2000
The year 2000 was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, marking the symbolic start of the third millennium and featuring widespread anticipation around the potential impacts of the Y2K computer programming issue.[1] Extensive international efforts to remediate date-handling flaws in software and systems largely averted major failures, with only minor glitches reported globally on January 1.[2] Economically, the period saw the peak and subsequent burst of the dot-com bubble, as the NASDAQ Composite index reached its all-time high of 5,048.62 on March 10 before plummeting amid overvaluation of internet startups lacking profitability.[3] In politics, the United States presidential election on November 7 pitted Republican George W. Bush against Democrat Al Gore, resulting in Bush securing 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266 despite losing the national popular vote by approximately 543,000 ballots; the outcome hinged on a disputed Florida recount halted by a 5-4 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Bush v. Gore.[4] Globally, the Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, from September 15 to October 1 drew athletes from a record 199 nations, with host Australia achieving its best medal haul in modern history at 58 total, including 16 golds, amid efficient organization and innovative ceremonies.[5] Other notable incidents included the October 12 al-Qaeda bombing of the USS Cole in Yemen, killing 17 U.S. sailors, and the July 25 crash of Air France Flight 4590, the Concorde's only fatal accident.[1] These events underscored a year of technological transition, electoral contention, and emerging geopolitical tensions preceding the post-9/11 era.Overview
Calendar and Chronology
The year 2000 in the Gregorian calendar was a leap year comprising 366 days, as it was divisible by 400, satisfying the rule for century years to include February 29.[6][7] January 1, 2000, fell on a Saturday, making it the final full week of the 1990s in terms of weekday alignment.[8] This year concluded both the 20th century, spanning 1901 to 2000, and the second millennium AD, from 1001 to 2000, under the Anno Domini (AD) reckoning originating from the 6th-century computations of Dionysius Exiguus.[9] The subsequent 21st century and third millennium formally began on January 1, 2001, reflecting the absence of a year 0 in the continuous AD/CE sequence, where the first millennium ran from AD 1 to 1000.[9][10] Despite this chronological precision, global festivities on January 1, 2000, popularly designated it as the millennium's onset, driven by the psychological appeal of the date's round numbering rather than strict historical delineation.[10] The Gregorian calendar, promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 to refine the Julian system's solar alignment, underpins this chronology, averting an annual drift of about 11 minutes through adjusted leap year criteria.[11] In 2000, this framework synchronized civil, ecclesiastical, and astronomical events worldwide, with no significant deviations noted for that year.[12]Geopolitical and Cultural Context
The geopolitical landscape of 2000 reflected the ongoing unipolar moment dominated by the United States, whose military expenditures reached $294.5 billion—more than the next 10 countries combined—and whose influence extended through alliances like NATO, which had expanded to include Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic in 1999. This era of American primacy facilitated interventions in the Balkans, where NATO's 1999 bombing campaign had weakened Slobodan Milošević's regime in Yugoslavia; Milošević's refusal to concede the September 24 presidential election sparked mass protests, culminating in his ouster on October 5 via the Bulldozer Revolution, which installed Vojislav Koštunica as president and advanced democratic transitions in Serbia.[13] In Russia, Vladimir Putin's election on March 26 with 52.9% of the vote marked a pivot from Boris Yeltsin's turbulent liberalization toward renewed state control and energy-driven foreign policy assertiveness.[13] Israel's unilateral withdrawal from southern Lebanon on May 24 ended a 22-year occupation but failed to stabilize the region, as Hezbollah filled the vacuum.[13] Tensions in the Middle East escalated despite U.S.-brokered diplomacy: the Camp David Summit (July 11–25) between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat, and U.S. President Bill Clinton collapsed over disagreements on Jerusalem's status and refugee returns, leading directly to the Second Intifada's onset on September 28 after Ariel Sharon's visit to the Temple Mount.[13] Al-Qaeda's suicide bombing of the USS Cole in Aden Harbor, Yemen, on October 12 killed 17 American sailors and injured 39, underscoring Islamist networks' growing operational reach against U.S. assets amid lax port security.[14] These developments highlighted causal vulnerabilities in post-Cold War stability—overreliance on U.S. mediation without addressing root ethnic and ideological conflicts—while global institutions like the UN grappled with enforcement limits, as seen in ongoing sanctions on Iraq. Culturally, 2000 encapsulated millennial optimism tempered by technological anxieties, with the successful navigation of Y2K disruptions affirming faith in digital infrastructure amid 413 million global internet users, up 45% from 1999. Popular music reflected genre diversification and commercialization, as Santana's collaboration "Smooth" (featuring Rob Thomas) topped Billboard charts for 12 weeks, while Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP sold 1.76 million copies in its first week, signaling hip-hop's mainstream breakthrough despite controversies over lyrics.[15] Cinema emphasized spectacle and historical epics, with Gladiator grossing $460 million worldwide and winning five Oscars, including Best Picture, amid a box office total of $7.6 billion.[16] The Sydney Summer Olympics (September 15–October 1), attended by 10,200 athletes from 199 nations, broadcast to 3.6 billion viewers, promoted multiculturalism but also exposed doping issues, like the International Olympic Committee's suspension of 19 athletes.[15] Fashion trends fused low-rise jeans, velour tracksuits, and early athleisure, influenced by celebrities like Britney Spears, whose "...Baby One More Time" video had popularized schoolgirl aesthetics, reflecting youth-driven consumerism in a globalizing media environment.[17] These elements underscored a causal shift toward digital-mediated culture, prioritizing entertainment commodification over traditional gatekeepers, though mainstream sources often overlooked emerging digital piracy's disruptive potential, as Napster peaked with 80 million users.[16]The Y2K Problem
Origins and Preparations
The Year 2000 (Y2K) problem originated from programming practices adopted in the 1960s, when engineers developing software for mainframe computers used only the last two digits to represent the year in dates, a convention intended to minimize storage requirements on hardware with limited capacity and high costs per byte.[18] This approach assumed an implicit "19" century prefix, which allowed systems to process dates efficiently but created ambiguity for the transition from December 31, 1999 ("99") to January 1, 2000 ("00"), potentially causing software to interpret the new millennium date as 1900 and triggering errors in calculations, sorting, or logical operations dependent on chronological sequencing.[19] Such date-handling shortcuts were embedded in millions of lines of legacy code across financial, utility, transportation, and government systems, compounded by the use of COBOL and other languages prevalent in enterprise computing where memory constraints prioritized brevity over forward compatibility.[20] Early awareness of the issue emerged sporadically in the late 1960s, with isolated reports of anomalies in applications like mortgage amortization software that projected beyond 2000, but systematic recognition did not occur until the 1980s, when a programmer at a major U.S. automaker identified it during routine data verification in 1983.[20] By the mid-1980s, the problem had been documented in technical reports and vendor advisories, yet it remained largely confined to specialist circles due to the perceived remoteness of the 2000 rollover and the high costs of refactoring entrenched codebases.[21] Public and institutional attention intensified in the early 1990s as enterprise software audits revealed widespread vulnerabilities, prompting initial remediation efforts focused on high-risk sectors like banking and utilities, though underestimation of the scale delayed broader action until regulatory mandates and liability concerns escalated urgency around 1996–1997.[2] Preparations accelerated globally from the mid-1990s onward, involving a four-phase process of inventory (identifying date-dependent code), assessment (evaluating failure risks), correction (via expansion to four-digit years, algorithmic "windowing" to reinterpret ambiguous dates, or replacement of legacy systems), and testing (including unit, integration, and end-to-end simulations).[2] Governments played a coordinating role; in the United States, President Bill Clinton established the President's Council on Year 2000 Conversion in 1998, while federal agencies allocated resources for compliance, with the Department of Defense alone reporting over 90% remediation completion by late 1999.[21] Internationally, the United Nations hosted its first Y2K conference in December 1998 to facilitate information sharing among nations, particularly aiding developing countries with limited technical infrastructure.[22] Corporate and public sector expenditures reflected the effort's magnitude, with global remediation costs estimated at $300–$600 billion by research firm Gartner, including approximately $100 billion in the U.S. for software fixes, hardware upgrades, and contingency planning.[19][2] These investments encompassed hiring specialized consultants, forming internal Y2K task forces, and conducting compliance certifications, which mitigated risks in critical infrastructure; for instance, electric utilities in North America invested billions in testing grid controls to prevent cascading failures from date-triggered shutdowns.[2] Despite criticisms of overpreparation driven by legal fears and vendor incentives, the structured approach—prioritizing empirical testing over speculative fixes—ensured that by December 1999, most mission-critical systems in developed economies had been certified compliant, averting widespread disruptions.[23]Anticipated Risks and Global Efforts
Anticipated risks from the Y2K problem centered on computer systems misinterpreting the date change from December 31, 1999, to January 1, 2000, due to two-digit year representations, potentially causing widespread failures in date-dependent calculations, data processing, and automated controls.[18] In critical infrastructure, experts warned of disruptions to power grids, which could lead to blackouts if control systems reset clocks incorrectly or halted operations; water supply failures from similar automated monitoring issues; and banking sector breakdowns, where account records might be erased, transactions rejected, or interest calculations skewed, risking financial paralysis.[24][25] Transportation systems faced threats such as air traffic control errors causing flight delays or safety risks, and broader logistical halts in rail or shipping due to inventory and scheduling glitches.[26][27] Healthcare and telecommunications were also vulnerable, with potential hospital equipment malfunctions or communication blackouts exacerbating emergencies, while developing nations were deemed higher risk due to less robust systems affecting food distribution and energy sectors.[28] Global efforts to mitigate these risks involved unprecedented remediation programs, with worldwide expenditures estimated at $300 billion to $600 billion for code audits, software updates, and testing across governments, corporations, and utilities.[2] In the United States, over $130 billion was allocated, including federal mandates for compliance reporting and the creation of dedicated Y2K task forces in agencies like the Department of Energy and Federal Aviation Administration to simulate failures and deploy fixes.[29] International coordination occurred through bodies like the United Nations and bilateral agreements, with the U.S. State Department issuing travel advisories for regions with lagging preparations, such as parts of Asia and Eastern Europe, where infrastructure vulnerabilities were higher.[26] Businesses formed remediation teams to inventory legacy systems—often running on COBOL code from the 1970s—and prioritized "windowing" techniques or full date expansions, while contingency plans included manual overrides for essential services like nuclear plants and stock exchanges.[19] These proactive measures, driven by regulatory pressures and liability fears, emphasized empirical testing over speculation, though some analyses later noted overestimation of risks in low-compliance areas.[30]Actual Outcomes and Post-Mortem Analysis
The rollover to January 1, 2000, resulted in no major disruptions to global critical infrastructure, including power grids, financial networks, air traffic control, and telecommunications systems, contrary to pre-event predictions of widespread chaos.[31][19] International monitoring efforts, coordinated by organizations such as the International Y2K Cooperation Center, confirmed that essential services continued uninterrupted, with failure rates far below anticipated levels.[2] Isolated minor incidents did occur, primarily in non-critical applications or embedded systems that evaded full remediation. Examples include a temporary malfunction in a radiation monitor at Japan's Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, which failed to register data but posed no radiation hazard and was replaced within hours; similar alarm system glitches at the Shika Nuclear Power Station; and erroneous jackpot payouts from slot machines at a Delaware racetrack due to date misinterpretation.[25] These events affected fewer than 0.01% of assessed systems globally and were resolved without cascading effects or safety compromises.[25] Post-event evaluations, such as the U.S. Senate Special Committee on the Year 2000 Technology Problem's final report "Y2K Aftermath—Crisis Averted," attributed the overall success to proactive remediation, including billions of lines of code inspected and updated worldwide.[32] The effort involved over 90% compliance rates in high-risk sectors by late 1999, preventing tens of thousands of potential failures in interdependent systems.[31] Remediation expenditures totaled an estimated $300–$600 billion globally, with U.S. federal agencies alone incurring over $3 billion by fiscal year 1998 for assessments, fixes, and testing.[19][33] While some analysts later debated the proportionality of costs to realized risks—citing the scarcity of incidents as evidence of possible overpreparation—empirical data from pre-rollover simulations demonstrated genuine vulnerabilities in legacy COBOL-based mainframes and embedded chips, which, if unaddressed, could have triggered errors in date-dependent calculations for billing, inventory, and control logic.[25][31] The outcome underscored the causal link between early detection and systemic fixes in averting disruptions, though it also exposed gaps in smaller or less-resourced entities where undetected issues surfaced sporadically post-2000.Political Events
United States Presidential Election
The 2000 United States presidential election occurred on November 7, 2000, determining the successor to Democratic President Bill Clinton, who was term-limited.[34] The Republican nominee, Texas Governor George W. Bush, selected former Wyoming Congressman and Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his running mate, emphasizing themes of tax cuts, education reform via standards-based testing, and a "compassionate conservatism" approach to social issues.[35] The Democratic nominee, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, chose Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman, the first Jewish candidate on a major-party national ticket, and campaigned on extending the economic prosperity of the 1990s, environmental protections, and prescription drug benefits for seniors, while distancing himself from Clinton amid ongoing scandals including the Lewinsky affair and impeachment.[35] Third-party candidates included Green Party nominee Ralph Nader, who advocated environmentalism and campaign finance reform, and Reform Party nominee Pat Buchanan, focusing on trade protectionism and cultural conservatism.[35] Nationwide, Gore secured 50,999,897 popular votes (48.4 percent), edging Bush's 50,456,002 (47.9 percent) by 543,895 votes, with Nader receiving 2,882,955 (2.7 percent).[35] However, the electoral college outcome favored Bush with 271 votes to Gore's 266 out of 538 total, exceeding the 270 needed for victory; one Washington elector pledged to Gore defected to Libertarian John Hospers, though this did not alter the result.[34] Voter turnout reached 51.2 percent of the voting-eligible population, the highest since 1992, amid a strong economy with low unemployment and growth from the dot-com boom.[36] The election's decisive battleground was Florida, which carried 25 electoral votes and projected a narrow Bush lead of 1,783 votes (0.03 percent) from initial machine counts of over 5.8 million ballots.[37] Networks initially projected Bush's win, prompting Gore's concession call to Bush around 3:00 a.m. ET on November 8, which he retracted two hours later upon Florida's volatility.[38] Florida law triggered an automatic machine recount, narrowing Bush's margin to 327 votes by November 9.[37] Gore then requested manual recounts in four Democratic-leaning counties (Volusia, Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade) under punch-card voting systems prone to issues like "hanging chads" and undervotes, where ballots failed to register due to incomplete perforations or alignment errors.[39] Legal disputes escalated as Gore contested the certification. Florida Secretary of State Katherine Harris certified Bush's victory on November 26 with 2,912,790 votes to Gore's 2,912,253—a 537-vote margin—while partial manual recounts in the requested counties yielded inconsistent gains for Gore amid varying standards for what constituted a valid vote (e.g., dimpled vs. fully punched chads).[37] The Florida Supreme Court, in a 4-3 ruling on December 8, ordered a statewide manual recount of undervotes but excluded overvotes, extending deadlines past the federal "safe harbor" date of December 12 for electors.[39] Bush appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which on December 9 vacated the order in Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board for lacking clear standards.[37] In the landmark Bush v. Gore decision on December 12, the Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that Florida's recount violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, as county-by-county standards varied arbitrarily without uniform guidelines for voter intent, and no feasible remedy existed before the electoral deadline.[39][37] The per curiam opinion halted further recounts, effectively affirming Florida's certification for Bush and securing his presidency; Gore conceded the next day.[34] Critics, including the dissenters led by Justice John Paul Stevens, argued the ruling undermined democratic processes and lacked precedential value, as noted in the opinion's explicit limitation to the case's unique facts.[37] Post-election analyses, including a 2001 consortium review of all Florida ballots using uniform standards, found Bush would have prevailed by 493 to 1,225 votes depending on criteria, underscoring the razor-thin margins but affirming no outcome reversal under consistent rules.[38] The controversy highlighted vulnerabilities in decentralized election administration, punch-card technology flaws, and the electoral college's winner-take-all dynamics in close states.[39]International Elections and Regime Changes
In Croatia, following the death of President Franjo Tuđman on December 10, 1999, parliamentary elections held on January 3, 2000, resulted in a victory for an opposition coalition led by the Social Democratic Party, which secured 44% of the vote and ended the Croatian Democratic Union's (HDZ) decade-long dominance amid allegations of corruption and authoritarianism during Tuđman's rule.[40] Presidential elections followed on January 24, with a runoff on February 7, in which Stipe Mesić of the Croatian People's Party won 56% of the vote against Dražen Budiša, marking a shift toward liberalization and cooperation with international tribunals on war crimes from the Yugoslav conflicts.[40] Taiwan held its third direct presidential election on March 18, 2000, where Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui-bian secured 39.3% of the vote, defeating Kuomintang (KMT) incumbent Vice President Lien Chan and independent James Soong in a fragmented field that split the KMT base, thus ending the KMT's uninterrupted control of the presidency since 1949 and signaling a pro-independence tilt in Taiwanese politics.[41] Voter turnout reached 83%, reflecting high engagement amid tensions with mainland China, which responded with missile tests prior to the vote.[41] Russia's presidential election on March 26, 2000, saw acting President Vladimir Putin win 52.94% of the vote in the first round, avoiding a runoff and consolidating power after Boris Yeltsin's resignation on December 31, 1999; U.S. diplomatic assessments described the process as reasonably free and fair despite media bias favoring Putin and limited opposition visibility.[42] Mexico's July 2, 2000, general election delivered a landmark defeat to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which had governed uninterrupted since 1929, as National Action Party candidate Vicente Fox obtained 42.52% of the presidential vote to PRI's Francisco Labastida's 36.1%, with independent oversight by the Federal Electoral Institute ensuring transparency through reforms implemented in the 1990s.[43] In Peru, President Alberto Fujimori's bid for a third term culminated in a May 28, 2000, runoff victory with 52.2% against Alejandro Toledo, but the process faced international criticism for irregularities, including media control and vote-buying allegations documented by observers; a subsequent scandal involving bribery videos released in September forced Fujimori's resignation on November 21 from Japan, triggering a constitutional crisis and interim governance under Valentín Paniagua until elections in 2001.[44] The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's September 24, 2000, general elections triggered the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, as opposition candidate Vojislav Koštunica claimed a first-round presidential win with over 50% based on parallel tallies, rejecting official results showing a runoff; mass protests on October 5, known as the Bulldozer Revolution, stormed federal institutions, compelling Milošević's resignation on October 6 after military non-intervention and international isolation post-Kosovo War.[45]Ongoing Conflicts and Diplomatic Developments
In 2000, the world experienced 25 major armed conflicts across 23 locations, a slight decline from 27 in 1999, with most being intrastate rather than interstate.[46] Prominent ongoing conflicts included the Second Chechen War, where Russian forces continued operations against separatist militants following the 1999 invasion, resulting in heavy casualties and allegations of human rights abuses.[46] The Second Congo War persisted as Africa's deadliest conflict, involving multiple foreign armies and rebel groups, with fighting concentrated in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and spilling into neighboring states, exacerbating humanitarian crises.[46] Other sustained intrastate struggles encompassed Colombia's battle against FARC and ELN insurgents, Sierra Leone's civil war between government forces and the Revolutionary United Front, and Angola's conflict with UNITA rebels, all marked by high battle-related deaths exceeding 1,000 annually.[46] Interstate warfare saw limited activity, primarily the India-Pakistan clashes in Kashmir and the protracted Eritrea-Ethiopia border war, which had displaced hundreds of thousands since 1998.[46] The latter concluded with the Algiers Agreement signed on December 12, 2000, establishing a ceasefire, a neutral boundary commission, and UN peacekeeping deployment to monitor the border, though implementation disputes lingered.[47] A significant escalation occurred in the Israeli-Palestinian arena with the onset of the Second Intifada on September 28, 2000, triggered by Ariel Sharon's visit to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, leading to widespread protests that evolved into sustained violence, including riots, shootings, and bombings across Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza.[48] Diplomatic initiatives yielded mixed results amid these tensions. The Camp David Summit, convened from July 11 to 25, 2000, under U.S. President Bill Clinton, sought a final-status agreement between Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat, addressing borders, Jerusalem, refugees, and security; it collapsed without consensus, with core disputes over territorial contiguity and holy sites unresolved.[49] In contrast, the first Inter-Korean Summit on June 13–15, 2000, in Pyongyang marked a breakthrough, as South Korean President Kim Dae-jung met North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, producing the June 15th North-South Joint Declaration committing to reconciliation, family reunions, and economic cooperation, though subsequent implementation faltered.[50] The UN Millennium Summit in September gathered world leaders to adopt the Millennium Development Goals, emphasizing poverty reduction and global security, while Yugoslavia's September–October elections paved the way for Slobodan Milošević's ouster, signaling potential stabilization in the Balkans through democratic transition.Economic Developments
Dot-Com Bubble and Recession Signals
The NASDAQ Composite Index reached its all-time high of 5,048.62 on March 10, 2000, marking the peak of the dot-com bubble characterized by speculative valuations of internet-related companies.[51][3] Following this apex, the index declined sharply, losing over 20% by April 2000 and continuing to fall amid revelations of unsustainable business models and lack of profitability among many tech firms.[52][53] In response to an overheating economy fueled by low interest rates and exuberant investment, the U.S. Federal Reserve implemented six rate hikes between June 1999 and May 2000, elevating the federal funds rate to 6.5% to temper inflationary pressures and speculative excess.[54][55] These tightening measures, intended to cool the rapid expansion, contributed to the unraveling of overleveraged dot-com ventures, as higher borrowing costs exposed vulnerabilities in cash-burning startups.[51] Prominent failures underscored recessionary signals, including the bankruptcy of Boo.com on May 18, 2000, after expending $135 million in venture capital within 18 months on an unprofitable online fashion platform, and Pets.com's collapse later that year following $147 million in losses over nine months.[56][57] Other high-profile insolvencies, such as eToys.com and 360networks, highlighted systemic overinvestment, with hundreds of tech firms folding and over $5 trillion in market value evaporating by 2002.[51][58] Despite robust U.S. GDP growth of approximately 4% in real terms during 2000, driven partly by Y2K-related expenditures, the tech sector's contraction presaged broader weakness, with unemployment beginning to tick upward from historic lows and corporate layoffs surging in information technology industries.[59][60] These developments signaled the onset of the early 2000s recession, as the burst bubble transitioned from financial market turmoil to real economic drag through reduced investment and consumer confidence.[61]Global Financial Markets and Y2K Economic Effects
Global financial markets entered 2000 amid extensive preparations for the Y2K rollover, with estimated worldwide remediation costs ranging from $300 billion to $600 billion, primarily directed toward updating legacy systems in banking, trading platforms, and payment infrastructures to prevent date-related failures.[2] In the United States alone, public and private sector spending exceeded $100 billion, functioning as a temporary economic stimulus through accelerated IT investments and inventory stockpiling that boosted GDP in late 1999, though this created a partial offset via reduced activity in early 2000.[62] [63] These expenditures, while diverting funds from other uses, underscored the financial sector's vulnerability, as outdated mainframe systems prevalent in banks and exchanges risked disruptions in transaction processing, interest calculations, and clearing operations.[64] [65] The actual Y2K transition on January 1, 2000, produced negligible disruptions in global markets, with major exchanges in Asia—such as Singapore and Hong Kong—opening smoothly and reporting no systemic issues in stock, bond, or forex trading.[66] European and U.S. markets followed suit upon reopening on January 3 and 4, respectively, where initial trading sessions saw stability and even brief rallies as Y2K fears dissipated without incident, confirming the efficacy of preemptive fixes.[67] [68] However, this relief was short-lived; by January 4, U.S. stocks pulled back amid renewed concerns over interest rate hikes rather than Y2K remnants, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average declining 1.2% that day as bond yields rose.[69] Globally, similar patterns emerged, as euphoria from the uneventful rollover yielded to rate fears, causing sharp drops in indices like Japan's Nikkei and Europe's FTSE by early January.[70] Y2K uncertainties had influenced pre-rollover dynamics, including safe-haven flows into the U.S. dollar that strained forex market liquidity and widened bid-ask spreads in late 1999, effects that lingered minimally into 2000 without broader contagion.[71] Empirical data from the period shows no evidence of Y2K-induced crashes or prolonged volatility in major indices; for instance, the NASDAQ Composite, heavily weighted toward tech amid Y2K preparations, continued its ascent to a March 10 peak before unrelated dot-com pressures prevailed.[72] Overall, the event's economic footprint in 2000 was dwarfed by subsequent recession signals, with Y2K serving more as a successful case of proactive risk mitigation than a catalyst for market turmoil.[2]Labor and Productivity Trends
In the United States, labor productivity in the nonfarm business sector grew by 2.6 percent in 2000, continuing the acceleration observed since the mid-1990s due to widespread adoption of information technology that enhanced efficiency across sectors. This growth outpaced the 1.5 percent average annual increase from 2000 to 2023, reflecting the peak effects of capital deepening in computing and software.[73] Concurrently, the civilian unemployment rate averaged 4.0 percent, near historic lows, signaling a tight labor market that pressured wages upward without immediate inflationary spirals.[74] Nonfarm payroll employment expanded by 2.3 million jobs over the year, with gains concentrated in services, particularly professional and business services amid the dot-com expansion, while manufacturing added fewer positions amid shifting global competition.[75] Productivity gains were uneven by industry; for instance, information sector productivity surged, contributing disproportionately to aggregate growth, whereas construction lagged.[76] These trends underscored causal links between technological investment and output per hour, rather than mere labor force expansion, as hours worked rose modestly by 0.4 percent.[77] Globally, OECD countries saw labor productivity levels begin a period of convergence starting around 2000, with lower-income members closing gaps through technology diffusion and structural reforms, though annual growth rates varied, averaging approximately 2 percent across the area.[78] In Europe, productivity growth was tempered by regulatory rigidities in labor markets, contrasting U.S. flexibility that facilitated rapid reallocation to high-productivity tech roles.| Key U.S. Labor Indicators, 2000 |
|---|
| Labor Productivity Growth (Nonfarm Business) |
| Unemployment Rate (Annual Average) |
| Nonfarm Jobs Added |
| Hours Worked Growth |
Science and Technology Advances
Computing and Software Milestones
Microsoft released Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000, marking a significant advancement in enterprise operating systems as the first general release of the Windows NT kernel to non-server consumers, emphasizing stability, Active Directory integration, and improved networking over consumer-oriented Windows 9x lines.[79] This version addressed longstanding reliability issues in prior Microsoft OSes, with features like Plug and Play enhancements and support for up to 32 processors in the Datacenter edition, facilitating broader adoption in business environments despite initial delays from security audits.[80] In software entertainment, Electronic Arts launched The Sims on February 4, 2000, in North America, introducing a life simulation genre that allowed players to control virtual characters' daily activities, relationships, and environments, ultimately selling over 16 million copies and spawning a franchise.[81] Concurrently, peer-to-peer file-sharing service Napster, launched in 1999, reached an estimated 20 million users by late 2000, enabling widespread unauthorized music distribution via centralized indexing, which accelerated debates on digital copyright but exposed vulnerabilities to legal challenges from the recording industry.[82] Hardware milestones included the USB Implementers Forum's release of the USB 2.0 specification on April 27, 2000, boosting maximum data transfer rates to 480 Mbps from USB 1.1's 12 Mbps, paving the way for high-speed peripherals like external hard drives and scanners.[83] Commercial USB flash drives debuted that year, with IBM's DiskOnKey (8 MB capacity) hitting markets in October and Trek 2000's ThumbDrive offering portable solid-state storage without moving parts, displacing floppy disks for data transfer.[84] Processor advancements saw Intel introduce the Pentium 4 on November 20, 2000, with initial 1.4–1.5 GHz models using the NetBurst architecture for higher clock speeds and SSE2 instructions, targeting multimedia and gaming workloads despite higher power consumption compared to Pentium III.[85] In gaming hardware, Sony launched the PlayStation 2 on March 4, 2000, in Japan (North America October 26), integrating a DVD player with the Emotion Engine CPU and Graphics Synthesizer for 3D rendering at 75 million polygons per second, achieving over 155 million units sold lifetime.[86] These developments underscored 2000's shift toward integrated multimedia computing amid the dot-com era's investment in broadband and digital content.Biological and Medical Breakthroughs
On June 26, 2000, U.S. President Bill Clinton announced the completion of a working draft of the human genome sequence, a collaborative effort between the publicly funded International Human Genome Project consortium—led by Francis Collins of the National Human Genome Research Institute—and the private company Celera Genomics, headed by J. Craig Venter.[87][88] The draft encompassed roughly 90% of the gene-containing euchromatic portions of the genome, with the consortium's version based on publicly available data and Celera's utilizing a whole-genome shotgun approach.[87] This milestone, achieved ahead of the original 2005 target, laid the groundwork for mapping approximately 20,000–25,000 human genes and identifying sequence variations, though full assembly and annotation required further refinement until 2003.[87] Concurrent genomic efforts included the publication of the complete Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) genome sequence on March 24, 2000, by a collaboration involving Celera and the Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project, revealing about 13,600 genes and conserved elements homologous to human disease-related sequences. This model organism sequencing advanced understanding of eukaryotic development, splicing, and polyadenylation mechanisms, facilitating comparative genomics. In medical technology, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the da Vinci Surgical System on July 11, 2000, for performing general laparoscopic procedures, expanding beyond its prior 1997 clearance for assistance-only roles.[89] Developed by Intuitive Surgical, the system employed stereoscopic visualization, wristed instruments, and tremor filtration to enhance precision in minimally invasive surgeries such as cholecystectomies and prostatectomies.[90] Advancements in cloning included the birth of five piglets cloned from somatic cells on March 14, 2000, by researchers at PPL Therapeutics in Scotland, demonstrating successful nuclear transfer in a large mammal relevant to xenotransplantation for human organ shortages. These clones, named Millie, Alexis, Carrel, Deborah, and Gail, survived initial viability challenges common in early mammalian cloning, though efficiency remained low at under 1%.Space and Engineering Achievements
The Zvezda Service Module, the third core component of the International Space Station (ISS), was launched on July 12, 2000, aboard a Russian Proton rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.[91] Docking automatically with the Zarya module on July 26, Zvezda provided essential life support systems, propulsion, and living quarters, enabling the station to support a permanent human crew for the first time.[92] This milestone marked a critical step in international cooperation, integrating Russian-built hardware with U.S. and other modules to form a functional orbital laboratory.[93] On October 31, 2000, Soyuz TM-31 lifted off from Baikonur carrying the Expedition 1 crew—Russian cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko as commander and Sergei Krikalev, alongside NASA astronaut William Shepherd—marking the first long-duration mission to the ISS.[94] The crew docked on November 2, 2000, initiating continuous human occupancy of the station, which has persisted uninterrupted since.[95] Over their 136-day residency, ending March 21, 2001, they conducted initial outfitting, systems checks, and early scientific experiments, laying the foundation for microgravity research in fields like materials science and biology.[96] NASA's NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft achieved a historic first on February 14, 2000, by entering orbit around the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros, approximately 196 million miles from Earth.[97] Over the subsequent year, the probe conducted detailed imaging, spectroscopy, and mapping from multiple orbits, revealing Eros's peanut-shaped structure, regolith composition, and gravitational field, which informed models of asteroid formation and evolution.[98] This engineering feat demonstrated precise autonomous navigation and low-thrust propulsion for deep-space targets, paving the way for future asteroid missions.[99] In navigation engineering, the U.S. government discontinued Selective Availability on May 1, 2000, per President Bill Clinton's directive, eliminating intentional degradation of civilian GPS signals.[100] This policy shift reduced positioning errors from roughly 100 meters to 10-20 meters under open skies, enhancing accuracy for applications in surveying, agriculture, and transportation without requiring differential corrections.[100] The decision reflected maturing satellite technology and growing civilian reliance on GPS, transitioning it from primarily military use to a global utility.[100] The Øresund Bridge, a 7.8-kilometer cable-stayed structure, opened to vehicular and rail traffic on July 1, 2000, linking Copenhagen, Denmark, with Malmö, Sweden, as part of the 16-kilometer Øresund Link incorporating a submerged tunnel and artificial island Peberholm.[101] Spanning the Øresund strait with a main span of 490 meters and towers rising 204 meters, the project—initiated in 1995—facilitated seamless cross-border integration, boosting economic ties and daily commuting between the two nations.[102] Its design accommodated both four road lanes and dual rail tracks while minimizing maritime disruption via a high-level navigation span, exemplifying advanced civil engineering in hybrid bridge-tunnel systems.[101]Culture and Society
Millennium Celebrations and Public Sentiment
Global celebrations marking the transition from 1999 to 2000 featured coordinated New Year's Eve events across time zones, beginning in Kiribati and progressing westward with fireworks displays in major cities. Sydney hosted a prominent fireworks show centered on the Harbour Bridge, incorporating the famous "Eternity" graffito, while New York City's Times Square drew record crowds amid confetti, neon lights, and fireworks, described as the venue's largest party to date.[103][104] In the United States, cities like Washington, D.C., illuminated landmarks such as the Washington Monument with special effects, and San Francisco's Embarcadero saw crowds igniting fireworks.[105][106] The United States also initiated international observances, including designating February 29, 2000, as International Leap Year Day to promote global unity.[107] Public sentiment leading into the millennium blended anticipation for technological and societal progress with apprehension over the Y2K computer glitch, though polls indicated widespread calm rather than panic. A Gallup survey found most Americans unalarmed by potential disruptions, with concern levels remaining low despite media coverage.[108] Similarly, a National Association of Manufacturers survey reported 93 percent of respondents anticipating minimal or no business impact from Y2K.[109] An Ipsos World Poll across 21 countries revealed majorities in 13 nations expecting the bug to cause only minor issues, reflecting pragmatic preparation over hysteria.[110] Many planned quiet gatherings with family and friends, with 68 percent intending to celebrate domestically at midnight.[111] The absence of widespread Y2K failures—limited to isolated minor glitches—contributed to post-celebration relief and vindication of contingency efforts by governments and businesses, fostering a sense of triumph over predicted chaos. A CBS News poll beforehand estimated 60 percent of Americans expected personal inconveniences but only 8 percent foresaw major problems, aligning with the uneventful outcome.[112] Retrospective views, including a 2024 YouGov survey, confirm that older Americans largely regard Y2K as an overhyped concern, underscoring how preparations mitigated risks without justifying the scale of pre-millennium anxiety.[113] Overall, the festivities symbolized optimism for the third millennium, tempered by empirical caution rather than unfounded dread.Entertainment Releases and Cultural Shifts
In film, 2000 featured several high-grossing releases amid a recovering box office following Y2K concerns. How the Grinch Stole Christmas topped domestic earnings with $260 million, driven by Jim Carrey's performance and holiday timing.[114] Mission: Impossible II, directed by John Woo, earned $215 million domestically, boosted by Tom Cruise's star power and action sequences.[115] Gladiator, Ridley Scott's historical epic starring Russell Crowe, grossed $188 million domestically and won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture, for its depiction of Roman vengeance and spectacle.[114] Cast Away, with Tom Hanks isolated on an island, achieved $233 million in domestic sales, emphasizing survival themes that resonated post-millennium.[115] Music releases highlighted pop and hip-hop dominance. NSYNC's No Strings Attached sold nearly 9.94 million copies in the U.S., setting a one-week sales record of 2.4 million and exemplifying boy band commercial peaks before fragmentation. Eminem's The Marshall Mathers LP moved over 1.76 million copies in its debut week, totaling 9 million by year-end, with tracks like "The Real Slim Shady" sparking debates on lyrical content amid parental advisory controversies.[116] Santana's Supernatural continued success from 1999 into 2000, winning nine Grammys including Album of the Year for its fusion of rock and Latin influences. Television saw the debut of Survivor on CBS on May 31, averaging 28 million viewers per episode and launching the reality TV genre's expansion by prioritizing competition and unscripted drama over traditional narratives.[117] Big Brother premiered on CBS in July, introducing 24-hour surveillance formats that influenced voyeuristic programming trends.[118] MTV's Jackass began October 1, popularizing stunt-based humor and risk-taking content among youth audiences.[117] Video games marked technical advances, with Deus Ex releasing in June as a pioneering immersive sim blending RPG and FPS elements for player agency.[119] Diablo II launched June 29, selling over 4 million copies by 2001 and establishing loot-driven action RPG standards.[120] The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask debuted April 27 on Nintendo 64, innovating time-loop mechanics amid the console's late lifecycle.[121] Literature bestsellers included J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, released July 8 and selling 3.9 million U.S. copies in its first weekend, fueling young adult fantasy's mainstream surge.[122] Spencer Johnson's Who Moved My Cheese? topped nonfiction lists, selling millions with its parable on adapting to change amid economic uncertainties.[123] Cultural shifts reflected Y2K's anticlimax, shifting media from apocalyptic fears to millennial optimism and personal reinvention narratives. Reality TV's rise with Survivor democratized fame, prioritizing ordinary participants over scripted stars and foreshadowing social media's influence on celebrity.[17] Napster's 2000 peak, with 80 million users sharing MP3s, challenged music industry models, accelerating digital piracy debates and file-sharing's causal role in format disruptions.[15] Hip-hop's mainstreaming via Eminem diversified pop, while boy band sales signaled transient fads amid fragmenting audiences.Sports Highlights and Records
The 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, hosted from September 15 to October 1, featured 10,651 athletes from 199 nations competing in 300 events across 34 sports, marking the first Games of the new millennium and the second held in Australia.[5] Australia achieved its best Olympic performance as host with 58 medals, including 16 golds, fueled by home crowd support and strong showings in swimming and athletics.[124] The United States led the medal standings with 93 total medals, while Australian swimmer Ian Thorpe set a world record of 3:40.17 in the men's 400-meter freestyle, securing gold and establishing dominance with three golds and two silvers overall.[5] Aboriginal sprinter Cathy Freeman won gold in the women's 400 meters, a culturally resonant victory as the final torchbearer who lit the cauldron during the opening ceremony.[5] In American football, the St. Louis Rams defeated the Tennessee Titans 23-16 in Super Bowl XXXIV on January 30 at the Georgia Dome, clinching the Rams' first NFL championship since relocating from Los Angeles.[125] Quarterback Kurt Warner, in his breakout season, threw for 414 yards and two touchdowns, earning MVP honors in a game decided by Mike Jones' goal-line tackle on Titans' wide receiver Kevin Dyson short of the end zone as time expired.[125] Basketball saw the Los Angeles Lakers win their first NBA championship in a decade, defeating the Indiana Pacers 4-2 in the Finals from June 7 to 19, with Shaquille O'Neal averaging 38.0 points and 16.7 rebounds per game to claim unanimous Finals MVP.[126] O'Neal's dominance included a 40-point, 24-rebound performance in Game 2, while Kobe Bryant contributed key scoring in the clinching Game 6 victory, 116-111.[127] Major League Baseball's World Series, a rare "Subway Series" matchup between the New York Yankees and New York Mets, concluded with the Yankees prevailing 4-1 from October 21 to 26, securing their third consecutive title and 26th overall.[128] Derek Jeter was named MVP after batting .409 with two home runs, including a pivotal Game 4 homer that helped the Yankees rally from a 5-0 deficit; the series featured intense crosstown rivalry games at Yankee Stadium and Shea Stadium.[128] In soccer, France defended their 1998 World Cup form by winning UEFA Euro 2000, defeating Italy 2-1 in the final on July 2 in Rotterdam via David Trezeguet's golden goal in extra time after Sylvain Wiltord's equalizer in stoppage time of regular play.[129] The tournament, co-hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands, showcased France's attacking prowess led by Zinedine Zidane, who scored twice in a 3-0 quarterfinal win over Spain.[130] Tennis Grand Slams in 2000 highlighted transitions: Andre Agassi won the Australian Open men's singles on January 30, Gustavo Kuerten claimed the French Open on June 11, Pete Sampras took Wimbledon on July 9 for his 13th major, and Marat Safin captured the US Open on September 10 in his breakout victory over Pete Sampras.[131] Women’s titles went to Lindsay Davenport at the Australian Open and US Open, Mary Pierce at the French Open, and Venus Williams at Wimbledon.[131]Disasters and Crises
Transportation and Industrial Accidents
On January 31, 2000, Alaska Airlines Flight 261, a McDonnell Douglas MD-83 operating from Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, to Seattle, Washington, with a stop in San Francisco, crashed into the Pacific Ocean approximately 2.5 miles (4 km) north of Anacapa Island, California, after suffering an in-flight failure of the horizontal stabilizer trim system.[132] The jackscrew assembly, which controls the horizontal stabilizer's pitch trim, had suffered excessive wear due to inadequate lubrication and maintenance practices, leading to thread stripping and loss of control; the aircraft inverted and plummeted into the sea, killing all 93 people on board, including 83 passengers, 5 crew members, and the 5-person flight crew.[132] The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigation highlighted Alaska Airlines' cost-cutting measures and deferred maintenance as contributing factors, resulting in FAA grounding of similar MD-80 aircraft for inspections and subsequent regulatory changes on jackscrew maintenance.[133] The deadliest aviation accident of the year occurred on July 25, 2000, when Air France Flight 4590, a supersonic Concorde bound for New York from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, crashed into a hotel in Gonesse shortly after takeoff.[134] Debris from a preceding Continental Airlines McDonnell Douglas DC-10, including a worn tire fragment, punctured the Concorde's left main tire during rotation, causing tire fragments to rupture a fuel tank and ignite a fire that disabled critical systems, leading to loss of control and crash less than two minutes after departure; all 109 people aboard (96 passengers and 9 crew, including 4 Germans) perished, along with 4 people on the ground, for a total of 113 fatalities.[134] The French Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses (BEA) determined the chain of events stemmed from inadequate runway debris inspection protocols and tire design vulnerabilities, prompting global suspension of Concorde operations, mandatory tire and fuel tank modifications before resumption in November 2001, and accelerated retirement of the fleet by 2003.[135] In maritime transportation, the sinking of the Greek ferry MV Express Samina on September 26, 2000, off the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea claimed 81 lives out of 474 passengers and 35 crew. The roll-on/roll-on passenger ferry struck rocky shoals at high speed after the captain left the bridge unattended, with the vessel on autopilot set incorrectly, exacerbated by open vehicle deck doors allowing water ingress and rapid listing; most deaths resulted from drowning amid chaotic evacuation in rough seas.[136] Greek maritime authorities cited crew negligence and poor safety compliance, leading to stricter ferry regulations, captain imprisonment, and enhanced autopilot safeguards in the sector.[137] The most significant industrial accident was the Enschede fireworks disaster on May 13, 2000, at the S.E. Fireworks storage facility in a residential area of Enschede, Netherlands, where a fire ignited illegal stockpiles, culminating in multiple explosions equivalent to 777 tons of TNT.[138] The blasts killed 23 people (including 4 firefighters), injured nearly 1,000, destroyed over 400 homes, and forced the evacuation of 10,000 residents, with damage extending over 1.5 km.[139] Investigations by Dutch safety authorities revealed gross overstorage of fireworks (far exceeding permits), inadequate fire safety measures, and lax regulatory oversight, resulting in criminal convictions for company executives, stricter explosives storage laws across the EU, and the demolition of the affected Roombeek neighborhood for reconstruction.[140] Globally, road transportation saw numerous collisions with multiple fatalities, though no single event dominated headlines like the aviation incidents; in the United States alone, motor vehicle crashes resulted in 41,821 deaths, a slight decline from prior years, attributed to improved vehicle safety features and enforcement.[141] Notable multi-fatality crashes included bus and truck pileups in developing regions, such as those in India exceeding 20 deaths per incident due to overloading and poor infrastructure, but aggregate data underscored persistent risks from speeding and impairment.[142] Rail incidents were fewer, with events like the February 15 Tebay derailment in the UK killing 4 workers when a maintenance truck collided with a passenger train, prompting enhanced trackside safety protocols. Overall, these accidents highlighted systemic issues in maintenance, regulation, and human factors across sectors.Military and Environmental Incidents
On August 12, 2000, the Russian Navy's Oscar II-class nuclear-powered submarine K-141 Kursk sank during military exercises in the Barents Sea, resulting in the loss of all 118 crew members.[143] The vessel imploded after a faulty torpedo exploded, likely due to a hydrogen peroxide leak igniting high-test peroxide fuel, causing a secondary blast that flooded compartments and sent the submarine to depths of about 108 meters.[144] Rescue efforts were hampered by equipment failures and delayed international assistance offers, with the submarine's hatch ultimately unopenable; official investigations attributed the sinking to the initial explosion rather than collision claims later advanced by some Russian officials.[145] On October 12, 2000, al-Qaeda operatives conducted a suicide bombing against the U.S. Navy destroyer USS Cole while it refueled in Aden Harbor, Yemen, killing 17 American sailors and wounding 39 others.[146] The attackers approached in a small, explosive-laden boat, detonating approximately 400-700 pounds of C-4 equivalent explosives that ripped a 40-by-40-foot hole in the ship's hull, nearly sinking it but for rapid damage control by the crew.[147] The incident, planned by al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, highlighted vulnerabilities in port security and preceded the September 11 attacks by 11 months, prompting U.S. military reviews of force protection protocols.[146] In the environmental domain, the Baia Mare cyanide spill occurred on January 30, 2000, when a tailings dam at the Aurul S.A. gold mine in Baia Mare, Romania, breached during a period of extreme cold, releasing about 100,000 cubic meters of cyanide- and heavy metal-contaminated wastewater into the Someș River.[148] The toxic plume flowed downstream into the Tisza River and ultimately the Danube, killing an estimated 100,000-500,000 fish across hundreds of kilometers and contaminating drinking water sources in Hungary and Yugoslavia (now Serbia), where free cyanide levels reached up to 1 mg/L, far exceeding safety thresholds.[149] Joint UN and EU assessments documented long-term ecological damage, including sediment contamination and biodiversity loss, attributing the failure to inadequate dam design, poor maintenance, and failure to account for freezing conditions, leading to stricter EU mining waste regulations.[150]Demographics and Vital Statistics
World Population Estimates
The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs estimated the world population at 6.1 billion as of mid-2000, based on its 2000 Revision of World Population Prospects, which incorporated census data, vital registration systems, and sample surveys from member states adjusted for underreporting and migration.[151] This figure marked a continuation of rapid growth following the milestone of reaching 6 billion in late 1999, with an annual increase of approximately 77 million people, equivalent to a 1.3 percent growth rate driven primarily by high fertility in developing regions and declining mortality rates globally.[151] Demographic projections in the 2000 Revision highlighted regional disparities, with Asia accounting for about 60 percent of the total (roughly 3.7 billion), Africa at 13 percent (around 800 million) amid accelerating growth, and Europe at 12 percent (about 730 million) experiencing near-zero or negative natural increase in several countries due to sub-replacement fertility below 2.1 births per woman.[152] These estimates relied on medium-variant assumptions of converging fertility toward replacement levels and steady life expectancy gains to 75 years by 2050, though uncertainties persisted from incomplete data in high-burden areas like sub-Saharan Africa. Independent analyses, such as those from the Population Reference Bureau, placed the 2000 figure slightly lower at 6.149 billion, reflecting minor methodological differences in baseline adjustments but affirming the UN's assessment as the benchmark for international policy.[153]Notable Births
Erling Haaland, a Norwegian professional footballer renowned for his goal-scoring prowess and records including 36 Premier League goals in a single 2022-2023 season, was born on July 21, 2000. Ice Spice (born Isis Naija Gaston), an American rapper who achieved mainstream success with drill-influenced tracks like "Munch (Feelin' U)" and collaborations with artists such as Taylor Swift, was born on January 1, 2000.[154] Halle Bailey, an American singer and actress who gained prominence as part of the duo Chloe x Halle and for her role as Ariel in Disney's 2023 live-action The Little Mermaid, was born on March 27, 2000.[155] Khaby Lame, a Senegalese-Italian social media influencer who became TikTok's most-followed individual with over 162 million followers by 2024 through silent reaction videos critiquing overly complicated life hacks, was born on March 9, 2000.[156] Mackenzie Foy, an American actress known for roles in films such as Interstellar (2014) as young Murph and The Nutcracker and the Four Realms (2018), was born on November 10, 2000.[157]Notable Deaths
Hedy Lamarr (born November 9, 1914), the Austrian-born actress famed for films like Algiers (1938) and co-inventor of frequency-hopping technology foundational to modern Wi-Fi and GPS, died on January 19 in Casselberry, Florida, from heart failure at age 85.[158] Charles M. Schulz (1922–2000), creator of the Peanuts comic strip featuring Charlie Brown and Snoopy, which appeared in over 2,600 newspapers and reached 355 million readers daily, died on February 12 in Santa Rosa, California, from complications of colon cancer at age 77, hours after dictating his final strip.[159] John Cardinal O'Connor (1920–2000), Archbishop of New York from 1984 to 2000 and a vocal advocate for Catholic social teachings on life issues and labor rights, died on May 3 in New York City from cardiopulmonary arrest at age 80.[160] Walter Matthau (1920–2000), Academy Award-winning actor for The Fortune Cookie (1966) and known for roles in The Odd Couple (1968) alongside Jack Lemmon, died on July 1 in Santa Monica, California, from a heart attack at age 79.[161] Alec Guinness (1914–2000), British actor knighted in 1959 for his stage and film work including Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949) and Obi-Wan Kenobi in Star Wars (1977), died on August 5 in Midhurst, England, from liver cancer at age 86.[162] Pierre Trudeau (1919–2000), Prime Minister of Canada for 15 years across two terms (1968–1979, 1980–1984) who patriated the constitution via the Constitution Act of 1982, died on September 28 in Montreal from prostate cancer at age 80.[163] Jason Robards (1922–2000), two-time Academy Award winner for All the President's Men (1976) and Julia (1977), renowned for embodying Eugene O'Neill characters on stage and screen, died on December 26 in Bridgeport, Connecticut, from lung cancer at age 78.[164]Awards and Recognitions
Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prizes for 2000 were awarded to 11 laureates across six categories for contributions advancing human knowledge and welfare.[165]| Category | Laureate(s) | Rationale |
|---|---|---|
| Physics | Zhores I. Alferov (Russia) and Herbert Kroemer (USA), one-half jointly; Jack S. Kilby (USA), the other half | For basic work on information and communication technology: Alferov and Kroemer for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics; Kilby for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit.[166] |
| Chemistry | Alan J. Heeger (USA), Alan G. MacDiarmid (USA/New Zealand), and Hideki Shirakawa (Japan) | For the discovery and development of conductive polymers.[167] |
| Physiology or Medicine | Arvid Carlsson (Sweden), Paul Greengard (USA), and Eric R. Kandel (USA) | For their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system.[168] |
| Literature | Gao Xingjian (France/China) | For an œuvre of universal validity, bitter insights and linguistic ingenuity.[169] |
| Peace | Kim Dae-jung (South Korea) | For his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular.[170] |
| Economic Sciences | James J. Heckman (USA) and Daniel L. McFadden (USA), divided equally | Heckman for his development of theory and methods for analyzing selective samples; McFadden for his development of theory and methods for analyzing discrete choice.[171] |