in essential industries like coal and textiles from 1945-1951, though most inflows from the Caribbean and South Asia led to permanent communities rather than rotation.^[46] Restrictions via the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act marked a shift toward controls, highlighting the challenges of enforcing temporariness without explicit bilateral frameworks.^[47] These initiatives, designed to import labor without permanent population growth, often failed to achieve rotation due to employer dependencies, worker remittances, and policy loopholes, resulting in unintended long-term migration and integration pressures across host nations.^[48]

Post-2000 Trends in Global Labor Migration

The number of international migrant workers grew substantially in the decades following 2000, driven by labor shortages in aging economies, construction booms, and globalization of supply chains. According to International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates, the global stock reached 137.4 million by 2013 and climbed to 167.7 million by 2022, constituting 4.7 percent of the total labor force.^[49] ^[1] This expansion included a shift toward higher-skilled workers in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, where the share of tertiary-educated migrants from non-OECD origins rose from 28 percent in 2000/01 to 38 percent in 2020/21.^[50] Growth rates averaged around 2.8 percent annually from 2013 to 2019 before slowing below 1 percent amid the COVID-19 pandemic.^[49] Regional patterns highlighted Asia and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states as major hubs for low-skilled labor inflows, primarily from South and Southeast Asia. In the GCC, migrant workers from countries like India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan filled roles in oil-related infrastructure and services, comprising up to 88 percent of Qatar's population and 37.2 percent of the Arab states' labor force by 2022.^[51] ^[49] Southeast Asian destinations such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand attracted intra-regional workers for manufacturing and domestic work, with Asia hosting 16 percent of global migrant workers by 2022.^[52] ^[49] In Europe, the 2004 EU enlargement facilitated east-to-west labor mobility, boosting inflows to the UK and Germany, while Northern America absorbed 22.6 percent of migrant workers by 2022, often through temporary visa programs.^[49] Temporary and circular migration expanded post-2000, reflecting policy preferences for non-permanent labor to address cyclical needs without long-term settlement commitments. OECD countries saw their working-age migrant population rise 69 percent from 81 million in 2000/01 to 136 million in 2020/21, with programs emphasizing seasonal and project-based work in agriculture and construction.^[50] In the United States, nonimmigrant temporary worker visas surged, particularly H-2A and H-2B categories for agriculture and low-wage services.^[53] South-South migration also increased, with upper-middle-income countries' share of migrant workers rising from 15.7 percent in 2013 to 17.4 percent in 2022, underscoring diversified flows beyond traditional North-South corridors.^[49] Female migrant workers' participation stabilized around 38-40 percent, often in care and textile sectors.^[49]

Economic Impacts

Benefits to Host Economies

Foreign workers augment the labor supply in host economies, addressing shortages in sectors such as agriculture, construction, healthcare, and technology where native participation is insufficient. In the United States, immigrants constitute 27.7% of health aides and 15.6% of nurses, filling persistent gaps exacerbated by an aging workforce and post-pandemic retirements.^[54] Similarly, in OECD countries, labor migration sustains productivity by enabling native workers to shift toward higher-value tasks, with evidence from South Korea showing a 1% rise in low-skilled immigration correlating to a 1% increase in local productivity.^[55] ^[56] Immigration from foreign workers boosts gross domestic product (GDP) in host nations through expanded workforce participation and complementary skill inputs. Empirical analyses across advanced economies demonstrate that a higher immigration rate elevates GDP per capita, primarily by enhancing total factor productivity rather than mere population growth.^[57] For OECD members, the macroeconomic effects of international migration are predominantly positive, with labor migrants yielding the strongest net contributions to public finances due to their employment focus and working-age demographics.^[58] ^[59] Fiscal benefits arise as foreign workers, often in prime earning years, generate tax revenues exceeding their utilization of public services. In 2022, immigrants in the United States paid an estimated $383 billion in federal taxes alone, while undocumented subsets contributed $96.7 billion across federal, state, and local levels despite limited access to benefits like Social Security.^[60] ^[61] OECD research confirms that employment-driven migrants impose the least net fiscal burden, supporting systems strained by native population aging without proportionally drawing on pensions or welfare.^[59] ^[62] High-skilled foreign workers further drive innovation, with migrant inventors disproportionately advancing patenting and technological progress in host countries. In the United States, immigrants are overrepresented among patent holders relative to their population share, fostering spillovers that enhance native inventiveness as well.^[63] Analyses of European and global data reveal that inflows of skilled migrants correlate with accelerated regional innovation rates, as their presence reallocates tasks and stimulates firm-level R&D.^[64] ^[65] This dynamic underpins long-term competitiveness, as evidenced by studies linking migrant inventor shares to sustained gains in host-nation technological edges.^[66]

Effects on Native Labor Markets

The influx of foreign workers increases labor supply in host countries, which economic theory predicts will depress wages for native workers in directly competing skill segments, particularly low-skilled occupations, absent offsetting factors like capital adjustment or task complementarity.^[67] Empirical analyses confirm heterogeneous effects, with meta-studies synthesizing dozens of papers finding an average wage impact near zero across all natives but small negative effects—typically 0-3% declines—for less-educated or low-skilled subgroups, especially in the short term and in contexts of high immigration concentration.^[68]^[69] For instance, a 2025 meta-analysis of 88 studies reported negligible overall effects but noted more pronounced wage reductions in U.S.-focused research and recent decades, where low-skilled immigration surged.^[70] Reanalyses of natural experiments underscore risks for vulnerable natives. George Borjas's 2017 reexamination of the 1980 Mariel Boatlift, which added 60,000 low-skilled Cuban migrants to Miami's workforce (a 7% increase), estimated 10-30% wage drops for high school dropouts, contrasting earlier findings of no effect and attributing discrepancies to data exclusions like female workers or black natives, who faced outsized competition.^[71]^[72] Broader U.S. evidence aligns: Borjas's national-level models, using 1960-2010 Census data, link a 10% immigrant share rise to 3-4% wage erosion for dropouts and prior high school graduates, effects persisting over decades due to imperfect native mobility.^[73] European studies show similar patterns; a meta-analysis of regional labor markets found a 1% immigrant increase correlating with 0.024% native employment drops, amplified for women and in high-immigration eras.^[74] Employment displacement occurs via substitution, with foreign workers filling low-wage roles, prompting natives to seek higher-skill jobs, relocate, or exit the market—effects amplified for teens, minorities, and prior immigrants already in the U.S.^[67] A 2013 French study of 1982-2009 inflows detected no average wage impact but higher unemployment for low-skilled natives, as migrants accepted inferior conditions, weakening bargaining power.^[75] High-skilled foreign workers (e.g., via H-1B visas) show less contention, often complementing natives and boosting innovation, though critics argue they still cap wages in tech sectors by expanding firm leverage.^[76] Long-term, capital inflows and native upskilling mitigate some pressures, but persistent low-skilled immigration correlates with stagnant real wages for bottom-quartile natives since the 1970s, per supply-demand frameworks.^[77] These findings challenge narratives of uniform neutrality, as spatial studies understate national spillovers from native outflows.^[78]

Consequences for Source Countries

Remittances from emigrating foreign workers represent a significant economic inflow for many source countries, often exceeding foreign direct investment and official development assistance. In 2023, global remittances to low- and middle-income countries totaled $656 billion, equivalent to about 3.9% of their combined GDP, with projections for 2.3% growth in 2024 driven by robust labor demand in host economies like the United States.^[79] ^[80] For specific nations, such as India, remittances reached $111 billion in 2023, constituting over 3% of GDP and funding household consumption, education, and small-scale investments that alleviate poverty and stimulate local demand.^[79] Empirical analyses indicate these transfers enhance economic stability and growth in labor-exporting economies like the Philippines and Bangladesh, where they finance infrastructure and human capital development, though over-reliance can foster dependency and crowd out domestic savings.^[81] The emigration of skilled workers, often termed brain drain, poses challenges to human capital accumulation in source countries, particularly smaller developing nations with limited capacity to replace lost talent. Studies document net losses in sectors like healthcare and engineering; for instance, sub-Saharan African countries experienced outflows of up to 20% of their physicians between 2000 and 2010, exacerbating service shortages and hindering long-term development.^[82] ^[83] However, recent evidence challenges a purely negative view, suggesting brain gain through induced investments in education motivated by migration prospects, returnee knowledge transfers, and diaspora networks that lower transaction costs for trade and investment. A 2025 review in Science analyzed microdata from multiple countries, finding that high-skilled emigration rates below 10-15% correlate with increased secondary and tertiary enrollment in origin nations, as families anticipate overseas opportunities, with remittances further amplifying skill formation.^[84] This dynamic appears more pronounced in middle-income contexts like Mexico or Vietnam, where return migration rates exceed 50% for temporary workers, but less so in least-developed states with high absolute losses.^[85] Beyond economics, labor outflows alter demographics and social structures in source countries, depleting working-age populations and straining family units. In nations like Nepal and Sri Lanka, where over 10% of the adult male population migrates annually for construction or service jobs in the Gulf, this leads to imbalanced sex ratios, increased female-headed households, and elevated youth unemployment as returnees face skill mismatches.^[81] While remittances mitigate fiscal pressures—e.g., funding 25% of Tajikistan's GDP in 2022—they can distort labor markets by discouraging local employment and innovation, as evidenced by reduced domestic R&D investment in high-emigration Eastern European states post-2004 EU enlargement.^[86] Overall, outcomes vary by emigration scale and policy responses; countries with reintegration programs, such as Portugal's for returning emigrants in the 1980s, have converted potential drains into gains, whereas unmanaged flows in small island states like Cape Verde yield persistent deficits.^[83]

Integration Challenges

Foreign workers encounter substantial hurdles in integrating into host societies, primarily due to linguistic barriers, cultural value divergences, and structural limitations that impede social cohesion and participation. Proficiency in the host country's language correlates positively with employment success and social mobility, yet many low-skilled migrants arrive with limited skills, resulting in persistent isolation and reduced interactions beyond ethnic networks.^[87] In the European Union, where migrants constitute 9.2% of the population as of January 2023, they face an 8.6% lower employment probability compared to nationals, exacerbated by recognition gaps for foreign qualifications and initial skill mismatches.^[87]^[88] Discrimination and prejudice compound these issues, with ethnic minorities receiving 30-50% fewer callbacks on job applications identical to those of natives, signaling systemic biases in hiring and social acceptance.^[87] Residential segregation into ethnic enclaves offers short-term mutual support but fosters long-term "ghetto effects," limiting exposure to host norms and perpetuating parallel communities disconnected from broader society.^[87]^[89] Empirical analyses across Western Europe highlight ongoing concerns over integration failures, where cultural retention among certain groups leads to sustained separation rather than convergence with host populations.^[90] Temporary visa regimes and employer-tied programs further undermine integration by discouraging investment in host-country ties, as workers anticipate repatriation and face renewal uncertainties.^[87] In Gulf Cooperation Council states, the kafala sponsorship system exemplifies this, binding over 30 million migrants—comprising up to 88% of Qatar's population in 2022—to individual employers, who control passports and job changes, enforcing segregation and barring citizenship pathways.^[51]^[91] This results in minimal cultural intermingling, with migrants confined to labor roles while nationals dominate public sectors, amplifying social divides despite reforms targeting high-skilled inflows since 2018.^[51] Social isolation manifests acutely, correlating with elevated mental health risks; surveys indicate over 44% of migrant workers experience high distress from discrimination and limited networks, prevalent in both high-income hosts and temporary schemes.^[92] Family separation, common in guest worker arrangements, intensifies these strains, as dependents often remain in origin countries, hindering community building and generational transmission of host values.^[93] Overall, while short-term economic networks aid survival, causal evidence points to entrenched barriers that slow assimilation, particularly for low-skilled cohorts from culturally distant origins.^[87]^[90]

Demographic and Family Effects

Foreign workers, often younger and from high-fertility origin countries, contribute significantly to population growth in host nations with low native birth rates. Between 2000 and 2020, immigration accounted for all population growth in several countries and exceeded 100% of growth in 14 others, offsetting declines driven by sub-replacement fertility among natives.^[94] This influx alters age structures by bolstering the working-age cohort, mitigating the fiscal pressures of aging populations in destinations like Europe and North America, where foreign labor fills gaps in sectors such as construction and agriculture.^[95] However, the demographic composition shifts toward greater ethnic diversity, with long-term implications for cultural homogeneity and social cohesion in host societies. Fertility patterns among foreign workers and their descendants initially exceed native rates, influencing overall total fertility rates (TFR) but converging over generations. In the United States, immigrant women exhibit higher fertility than native-born women, though both groups have seen declines, and immigrants may indirectly suppress native fertility through economic competition or cultural influences.^[96] ^[97] Similarly, in Europe and the UK, migrants from regions like South Asia or Africa display elevated completed fertility compared to natives, particularly in the first generation, though second-generation rates align more closely with host norms.^[98] ^[99] This dynamic can temporarily elevate national TFRs but risks entrenching disparities if integration fails to fully assimilate family sizes to local levels.^[100] In source countries, labor migration frequently results in prolonged family separation, as workers—predominantly adult males in temporary roles—leave spouses and children behind, leading to transnational family structures. Studies indicate that children of international migrant parents experience lower educational attainment and heightened emotional stress compared to those with both parents present.^[101] Such separations strain marital bonds and child development, with evidence of increased behavioral issues and reduced academic performance among left-behind youth in nations like the Philippines and Mexico.^[102] Remittances from foreign workers provide economic relief to source-country families, funding consumption, education, and housing investments, which correlate with improved subjective well-being, particularly in low-income households.^[103] ^[104] Yet, this financial inflow does not fully offset psychosocial costs, as family members report persistent stress from absence, and reliance on transfers can distort local labor incentives or delay family reunification.^[102] In host countries, temporary foreign workers often forgo family formation due to visa restrictions, limiting their integration into native family networks and perpetuating demographic silos.^[105]

Policy Frameworks

International Agreements and Standards

The International Labour Organization (ILO) has established foundational standards for migrant workers through two key conventions. Convention No. 97, the Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), adopted in 1949 and entering into force in 1952, mandates equal treatment between migrant workers lawfully employed in host countries and nationals with respect to remuneration, hours of work, overtime, paid leave, restrictions on hours, minimum age, membership in trade unions, and social security benefits, while also requiring facilitation of recruitment information and vocational training opportunities.^[106] As of 2023, it has been ratified by 50 ILO member states, predominantly European nations and some developing countries, though major migrant-receiving economies like the United States and Japan have not ratified it. Complementing this, ILO Convention No. 143, the Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention of 1975, which entered into force in 1978, aims to suppress clandestine migration and illegal employment while promoting equality of opportunity and treatment, including measures to combat misleading information on migration terms and assistance for returning migrants.^[107] It has garnered only 30 ratifications as of recent records, limited mostly to countries in Africa, Europe, and Latin America, with sparse adoption among significant host nations, reflecting challenges in addressing irregular flows through binding commitments.^[108] At the United Nations level, the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (ICRMW), adopted in 1990 and entering into force on July 1, 2003, after reaching 20 ratifications, extends protections to documented and undocumented migrants, covering civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, including non-discrimination, emergency medical care, and family reunification where applicable.^[109] With 60 states parties as of 2024, primarily origin countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America such as Mexico, the Philippines, and Senegal, it lacks ratification by key destination states including the United States, Canada, Australia, and all European Union members, limiting its practical enforcement in high-immigration contexts.^[110] This pattern underscores a divide where source nations advocate for expansive rights, while host countries often prioritize national sovereignty over comprehensive multilateral obligations. In the trade domain, the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), effective since 1995, includes Mode 4 provisions for the temporary movement of natural persons—such as business visitors, intra-corporate transferees, and professionals—to supply services, subject to commitments by member states on duration, categories, and numerical limits, without conferring permanent residency rights.^[111] Unlike ILO or UN instruments, Mode 4 focuses on skilled service providers rather than low-wage laborers, with commitments varying widely; for instance, many developed economies impose quotas or economic needs tests, constraining broader labor mobility.^[112] These agreements collectively establish aspirational benchmarks for fair recruitment, non-discrimination, and basic protections, yet their uneven ratification and implementation—often evaded by major hosts citing domestic priorities—reveal gaps in global enforcement, as evidenced by persistent reports of exploitation despite formal standards.^[113]

National Program Examples and Reforms

Canada's Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP), administered by Employment and Social Development Canada, enables employers to hire foreign nationals for positions where no Canadian workers are available, subject to Labour Market Impact Assessments (LMIAs) verifying local labor shortages. In response to housing pressures and wage stagnation concerns amid a tightening labor market, reforms implemented in September 2024 reduced low-wage stream approvals to 10% of an employer's workforce (down from 20%), capped TFWP admissions at 82,000 net new workers for 2025, and imposed a moratorium on processing low-wage LMIAs in high-unemployment areas.^[114] ^[115] Further changes effective May 1, 2024, shortened LMIA validity to six months, limiting workers' application windows and aiming to prioritize higher-skilled roles over low-wage positions.^[116] In the United States, the H-1B visa program permits employers to recruit foreign professionals in specialty occupations requiring at least a bachelor's degree, with an annual cap of 85,000 visas (65,000 general plus 20,000 for advanced-degree holders from U.S. institutions). Reforms under the Trump administration in September 2025 introduced a $100,000 fee for new H-1B petitions to deter overuse and prioritize higher-wage roles, alongside restrictions targeting outsourcing firms that displace U.S. workers, such as one IT company approved for 1,700 H-1B visas in FY 2025 despite laying off 2,400 Americans.^[117] ^[118] Complementary programs include H-2A for temporary agricultural workers, which filled over 300,000 positions in FY 2023 to address seasonal farm labor gaps, and H-2B for non-agricultural seasonal roles like landscaping, expanded via congressional exemptions but criticized for enabling wage suppression without fixing core vulnerabilities.^[119] ^[120] Germany's Skilled Immigration Act (Fachkräfteeinwanderungsgesetz, FEG), enacted on March 1, 2020, streamlined entry for non-EU skilled workers by recognizing vocational qualifications equivalent to German standards, introducing a points-based system for partial qualification matches, and allowing up to six months for job searches with proof of financial means.^[121] The law lowered salary thresholds for shortage occupations to €43,992 annually (from €55,000) and facilitated accelerated procedures for trained workers, responding to demographic declines and labor shortages in sectors like engineering and IT, with over 29,000 skilled worker visas issued in 2023.^[122] Subsequent adjustments in 2023 extended pathways for experienced workers without formal degrees if they hold comparable practical expertise, aiming to fill 400,000 annual vacancies while mandating qualification recognition to ensure competency.^[123] Australia's Skilled Migration Program, part of the permanent Migration Program totaling 185,000 places for 2024-25, uses a points-tested system favoring English proficiency, age under 45, and occupations on the Priority Migration Skilled Occupation List to attract workers addressing shortages in health, engineering, and technology.^[124] Reforms announced for 2025-26 include allocating 4,300 spots to a new Talent and Innovation visa replacing Global Talent categories, closing the Business Innovation and Investment Program to new applicants on July 31, 2024, and prioritizing regional settlement with faster processing for visas tied to underserved areas to balance urban overcrowding and economic needs.^[125] ^[126] These changes, effective from July 1, 2025, raise English requirements to IELTS 6.0 minimum and adjust points for skilled employment experience, intending to enhance long-term integration amid criticisms of program scale contributing to housing strains.^[127]

Controversies and Criticisms

Exploitation and Labor Rights Issues

Foreign workers frequently encounter exploitation through practices like excessive recruitment fees, contract substitution, and inadequate enforcement of labor laws, which trap them in cycles of debt and dependency. The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that 27.6 million people were in forced labor globally as of 2021, with migrants comprising a disproportionate share due to vulnerabilities such as language barriers and lack of legal status. In particular, South Asian and African migrants in Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries often pay fees equivalent to 12-24 months' salary to recruiters, leading to debt bondage upon arrival. The kafala sponsorship system prevalent in GCC states, including Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates, exacerbates these issues by binding workers' legal residency and job mobility to their employer, enabling passport confiscation, wage withholding, and restrictions on leaving the country without permission. In Qatar, prior to partial reforms in 2020, Human Rights Watch documented over 6,500 migrant worker deaths related to infrastructure projects for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, attributed to heat stress, unsafe conditions, and delayed medical care, though Qatari authorities disputed the causality of many cases. Even post-reform, enforcement remains weak; a 2023 Amnesty International report found ongoing abuses, including forced labor indicators in 80% of surveyed construction sites. In Western countries, temporary visa programs similarly foster rights violations. Under the U.S. H-2A agricultural visa, workers from Mexico and Central America reported wage theft averaging 20-30% of earnings and substandard housing in 2022 Department of Labor audits of over 1,000 employers. A 2023 study by the Southern Poverty Law Center identified patterns of retaliation, such as blacklisting strikers, with Florida's 2023 law allowing immediate deportation of H-2A workers for protesting conditions, affecting hundreds in the state's citrus industry. In Europe, EU Blue Card and seasonal worker directives suffer from inconsistent implementation; a 2021 European Commission evaluation revealed that 40% of non-EU migrants in Italy's agriculture sector experienced exploitation, including unpaid overtime and illegal deductions. Lack of access to grievance mechanisms compounds these problems, as foreign workers fear deportation if they complain. The ILO's 2022 global report notes that only 10-20% of affected migrants seek redress due to reprisal risks, with judicial systems in host countries often favoring employers. Reforms, such as abolishing exit permit requirements in Bahrain in 2017, have shown limited impact without independent monitoring, as evidenced by persistent complaints numbering over 5,000 annually to Saudi labor ministries through 2024. Despite international standards like the ILO's Forced Labour Convention (ratified by 180 countries as of 2025), causal factors rooted in labor demand-supply imbalances and weak rule-of-law enforcement in host nations perpetuate systemic vulnerabilities.

Wage Suppression and Job Displacement Debates

The debate over whether foreign workers suppress wages and displace native employees centers on labor market dynamics in high-income countries, where immigrants often enter low-skilled sectors. Economic theory posits that an influx of lower-wage foreign labor increases supply, exerting downward pressure on equilibrium wages for comparable native workers, particularly those without advanced education, unless offset by complementary demand or productivity gains. Empirical estimates vary, but studies focused on less-skilled natives consistently identify modest negative wage effects; for instance, a 10 percentage point rise in the immigrant share of the labor force correlates with a 3-5% decline in wages for U.S. high school dropouts over periods like 1980-2000.^[128]^[3] Proponents of wage suppression, including economist George Borjas, argue that many counter-studies underestimate impacts by failing to account for native labor substitution, geographic mobility constraints, or long-term adjustments, such as natives exiting affected sectors.^[67] In Europe, similar patterns emerge: a 2023 analysis of 2010-2019 data found immigration reduced native employment in regions with high low-skilled inflows, especially for prior immigrants and less-educated locals, by amplifying competition in manual jobs.^[129] Job displacement evidence is stronger for specific demographics; U.S. data from 1990-2010 indicate that immigration accounted for up to 40% of the employment decline among low-skilled black males, as foreign workers filled roles in construction, agriculture, and services.^[130] These effects are amplified in contexts with lax enforcement of labor standards, where foreign workers accept below-market pay, further eroding native bargaining power.^[131] Opposing views, often from analyses emphasizing skill complementarity, contend that foreign workers boost overall demand and innovation, yielding neutral or positive net effects. High-profile studies, such as David Card's examination of the 1980 Mariel Boatlift, reported no detectable wage drop for Miami natives, attributing this to rapid economic absorption.^[132] Recent meta-analyses reinforce this ambiguity, finding average wage impacts near zero across 100+ studies, though with heterogeneity: negligible for high-skilled natives but potentially -1 to -2% for low-skilled in short panels.^[133]^[68] Critics of suppression claims highlight methodological flaws, like national-level averaging that masks local shocks, and note that firms expand output with immigrant labor without proportionally cutting native hires.^[134] In Europe, post-2015 migrant surges showed limited native displacement in protected labor markets, as employment rigidities channeled foreigners into vacancies natives avoided.^[135] Reconciling the evidence requires scrutiny of source assumptions; pro-immigration findings from institutions like the Cato Institute or Brookings often prioritize aggregate GDP gains over distributional costs to low-skilled natives, potentially underplaying causal links in segmented markets.^[136]^[137] Conversely, labor-focused research, while highlighting real harms—such as a 0.4% relative wage boost for U.S.-born workers from reduced immigration pressure in 1994-2007—avoids overgeneralizing to zero effects amid evidence of sectoral crowding.^[130] Overall, while broad employment displacement remains debated and empirically small (e.g., <1% net job loss per 10% immigrant influx), wage compression for vulnerable natives persists as a substantiated risk, informing policy calls for skill-based admissions to mitigate competition.^[3]^[138]

Cultural Assimilation and Security Risks

Foreign workers often face barriers to cultural assimilation due to persistent ties to origin-country norms, limited incentives for integration in temporary roles, and value systems incompatible with host societies emphasizing individualism, secularism, and gender equality. Empirical benchmarks of assimilation—such as language acquisition, occupational mobility, and adherence to host legal standards—reveal slower progress among migrants from collectivist or religiously conservative backgrounds compared to those from culturally proximate nations. For example, studies modeling immigration dynamics demonstrate that cultural frictions reduce economic participation and social cohesion when migrants prioritize origin values, leading to lower intermarriage rates and higher spatial segregation. Immigrants from societies with low tolerance for liberal norms integrate less effectively into European host countries, perpetuating generational divides in civic participation and worldview alignment.^[139]^[140] In regions with concentrated foreign labor inflows, such as parts of Western Europe, ethnic enclaves have emerged as de facto parallel societies, where community-enforced customs supersede national laws on issues like dispute resolution and family conduct. Research on German and Dutch migrant neighborhoods indicates that high ethnic density correlates with reduced exposure to host influences, fostering insularity and resistance to assimilation; residents in these areas exhibit lower proficiency in host languages and higher reliance on origin-country networks for welfare and governance. Government-commissioned reviews in Germany have documented "ghettos" characterized by parallel normative structures, including informal Sharia councils handling civil matters, which undermine unified societal rules and exacerbate social tensions. Surveys of Muslim migrant communities reveal persistent support for religious legal supremacy— with medians exceeding 50% in several European subsets favoring Sharia application—highlighting a causal disconnect between origin ideologies and host constitutional frameworks that impedes full integration.^[141]^[142]^[143] Security risks from unassimilated foreign workers stem primarily from vetting gaps, elevated criminality in certain origin cohorts, and radicalization within isolated communities. Databases tracking U.S. immigration vetting failures list over 100 cases since 2001 where foreign nationals, including those on work-related visas, were admitted despite known terrorism ties or criminal histories, contributing to plots like the 2015 San Bernardino attack by visa-holding migrants. In Europe, official Danish statistics show second-generation non-Western immigrants—often from labor-migrant families—exhibit violent offending rates up to four times higher than natives, linked to socioeconomic marginalization and cultural retention rather than poverty alone. While aggregate analyses from advocacy-oriented sources claim negligible terrorism risks from legal entrants, disaggregated data reveal disproportionate involvement of foreign-born individuals from high-risk regions in attacks, with imperfect background checks failing to filter ideological threats; for instance, 30% of post-2000 EU jihadist perpetrators entered via migration pathways akin to labor programs. Institutional biases in academia and policy reports often aggregate immigrant crime data without origin breakdowns, understating group-specific elevations attributable to causal factors like clan-based loyalties and anti-Western sentiments.^[144]^[145]^[146]

Regional Case Studies

North America

In the United States, the H-2A visa program facilitates the entry of temporary agricultural workers without a numerical cap, addressing seasonal labor shortages in farming. Certifications for H-2A positions certified by the Department of Labor reached approximately 371,000 jobs in fiscal year 2023, predominantly from Mexico, Jamaica, and Guatemala, with primary sectors including crop production such as fruits, vegetables, and tobacco.^[147] The program requires employers to demonstrate that no qualified U.S. workers are available and to provide housing and transportation, though enforcement of wage protections has faced scrutiny amid reports of violations.^[148] Complementing this, the H-2B program for non-agricultural temporary work, such as landscaping and hospitality, operates under a statutory cap of 66,000 visas annually, supplemented by congressional allocations; for fiscal year 2024, an additional nearly 65,000 visas were authorized, bringing the total available to around 131,000, with many allocated to returning workers.^[149] These programs supported an estimated 3.6 million nonimmigrant residents in the U.S. in fiscal year 2024, including temporary workers, marking a 15% rise from 2019 levels.^[150] Canada relies on the Temporary Foreign Worker Program (TFWP) and the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP) to import labor for agriculture, caregiving, and other low-skilled roles, requiring Labour Market Impact Assessments (LMIAs) to verify domestic shortages. The TFWP approved positions grew 88% from 2019 to 2023, with over 80% of 2024 work permits issued under the broader International Mobility Program and TFWP combined, targeting sectors like primary agriculture where Canadians are insufficient.^[151] The SAWP, established in 1966 and expanded bilaterally with Mexico, brought in over 26,000 Mexican workers in 2024, focusing on greenhouse and field crops, with contracts mandating minimum wages, housing, and health coverage; remittances from these workers exceeded 388 million Canadian dollars in 2023 alone.^[152]^[153] Canada plans for 367,750 new temporary workers in 2025, reflecting ongoing demand amid population growth and sector-specific needs.^[154] Mexico functions primarily as a source country for North American foreign workers rather than a destination, supplying the majority to U.S. H-2A and Canadian SAWP programs, with Mexicans comprising about 23% of the U.S. foreign-born population as of 2023. Inbound foreign labor in Mexico remains limited, estimated at around 73,000 border workers in recent years, often from Central America in informal or maquiladora roles, though official inflows are dwarfed by outflows.^[155]^[156] The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), replacing NAFTA in 2020, has indirectly influenced labor mobility through enhanced professional visa provisions and rules of origin requiring higher regional content, but temporary worker programs persist separately, with limited evidence of broad job displacement causation; intra-regional trade supported nearly 17 million jobs in 2022, up 32% from 2020.^[157] These frameworks underscore North America's reliance on cyclical, low-wage migrant labor for agriculture, which accounts for over 50% of temporary admissions, amid debates over long-term economic dependency.^[158]

Europe

In Europe, foreign workers, particularly third-country nationals from outside the European Union, have played a significant role in addressing labor shortages amid aging populations and low native birth rates, with non-EU migrants filling over 50% of new jobs created between 2019 and 2024, equivalent to approximately 3.4 million positions.^[159] Eurostat data indicate that in 2024, the employment rate for non-EU citizens aged 20-64 stood at around 65%, up from lower figures in prior decades, though part-time work remains more common among foreign-born individuals compared to natives.^[160] ^[161] Sectors such as construction, agriculture, healthcare, and information technology heavily rely on these workers, with the European Central Bank noting their contribution to expanding labor supply and sustaining economic growth despite tight domestic markets.^[162] The European Union's policy framework facilitates intra-EU mobility without permits for citizens of member states but imposes structured schemes for non-EU workers, including the EU Blue Card for highly skilled professionals introduced in 2009 and revised in 2021 to lower salary thresholds and ease family reunification, alongside the Seasonal Workers Directive of 2014 for temporary agricultural and tourism roles.^[163] National variations are pronounced: Germany's Skilled Immigration Act, enacted in 2020 and expanded in 2023, streamlined visas for skilled non-EU workers and introduced opportunity cards for job seekers, responding to shortages in engineering and nursing, with over 1 million non-EU work permits issued in 2023 alone.^[163] In the United Kingdom, post-Brexit points-based system since 2021 prioritizes skilled migrants, shifting reliance from EU to non-EU sources like India and Nigeria, though overall inflows have fluctuated with economic pressures. France's Talent Passport visa, updated in 2022, targets tech and research talent but has faced criticism for bureaucratic hurdles in lower-skilled sectors.^[164] Integration challenges persist, with non-EU migrants experiencing higher unemployment rates—12.3% in 2024 versus lower native figures—and greater risks of social exclusion in employment and housing, as documented by the European Policy Research group.^[160] ^[165] Economic studies, including those from the OECD, suggest foreign workers boost productivity through innovation in high-skill areas but spark debates on wage compression in low-skill sectors, where empirical evidence shows mixed effects on native employment without widespread displacement.^[56] ^[129] Exploitation issues, particularly in seasonal work across southern Europe like Italy and Spain, involve irregular contracts and poor conditions, prompting EU-wide enforcement via the 2022 Platform Work Directive, though implementation varies by member state.^[163] Overall, while foreign labor has mitigated demographic pressures, sustained integration requires addressing skill mismatches and cultural barriers to prevent parallel economies.^[166]

Asia-Pacific and Middle East

In Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, foreign workers form the backbone of the economy, comprising majorities of national populations and labor forces. In the United Arab Emirates, 8.7 million migrant workers accounted for 88% of the population as of 2024.^[167] Similarly, foreigners represent approximately 90% of residents in Qatar and the UAE, two-thirds in Kuwait, and half in Bahrain and Oman.^[168] Saudi Arabia hosts the largest share, receiving 49.5% of registered South Asian migrant workers destined for the Gulf in 2023.^[169] These workers, predominantly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and the Philippines, fill low-skilled roles in construction, domestic service, and hospitality, driven by host countries' oil wealth and nationals' aversion to manual labor.^[51] The kafala sponsorship system, which binds migrants' legal residency and mobility to employer sponsors, has enabled rapid labor importation but facilitated widespread abuses including wage withholding, passport confiscation, and excessive working hours.^[5] Reforms have accelerated amid international scrutiny, particularly post-Qatar's 2022 World Cup preparations; Saudi Arabia abolished kafala in June 2025 under Vision 2030 to enhance labor flexibility and attract investment.^[170] Qatar and the UAE have permitted job transfers without employer no-objection certificates since 2020, though implementation gaps persist.^[171] Despite these changes, a 2024 International Labour Organization (ILO) complaint against Saudi Arabia highlighted ongoing forced labor indicators, with 63% of surveyed migrants unable to terminate contracts freely.^[172] Remittances from Gulf migrants totaled billions annually, supporting origin economies but underscoring dependency on temporary, low-wage inflows.^[173] In Asia-Pacific economies facing demographic decline and labor shortages, foreign worker programs emphasize temporary, skill-specific inflows. Singapore's foreign workforce reached 1.23 million in 2024, primarily in construction and manufacturing, representing about one-third of the total labor force excluding domestic workers.^[174] A 2024 Ministry of Manpower survey found 95.3% of these workers satisfied with conditions, up from prior years, attributed to regulated dormitories and wage protections, though dependency ratios strain infrastructure.^[175] Japan, with an aging population, expanded its foreign labor intake to 2.3 million workers by October 2024, a record high including 456,595 technical intern trainees focused on sectors like agriculture and caregiving.^[176]^[177] The Technical Intern Training Program, criticized for broker exploitation and trainee vulnerabilities, supplements specified skilled worker visas, which grew 20.8% to 251,747 by mid-2024.^[178] South Korea's Employment Permit System (EPS) supported over 1 million foreign workers by late 2024, equaling 3.5% of the workforce, mainly from Vietnam, Nepal, and Cambodia in manufacturing and fisheries; E-9 visa holders earned averages up to 3 million KRW monthly for 30% of participants.^[179] These programs mitigate shortages—Japan's trainee remittances averaged 1.23 million yen per person in 2024—but face challenges like language barriers and irregular overstays.^[180] Across both regions, economic imperatives drive inflows, with reforms balancing growth against rights enforcement amid origin-country recruitment fees burdening migrants.^[181]

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Sep 18, 2024 · In 2023, remittances back to home countries totalled about $656 billion, equivalent to the GDP of Belgium. In more than 60 countries, ...
[81]
Brain drain or economic gain? Untangling the global migration ...
Several studies indicate that remittances sent by emigrants will boost economic growth in countries like Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, ...
[82]
Determinants and Consequences of the Brain Drain - PMC - NIH
Sep 18, 2017 · Dubbed “brain drain”, the movement has been traditionally defined as a net loss for sending nations who spend scarce resources in providing advanced training ...
[83]
The brain drain from developing countries - IZA World of Labor
A brain drain stimulates education, induces remittance flows, reduces international transaction costs, and generates benefits in source countries.
[84]
Brain drain or brain gain? Effects of high-skilled international ...
May 22, 2025 · The direct effect is "brain drain"-a decrease in the country's human capital stock. However, there may also be indirect "brain gain" effects.
[85]
“Brain drain” or “brain gain”? New research identifies a more ...
"Brain drain" is the loss of human capital from emigration, while "brain gain" is increased human capital and welfare in origin countries. Whether it occurs ...
[86]
Publication: International Migration, Remittances, and the Brain Drain
For a handful of labor-exporting countries, international migration does cause brain drain. ... The paper summarizes the results for five countries, highlighting ...
[87]
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2024/754232/IPOL_STU(2024)754232_EN.pdf
[88]
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[89]
Dimensions of Migrant Integration in Western Europe - PMC
Governments have been concerned about the possibility that ethnic minorities will come to live parallel lives in segregated communities and in consequence fail ...
[90]
[PDF] Assimilation and Integration of Immigrants in Europe
A high concern about the failure of integration remains; while the large and growing empirical literature has not reached a consensus on this question. One ...
[91]
https://gulfmigration.grc.net/gcc-total-population-and-percentage-of-nationals-and-non-nationals-in-gcc-countries-national-statistics-mid-2022/
[92]
Precarious employment and migrant workers' mental health
Over 44% of the participants experienced high levels of distress. Migrant workers were exposed to various types of discrimination (prevalence 11 to 22%) while ...
[93]
Refugee and migrant mental health
Sep 1, 2025 · Low- and middle-income countries host 71% of the world's refugees and others needing international protection (1).
[94]
In some countries, immigration accounted for all population growth ...
Jul 8, 2024 · In 14 countries and territories, in fact, immigration accounted for more than 100% of population growth during this period.
[95]
Migration and the Demographic Shift - ScienceDirect.com
Migrants typically have a higher average fertility than natives, at least at the beginning of their time in the host country, but fertility declines in the next ...<|separator|>
[96]
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Feb 16, 2021 · The fertility of both native-born and immigrant women (also referred to as the foreign-born) continues to decline, with the fall-off being more pronounced ...
[97]
The Impact of Immigration on U.S. Fertility
Feb 20, 2025 · In fact, immigrants appear to depress native fertility, reducing or even eliminating the small gain in TFR that they bring to the national ...
[98]
Understanding How Immigrant Fertility Differentials Vary over the ...
Sep 30, 2019 · Immigrants have significantly higher completed fertility than UK-born natives if they were born in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Jamaica, or Western and Central ...
[99]
[PDF] Fertility differences across immigrant generations in the United ...
May 30, 2025 · Migrants from different countries of origin exhibit varying fertility levels across Europe. Some demonstrate higher fertility rates, while ...
[100]
[PDF] On the multifaceted impact of migration on the fertility of receiving ...
Jul 2, 2019 · We suggest that the total effect of the migrant population and migrant fertility on the TFR of a host country can be broken down into two ...Missing: workers | Show results with:workers
[101]
Parental Migration and Education of Left-Behind Children
The results showed that children left behind by international migrant parents are worse off in educational attainment than those living with both parents.
[102]
Migration and families left behind - IZA World of Labor
The migration of a family member brings additional income through remittances, which can support household consumption and investment. This income effect can ...
[103]
Emigration, remittances, and the subjective well-being of those ...
Having family abroad is linked to greater well-being and positive affect, while remittances increase well-being, especially in poorer contexts. Stress and ...
[104]
International migration: What happens to those left behind?
Sep 13, 2018 · Overall, our findings demonstrate that the out-migration of family members and their remittances can improve well-being through easing budget ...
[105]
Family migration: understanding the drivers, impacts and support ...
Oct 12, 2021 · The strains that prolonged separation places on families both emotionally and practically can lead migrants to seek ways to reunite, within a ...
[106]
C097 - Migration for Employment Convention (Revised), 1949 (No. 97)
1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director- ...
[107]
Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 (No ...
1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director- ...
[108]
Ratifications of ILO conventions - NORMLEX
The Migrant Workers Convention (C143) has 30 ratifications and entered into force on 09 Dec 1978. Albania, Armenia, and Benin are among the countries that ...
[109]
Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers ...
The Convention, of which the Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, was adopted by Resolution A/RES/45/158 of 18 ...
[110]
Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and ...
Status of ratifications. There are 60 States parties to the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their ...General comments · Background to the Convention · Membership · IntroductionMissing: standards | Show results with:standards
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Natural Persons - World Trade Organization
The GATS agreement provides a framework for negotiating the temporary entry and stay of personnel into the territory of other countries for the purpose of ...
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In practical terms, GATS mode 4 extends to foreigners who are employed in a foreign company established abroad or which is supplying services under a contract ...
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Ratification and Implementation of ILO Conventions 97 and 143 on ...
Aug 20, 2019 · Ratifying and effectively implementing ILO Conventions Nos 97 and 143 on Migrant Workers and its accompanying Recommendations Nos 86 and 151 is ...
[114]
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[115]
Changes in the works for the Temporary Foreign Worker Program ...
Sep 10, 2025 · Setting a target of 82,000 net new admissions of TFWP workers for the year 2025; · Establishing a moratorium on the processing of low-wage LMIAs ...
[116]
Canada – Changes to Temporary Foreign Worker Program
Effective May 1, 2024, LMIAs will be valid for a period of six months, resulting in a shorter duration for foreign nationals to apply for a work permit.<|separator|>
[117]
Restriction on Entry of Certain Nonimmigrant Workers
Sep 19, 2025 · Another IT firm was approved for nearly 1,700 H-1B workers in FY 2025; it announced it was laying off 2,400 American workers in Oregon in July.
[118]
H-1B Visa Changes 2025: $100K Fee & Wage-Based Lottery Reforms
Oct 6, 2025 · The H-1B visa program is changing significantly in 2025 with a new $100000 fee for certain petitions and proposed wage-based lottery reforms ...<|separator|>
[119]
H-2A Temporary Agricultural Workers - USCIS
Oct 1, 2025 · The H-2A program allows US employers or US agents who meet specific regulatory requirements to bring foreign nationals to the United States to fill temporary ...
[120]
The H-2B visa program has ballooned without being fixed ...
Sep 18, 2025 · Summary: The H-2B visa program allows employers to hire migrant workers for temporary jobs in low-wage occupations like landscaping, ...
[121]
The new Skilled Immigration Act - Make it in Germany
The new Skilled Immigration Act (FEG) makes it easier for skilled workers with vocational training and individuals with practical knowledge to immigrate to ...
[122]
Skilled workers welcome! – Germany's modern immigration act
Skilled workers from abroad must get their professional qualifications recognised in Germany in good time before they apply for a visa. Information can be found ...
[123]
Immigration of skilled workers - Anerkennung in Deutschland
This law expands the options to enter Germany from a third country for the purposes of searching for a job, employment, or recognition of a foreign professional ...
[124]
Migration Program planning levels - Immigration and citizenship
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[125]
Australia: Migration Program Planning Levels 2025–26 Announced
Sep 15, 2025 · A key change within the Skill stream is the introduction of the Talent and Innovation visa category, which will provide 4,300 places. This ...
[126]
Skilled migration program - Recent changes
Jun 16, 2025 · The Business Innovation and Investment Program (BIIP) closed permanently to new applications on 31 July 2024. We will continue to process ...Changes to the Minister of... · New Aged Care Industry...
[127]
What Immigration Changes Are Coming to Australia in 2025?
Rating 4.9 (567) The government will strongly encourage skilled migrants to settle in regional areas. It will increase visa quotas for regional areas and offer faster pathways ...
[128]
[PDF] THE EFFECTS OF LABOR MARKET COMPETITION WITH ...
Plainly stated, a large increase in immigration will suppress the wages of those native-born workers who are in direct labor market competition with immigrants.
[129]
The impact of immigration on the employment dynamics of ...
This paper provides the first evidence on the regional impact of immigration on native employment in in Europe over the 2010-2019 period.
[130]
Immigration and Wages: Methodological advancements confirm ...
Feb 4, 2010 · The estimated effect of immigration from 1994 to 2007 was to raise the wages of US-born workers, relative to foreign-born workers, by 0.4% (or $3.68 per week).<|separator|>
[131]
Do immigrant workers depress the wages of native workers?
Empirical studies typically fail to find significant effects of immigration on the wages of native-born workers.
[132]
Nobel winner David Card shows immigrants don't reduce the wages ...
Oct 26, 2021 · Nobel winner David Card shows immigrants don't reduce the wages of native-born workers. Applied economists spend a large fraction of their time ...
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[PDF] Does Immigration Affect Wages? A Meta-Analysis - Cepremap
However, empirical results stay unclear. As pointed by Dustmann et al. (2016), some studies conclude immigration reduces native wages, and others show either a ...
[134]
Low-Skill Foreign Employees' Impacts on US Firms and Workers
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[135]
[PDF] Immigration, Jobs and Employment Protection: Evidence from ...
Moreover, in countries with low employment protection, the reallocation is stronger for workers with low levels of education.
[136]
Does Immigration Reduce Wages? | Cato Institute
Others, such as Harvard University economist George Borjas, find a greater wage elasticity of immigration that is between −0.3 and −0.4 (Borjas 2003, Borjas and ...
[137]
What Immigration Means For U.S. Employment and Wages | Brookings
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[138]
Meta-Analysis: The Impact of Immigration on the Economic ... - MDPI
Numerous studies have investigated how immigration influences key macroeconomic indicators such as economic growth, productivity, employment, and innovation ( ...2. Literature Review · 2.2. Immigration And... · 2.2. 2. Immigration And...
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Optimal Immigration and Cultural Assimilation
This article develops a model that examines the role of cultural conflict in immigration and immigration policy. Cultural differences lead to frictions ...
[140]
Immigrants from more tolerant cultures integrate deeper into ...
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[141]
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2164668
[142]
[PDF] The Integration of Recent Migrants and Refugees: A Review of ...
The repercussions of migration policy crisis were felt across the entire EU, since they challenged the capacities of. European asylum reception systems, as well ...
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Database: National Security Vetting Failures
The Center for Immigration Studies' Vetting Failure Database presents the first known collection of preventable federal government vetting failures.
[145]
Attempted suicide and violent criminality among Danish second ...
To compare risks for attempted suicides and violent offending among second generation immigrants to Denmark according to parental region of origin versus the ...
[146]
Terrorists by Immigration Status and Nationality: A Risk Analysis ...
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GAO-25-106389, H-2A VISA PROGRAM: Agencies Should Take ...
Nov 14, 2024 · Specifically, the number of H-2A visas that State issued from FY 2018 through FY 2023 increased by 58 percent—from around 196,000 to almost ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics<|separator|>
[148]
Performance Data | U.S. Department of Labor
The OFLC provides data on employment-based immigration, including quarterly statistics, disclosure data, and historical annual reports, extracted from ...
[149]
DHS to Supplement H-2B Cap with Nearly 65,000 Additional Visas ...
Nov 3, 2023 · In addition to the 20,000 country specific allocation, 44,716 supplemental visas would be available to returning workers who received an H-2B ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Aug 21, 2025 · In FY 2024, 3.6 million nonimmigrants resided in the US, a 15% increase from 3.1 million in 2019. Most were temporary workers or students.
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Question Period Note: TEMPORARY WORKER PROGRAM
Foreign worker volumes under the TFWP and IMP have grown significantly in recent years. The TFWP increased by 88% between 2019 (pre-pandemic) and 2023.
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Canada-Mexico relations
Sep 19, 2025 · Of the close to 52,000 Mexican workers, over 26,000 came under the SAWP in 2024. This recognizes the foundational role Mexican nationals play as ...<|separator|>
[153]
The Mexico-Canada Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP ...
Jun 28, 2024 · The SAWP program has contributed to remittances to Mexico (in 2023 alone, more than $388 million Canadian dollars) and has led to the transfer ...
[154]
Canada's immigration levels
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Oct 8, 2024 · Mexicans are the largest group of immigrants in the United States, accounting for about 23 percent of all 47.8 million foreign-born residents as of 2023.
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100 Employment Statistics in Mexico: Best Perspectives [2024]
Mar 21, 2024 · Discover labor trends and statistics in Mexico to make informed decisions ... 60. 73,038 foreigners in Mexico are border workers. (SCIELO). 61. 1/ ...
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A changing European labour market: the role of immigration and ...
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Migrant integration statistics – labour market indicators
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Migrant integration statistics - employment conditions
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[162]
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May 8, 2025 · Foreign workers have helped to expand labour supply, alleviate labour shortages and support economic growth – all amid otherwise tight labour markets.
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International Migration Outlook 2024 | OECD
Nov 14, 2024 · The 2024 edition of International Migration Outlook analyses recent developments in migration movements and the labour market inclusion of immigrants in OECD ...
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The EU and UK Are Attracting More Foreign Workers. But Is It Enough?
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Challenges and opportunities for the integration of migrants in Europe
Migrants face a greater risk of social exclusion than the native population, especially with respect to accessing employment, education, health and social ...
[166]
Macroeconomic implications of the recent surge of immigration to ...
Oct 14, 2024 · A large literature shows that immigration can have positive effects on total factor productivity (TFP) – for example through innovation and ...
[167]
Briefing paper: Migrant rights and the Kafala system in the United ...
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GCC Countries And Migrant Workers: Background Facts - ECDHR
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpMMQR048aA
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Reforming the Kafala System | GJIA
Mar 21, 2025 · In addition, in Saudi Arabia and Qatar, workers can now transfer sponsorship without employer consent before their contracts expire.
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Saudi Arabia: ILO Forced Labor Complaint a Wake-Up Call
Jun 5, 2024 · A BWI survey of 193 migrant workers included in the complaint reveals that 63 percent cannot freely terminate their employment with reasonable ...
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Labor migration, remittances, and the economy in the Gulf ...
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Foreign workforce numbers - Singapore - Ministry of Manpower
Foreign workforce numbers ; Total foreign workforce, 1,231,500, 1,200,400 ; Total foreign workforce (excluding MDWs ), 984,100, 954,100 ; Total foreign workforce ( ...
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[PDF] Migrant Worker Experience and Employer Survey 2024 Report on ...
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Japan Sees Record Growth in Foreign Workforce | Jobseeker Blog
As of October 2024, the number of foreign workers in Japan reached 2.3 million—an increase of approximately 254,000 compared to the previous year. This ...
[177]
Foreign Resident Status Trends in Japan (2024)
Apr 12, 2025 · Following that, we have “Technical Intern Trainees” with 456,595 (an increase of 52,039) and “Engineer/Specialist in Humanities/International ...
[178]
Number of specified skilled visa holders in Japan surpasses 250000
Sep 24, 2024 · The number of foreign workers under Japan's specified skilled worker's visa reached 251,747 at the end of June, a 20.8% increase compared ...
[179]
South Korea's foreign workforce exceeds 1 million for the first time
Dec 18, 2024 · Foreign workers now account for 3.5% of the country's total workforce of 28.91 million. The number of workers holding E-9 visas, issued under ...
[180]
Poll: Over 80% of foreign trainees, skilled workers sent money home
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Tricked and trapped: How migrant workers are getting a raw deal in ...
Apr 9, 2013 · ILO reveals how an estimated 600,000 migrant workers are tricked and trapped into forced labour across the Middle East at the first-ever ...