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Free algebra

In ring theory, the free algebra over a commutative ring R generated by a set X, denoted R\langle X \rangle, is the universal associative R-algebra freely generated by X, consisting of all finite linear combinations with coefficients in R of words (non-commuting monomials) formed from elements of X, where multiplication is given by concatenation of words.^[1] This makes R\langle X \rangle the noncommutative analogue of the polynomial ring R[X], with no imposed relations among the generators beyond associativity.^[1] A defining feature of the free algebra is its universal property: for any associative unital R-algebra A and any function f: X \to A, there exists a unique unital R-algebra homomorphism \tilde{f}: R\langle X \rangle \to A such that \tilde{f}(x) = f(x) for all x \in X.^[1] As an R-module, R\langle X \rangle is free with basis the set of all finite words in X, including the empty word (the multiplicative identity), allowing every element to be uniquely expressed as \sum r_w w over words w with only finitely many nonzero coefficients r_w \in R.^[1] When R is a field k and X is finite, k\langle X \rangle is a domain, meaning it has no zero divisors, by Amitsur's theorem.^[2] Free algebras play a central role in noncommutative algebra, serving as the starting point for studying quotients by ideals (such as path algebras of quivers or universal enveloping algebras of Lie algebras) and in the theory of polynomial identities, where varieties of algebras are classified via T-ideals in k\langle X \rangle.^[1] They also arise in representation theory, as the algebra of generic matrices k\langle X_{ij} \rangle (for n \times n generic matrices) admits faithful representations into matrix algebras over k, facilitating the study of invariants under conjugation.^[2] In broader contexts, free algebras underpin free probability theory and noncommutative geometry, where they model operator algebras without relations.^[3]^[4]

Core Definition

Formal Definition

In abstract algebra, the free algebra over a commutative ring R generated by a set X (finite or infinite) is the "freest" associative unital R-algebra generated by X, meaning it imposes no relations on the elements of X beyond those required for associativity and the ring structure.^[5] It consists of all finite linear combinations of words formed from elements of X, where words are elements of the free monoid X^* on X.^[5] Explicitly, the free algebra, denoted R\langle X \rangle, is constructed as the free R-module with basis the set of all words in X^*, including the empty word \epsilon which acts as the multiplicative identity $1.^[5] Elements of R\langle X \rangle are formal sums

\sum_{w \in X^*} r_w w,

where r_w \in R are coefficients with only finitely many nonzero, addition is componentwise, and multiplication is defined by concatenation of words extended R-linearly (i.e., (r w)(s w') = rs (w w') for words w, w' \in X^* and r, s \in R).^[5] This structure ensures distributivity and associativity of multiplication over addition.^[5] When relations are imposed requiring the generators in X to commute (i.e., the quotient by the two-sided ideal generated by all commutators [x,y] for x,y \in X), the free algebra specializes to the commutative polynomial ring R[X] over R.^[5]

Notation and Basic Elements

The free algebra over a commutative ring R with unity, generated by a set X of indeterminates, is commonly denoted by R\langle X \rangle. For a finite generating set X = \{X_1, \dots, X_n\}, the notation simplifies to R\langle X_1, \dots, X_n \rangle.^[6] This notation emphasizes the noncommutative nature of the algebra, distinguishing it from the commutative polynomial ring R[X]. Elements of R\langle X \rangle are noncommutative polynomials, expressed as finite sums of the form \sum a_{i_1 \dots i_k} X_{i_1} \cdots X_{i_k}, where each k \geq 0, the indices i_1, \dots, i_k range over the elements of X, and the coefficients a_{i_1 \dots i_k} belong to R with only finitely many nonzero terms.^[7] These polynomials are formal linear combinations over the free monoid X^* generated by X, where the empty word corresponds to scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity $1 \in R. For instance, a general element might take the form \alpha X_1 X_2 + \beta X_3 + \gamma, with \alpha, \beta, \gamma \in R. Multiplication in R\langle X \rangle is defined bilinearly and distributively, extending the concatenation of words in X^*: if p = \sum_w a_w w and q = \sum_v b_v v with a_w, b_v \in R, then p q = \sum_{w,v} (a_w b_v) (w v), where w v denotes the concatenated word.^[6] As an example, consider the product (\alpha X_1 X_2 + \beta X_3)(\gamma X_1) = \alpha \gamma X_1 X_2 X_1 + \beta \gamma X_3 X_1, illustrating how coefficients multiply and words concatenate without commuting the generators.

Universal Property

Adjunction in Category Theory

In category theory, the free algebra R\langle X \rangle over a commutative ring R on a set X satisfies a universal property that characterizes it up to unique isomorphism. Specifically, for any R-algebra A and any set map f: X \to A, there exists a unique R-algebra homomorphism \tilde{f}: R\langle X \rangle \to A extending f, such that \tilde{f} maps each word w = x_1 \cdots x_k in the non-commutative monoid generated by X to the product f(x_1) \cdots f(x_k) in A. This induces a natural isomorphism of hom-sets \mathrm{Hom}_{R\text{-Alg}}(R\langle X \rangle, A) \cong \mathrm{Hom}_{\mathrm{Set}}(X, A).^[8] This universal property arises because the free algebra functor F: \mathrm{Set} \to R\text{-Alg}, which sends X to R\langle X \rangle and includes the unit map \eta_X: X \to U(R\langle X \rangle) (where U: R\text{-Alg} \to \mathrm{Set} is the forgetful functor), is left adjoint to U. The adjunction F \dashv U consists of the unit \eta: \mathrm{Id}_{\mathrm{Set}} \to U F and counit \varepsilon: F U \to \mathrm{Id}_{R\text{-Alg}}, satisfying the triangle identities, and ensures that F preserves all colimits.^[9]^[8] The adjunction can be depicted diagrammatically: given a set map X \to A (factoring through U), it induces a unique R-algebra map R\langle X \rangle \to A making the triangle

\begin{tikzcd} X \arrow[r, "\eta_X"] \arrow[dr, "f"'] & U(R\langle X \rangle) \arrow[d, "U(\tilde{f})"] \\ & A \end{tikzcd}

commute, where \tilde{f} is the transpose of f.^[8] As a consequence, every R-algebra generated by a set X (subject to some relations) is isomorphic to a quotient of the free algebra R\langle X \rangle by the ideal of relations imposed on the generators. This follows from the universal property, which allows relations to be enforced via coequalizers in the category of R-algebras, preserved by the forgetful functor.^[8]

Functoriality and Homomorphisms

The functor that assigns to each set X the free R-algebra R\langle X \rangle defines a covariant functor F: \mathbf{Set} \to \mathbf{R}\text{-}\mathbf{[Alg](/page/Algebra)}, where \mathbf{R}\text{-}\mathbf{Alg} denotes the category of associative unital R-algebras and R-algebra homomorphisms. This functor is left adjoint to the forgetful functor from \mathbf{R}\text{-}\mathbf{Alg} to \mathbf{Set}, which sends an R-algebra to its underlying set.^[10] Moreover, F preserves coproducts, as the coproduct in \mathbf{Set} is the disjoint union \sqcup, and R\langle X \sqcup Y \rangle \cong R\langle X \rangle \otimes_R R\langle Y \rangle in \mathbf{R}\text{-}\mathbf{Alg}, where the isomorphism arises from the universal property of free algebras and the tensor product construction of coproducts in the category of R-algebras.^[11] For infinite sets, F also preserves direct sums, since the direct sum in \mathbf{Set} coincides with the coproduct (disjoint union), and the free algebra functor maps it to the corresponding tensor product over R.^[10] Any R-algebra homomorphism \phi: R\langle X \rangle \to A to an arbitrary R-algebra A is uniquely determined by its values on the generators X = \{x_i \mid i \in I\}, where \phi(x_i) can be any elements of A. This follows from the universal property of the free algebra: the inclusion map \iota: X \hookrightarrow R\langle X \rangle induces a unique extension \phi that preserves the algebra structure, extending linearly and multiplicatively to all non-commutative polynomials in the x_i.^[10]^[12] For example, if X is finite, say X = \{x, y\}, then specifying \phi(x) = a and \phi(y) = b in A defines \phi on monomials like x y x by \phi(x y x) = a b a, and extends by R-linearity. The kernel \ker \phi of such a homomorphism is a two-sided ideal in R\langle X \rangle, generated by the relations imposed on the generators by their images in A. Specifically, if the map \phi enforces relations like \phi(x_i - r_j) = 0 for certain R-linear combinations r_j, then \ker \phi is the ideal generated by those relations, ensuring the quotient R\langle X \rangle / \ker \phi \cong \operatorname{im} \phi as R-algebras.^[10] This ideal generation reflects the minimal relations needed to present the image algebra via the generators X.^[13]

Algebraic Constructions

Monoid Ring Construction

The free monoid M = X^* on a set X consists of all finite words formed from elements of X, including the empty word \varepsilon, with the monoid operation given by concatenation of words.^[14] This structure captures the noncommutative sequences generated by X, serving as the foundational combinatorial object for the algebraic construction. The monoid algebra R[M], where R is a commutative ring with identity, is defined as the free R-module on the set M. Explicitly, it is the direct sum \bigoplus_{w \in M} R \cdot w, consisting of all finite formal linear combinations \sum_{w \in M} r_w w with r_w \in R and only finitely many nonzero coefficients.^[15] The addition is componentwise, and the multiplication is determined by bilinearity from the monoid operation:

\left( \sum_{w \in M} r_w w \right) \left( \sum_{v \in M} s_v v \right) = \sum_{w,v \in M} r_w s_v (w v),

where w v denotes the concatenation in M.^[14] This endows R[M] with a ring structure compatible with the R-module operations. The free algebra R\langle X \rangle on X is isomorphic to the monoid algebra R[X^*], via the map that sends each generator x \in X to the corresponding length-one word x in X^*, extending by linearity and preserving multiplication.^[15] This identification establishes R\langle X \rangle as the universal algebra generated by X with no relations other than associativity. This construction satisfies the universal property of the free algebra.^[14]

Tensor Algebra Construction

The tensor algebra of a module provides a module-theoretic construction of the free algebra, emphasizing its role in multilinear algebra and homological settings. For a commutative ring R and a free R-module V with basis X (so \dim_R V = |X|), the tensor algebra T(V) is defined as the direct sum

T(V) = \bigoplus_{k=0}^\infty V^{\otimes k},

where V^{\otimes 0} = R and V^{\otimes k} denotes the k-fold tensor power of V over R for k \geq 1. The multiplication in T(V) is induced by the tensor product: for homogeneous elements u \in V^{\otimes m} and v \in V^{\otimes n}, the product u \cdot v = u \otimes v \in V^{\otimes (m+n)}, extended bilinearly to the full direct sum. This makes T(V) into an associative unital R-algebra, with the inclusion V \hookrightarrow T(V) as the degree-1 component preserving the module structure.^[16]^[17] The free algebra R\langle X \rangle on the set X is isomorphic to T(RX), where RX is the free R-module generated by X. Under this identification, the basis elements X_i \in X correspond to the simple tensors X_i \in (RX)^{\otimes 1}, and monomials in R\langle X \rangle map to iterated tensor products of these basis elements. Specifically, a general element of T(RX) in degree k is an R-linear combination of pure tensors x_1 \otimes \cdots \otimes x_k with x_j \in X, mirroring the non-commutative polynomials in R\langle X \rangle. This construction highlights the free algebra's universality in extending module homomorphisms to algebra homomorphisms while preserving multilinearity.^[16] Over a field K, if V is a vector space, T(V) serves as the free associative K-algebra generated by V, characterized by its universal property: for any K-algebra A and K-linear map f: V \to A, there exists a unique K-algebra homomorphism \tilde{f}: T(V) \to A extending f, such that \tilde{f}|_V = f. This adjunction underscores T(V) as the "most general" algebra incorporating V via a linear inclusion, with the extension \tilde{f} defined multilinearly on tensor powers.^[16] The tensor algebra relates to other classical constructions as quotients: the exterior algebra \Lambda(V) is T(V) modulo the two-sided ideal generated by v \otimes v for v \in V (enforcing antisymmetry), while the symmetric algebra S(V) is T(V) modulo the ideal generated by commutators [v, w] = v \otimes w - w \otimes v (enforcing commutativity). These quotients illustrate how T(V) captures the unrestricted multilinear structure underlying both alternating and symmetric forms.^[16]

Key Properties

Basis and Uniqueness of Representation

In the free algebra R\langle X \rangle over a commutative ring R with identity and a set X of non-commuting indeterminates, the set of all words \{ w \mid w \in X^* \}, including the empty word, forms an R-basis.^[18] Every element of R\langle X \rangle admits a unique expression as a finite R-linear combination \sum_w r_w w with r_w \in R and only finitely many r_w nonzero.^[18] To sketch the proof, construct R\langle X \rangle as the free R-module with basis X^*, equipped with multiplication by concatenation of words and extended R-linearly. Linear independence follows from the universal property: any R-linear relation \sum_w r_w w = 0 with not all r_w = 0 would imply a nontrivial relation among the images of elements of X under every algebra homomorphism to an R-algebra, but the freeness allows homomorphisms to algebras where no such relation holds (e.g., generic matrix representations). Alternatively, suppose \sum_w r_w w = 0; order words by length. The terms of maximal length with nonzero coefficients cannot cancel, as distinct words of the same length are basis elements with disjoint supports, and lower-length terms do not interfere, forcing coefficients to vanish by descending induction on length. If |X| = n < \infty, then R\langle X \rangle has infinite rank as an R-module, as there are infinitely many basis elements. Considering the natural grading by word length, the Hilbert series is \sum_{k=0}^\infty n^k t^k = \frac{1}{1 - n t}.^[18] For n \geq 2, R\langle X \rangle is neither left nor right Noetherian. To see this, take generators x, y (the construction generalizes to n \geq 2). Consider the ascending chain of left ideals J_0 \subset J_1 \subset \cdots, where J_k = R\langle x, y \rangle x + R\langle x, y \rangle (x y) + \cdots + R\langle x, y \rangle (x y^k). This chain is strict, as x y^{k+1} \notin J_k: elements of J_k are R-linear combinations of basis words ending with x y^i for some i \leq k, but by uniqueness of representation, x y^{k+1} (which ends with y^{k+1}) cannot be expressed this way, as no concatenation produces exactly this word without mismatched suffixes. A symmetric argument using right ideals generated by (y^i x) shows it is not right Noetherian.^[19]

Graded Algebra Structure

The free algebra R \langle X \rangle over a commutative ring R in a set of non-commuting indeterminates X possesses a natural \mathbb{Z}_{\geq 0}-grading induced by the length of words in the variables. This grading decomposes the algebra as a direct sum of its homogeneous components:

R \langle X \rangle = \bigoplus_{k=0}^\infty R \langle X \rangle_k,

where R \langle X \rangle_0 = R consists of constant terms, and for k \geq 1, R \langle X \rangle_k is the free R-module spanned by all words of exact length k in elements of X, with each generator assigned degree 1. The multiplication in R \langle X \rangle is compatible with this grading, satisfying R \langle X \rangle_m \cdot R \langle X \rangle_n \subseteq R \langle X \rangle_{m+n} for all m, n \geq 0, which ensures that the algebra is \mathbb{N}-graded in the standard sense. When R is a field K and |X| = n < \infty, the dimensions of the graded pieces are \dim_K (K \langle X \rangle_k) = n^k, leading to the Hilbert series

h(t) = \sum_{k=0}^\infty \dim_K (K \langle X \rangle_k) t^k = \frac{1}{1 - n t}.

This rational generating function encodes the growth of the algebra's graded dimensions and arises directly from counting the monomials (words) at each degree.^[18] The grading induces a decreasing filtration \{F_k\}_{k \geq 0} on R \langle X \rangle, where F_0 = R \langle X \rangle and F_k = \bigoplus_{m \geq k} R \langle X \rangle_m for k \geq 1, corresponding to the powers of the augmentation ideal (the kernel of the map sending all variables to 0). The associated graded ring with respect to this filtration is

\mathrm{gr}(R \langle X \rangle) = \bigoplus_{k=0}^\infty F_k / F_{k+1} \cong R \langle X \rangle,

isomorphic to the original algebra itself, reflecting its inherent graded nature without higher-order relations.^[20] The completion of R \langle X \rangle with respect to this filtration yields the ring of formal noncommutative power series R \langle \langle X \rangle \rangle = \varprojlim_{k} R \langle X \rangle / F_k, a complete local ring whose elements are infinite formal sums \sum_{k=0}^\infty f_k with f_k \in R \langle X \rangle_k, equipped with the same multiplication extended componentwise.^[20]

Comparisons

With Commutative Polynomial Rings

The commutative polynomial ring R[X_1, \dots, X_n] over a commutative ring R can be obtained as the quotient of the free algebra R\langle X_1, \dots, X_n \rangle by the two-sided ideal I generated by all commutators X_i X_j - X_j X_i for i \neq j.^[21] This quotient enforces the commutation relations among the generators, resulting in an algebra where monomials can be uniquely represented in a standard ordered form, such as X_1^{a_1} \cdots X_n^{a_n} with non-negative exponents a_i.^[21] A key structural difference arises from this commutation: in the polynomial ring, the product of generators is independent of order (e.g., X Y = Y X), allowing monomials to be reordered without altering the element, which leads to a finite-dimensional basis for each homogeneous degree. In contrast, the free algebra treats noncommuting words as distinct elements, preserving the order of multiplication and yielding an infinite variety of basis elements per degree without such equivalence.^[22] This noncommutativity in free algebras prevents the collapse of distinct word orders, emphasizing their role in modeling structures where relations are minimal beyond associativity. Over a field k, the dimension of the homogeneous component of degree d in the polynomial ring k[X_1, \dots, X_n] is \binom{d + n - 1}{n - 1}, reflecting the number of multi-indices summing to d.^[23] For the free algebra k\langle X_1, \dots, X_n \rangle, this dimension is n^d, corresponding to the n choices for each of the d positions in a word.^[22] These contrasting growth rates highlight how commutation reduces the complexity and dimensionality in polynomial rings compared to the exponential expansion in free algebras. Free algebras extend the commutative framework of polynomial rings to noncommutative contexts and provide the algebraic framework for modeling systems with noncommutation relations, such as the observables position and momentum in quantum mechanics satisfying [x, p] = i \hbar, via suitable quotients like the Weyl algebra. This facilitates the study of operator algebras in physical theories.

With Free Groups and Rings

The free group F(X) on a set X is a non-abelian group freely generated by X, consisting of all reduced words formed from elements of X and their formal inverses X^{-1}, where reduction occurs via cancellation of adjacent inverse pairs, and group multiplication is defined by concatenation followed by such reduction. This structure ensures no relations beyond the group axioms, allowing arbitrary products without further simplification except for inverses. In contrast, the group algebra R[F(X)] over a commutative ring R extends this by forming formal R-linear combinations of elements from F(X), thereby incorporating the inverses inherent to the group while adding scalar multiplication and additivity.^[24] This differs fundamentally from the free algebra R\langle X \rangle, which is generated solely by positive words (monomials) in X without inverses, resulting in a unital associative algebra where elements are R-linear combinations of these words under non-commutative multiplication. The free ring \mathbb{Z}\langle X \rangle on X is the specific case of a free algebra over the integers \mathbb{Z}, comprising all integer linear combinations of non-commutative words in X, with multiplication by concatenation and no additional relations or scalar flexibility beyond integers.^[25] This contrasts with free algebras over a general ring R, where coefficients can draw from the full structure of R, enabling richer scalar interactions while preserving the associative, unital nature without generator inverses. Unlike the free group, which mandates inverses as part of its defining relations, free algebras and free rings emphasize associativity in their monoid-like generation, excluding such inverses to focus on semigroup extensions. A key distinction lies in the structural roles: free algebras R\langle X \rangle are unital associative rings generated without inverses for the elements of X, serving as the "freest" such objects under ring homomorphisms, whereas free groups F(X) incorporate inverses and are non-abelian.^[12] The underlying additive group of R\langle X \rangle is free abelian, generated by the set of all words in the free monoid on X, in direct opposition to the non-abelian nature of F(X).^[24]

Examples and Applications

Finite Number of Generators

When the free algebra is generated by a finite set of elements, say n generators X_1, \dots, X_n over a commutative ring R, it is denoted R\langle X_1, \dots, X_n \rangle and consists of all finite noncommutative polynomials in these variables with coefficients in R. For n = 1, the free algebra R\langle X \rangle is isomorphic to the polynomial ring R[X], where multiplication is commutative since there is only one generator. In this case, every element can be uniquely written as \sum_{i=0}^m r_i X^i with r_i \in R. For n \geq 2, the algebra is genuinely noncommutative. Consider n=2 with generators

[X, Y](/page/X&Y)

; the underlying [R](/page/R)-module has basis consisting of the empty word (corresponding to 1) and all finite nonempty words formed by concatenating X and Y, such as X, Y, XX, XY, YX, YY, XXX, XXY, \dots. Every element admits a unique representation as a finite R-linear combination of these basis elements. For instance, the square of the sum [X + Y](/page/X+Y) expands to (X + Y)^2 = X^2 + XY + YX + Y^2, yielding four distinct terms due to XY \neq YX, in contrast to the commutative polynomial ring where XY = YX and the expansion has only three terms.^[26] The \mathbb{N}-graded structure, where the degree of a word is its length, reveals rapid growth: the homogeneous component of degree k (spanned by words of length k) is a free R-module of rank n^k. This exponential growth in dimension underscores the complexity of the algebra even for small n.

Role in Universal Algebra and Representation Theory

In universal algebra, free algebras over a commutative ring R serve as the free objects in the variety of associative algebras, characterized by the universal property that any map from a generating set X to another associative algebra extends uniquely to an algebra homomorphism from R\langle X \rangle to that algebra.^[27] This property implies that every associative R-algebra is a homomorphic image of a free algebra on some generating set, providing a foundational tool for classifying and constructing algebras within the variety.^[12] For instance, the free associative algebra R\langle X \rangle generates all others via quotients by ideals, mirroring the role of free groups in group theory but adapted to the associative setting.^[28] Free algebras also play a key role in the theory of polynomial identities, where varieties of algebras are classified via T-ideals (fully invariant ideals) in k\langle X \rangle over a field k.^[1] When X is countably infinite, the free algebra R\langle X \rangle finds applications in formal language theory, where it underpins the algebra of noncommutative formal power series used to model context-free languages and automata over infinite alphabets.^[29] In operator algebras, such free algebras form the algebraic core of free group factors, where the group algebra of the free group on countably many generators is completed to yield C^*-algebras central to Voiculescu's free probability theory.^[30] In representation theory, free algebras classify representations of quivers through their connection to path algebras: the path algebra kQ of a quiver Q over a field k is the associative algebra with basis the set of all paths in Q (including stationary paths at vertices), where multiplication of two paths is their concatenation if the head of the first equals the tail of the second, and zero otherwise.^[31] Modules over kQ are equivalent to representations of Q, assigning vector spaces to vertices and linear maps to arrows, thus leveraging the structure to study indecomposable representations and stability conditions.^[32] They also arise as the algebra of generic matrices k\langle X_{ij} \rangle (for n \times n generic matrices), which admits faithful representations into matrix algebras over k, facilitating the study of invariants under conjugation.^[2] Historically, free associative algebras emerged in noncommutative ring theory during the mid-20th century, with early systematic studies building on hypercomplex systems to address universal constructions.^[33] Free algebras also appear as quotients in the enveloping algebras of Lie algebras: the universal enveloping algebra U(\mathfrak{g}) of a Lie algebra \mathfrak{g} over a field of characteristic zero is the tensor algebra (a free associative algebra) on the underlying vector space, modulo the ideal generated by the relations xy - yx - [x,y] for x,y \in \mathfrak{g}.^[34] This quotient structure facilitates the study of Lie algebra representations via associative methods, such as the PBW theorem ensuring a basis of ordered monomials.^[35] In quantum groups, quotients of free algebras model noncommutative spaces; for example, the coordinate algebra of the quantum plane is k\langle x,y \rangle / (xy - q yx), deforming classical spaces while preserving freeness in the generators before imposing quantum relations.^[36] Such constructions underpin symmetry objects in noncommutative geometry, linking free algebras to Hopf algebra structures in quantum group theory.^[37]

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free associative algebra - PlanetMath
Mar 22, 2013 · It is a standard categorical procedure to conclude any two free objects on the same set are naturally equivalent and thus each construction below is equivalent.Missing: functor | Show results with:functor
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[PDF] The structure of free algebras - University of Hawaii Math Department
This article is a survey of selected results on the structure of free algebraic systems obtained during the past 50 years. The focus is on ways free ...
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Free algebras for generalized automata and language theory ...
Free algebras for generalized automata and language theory (Algebraic Systems, Formal Languages and Computations). January 2000. Authors: Zoltan ...
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[PDF] Operator algebras, free groups and other groups - Numdam
We denote by Fn the non abelian free group on n generators, where n is either an integer, n > 2, or n = oo, meaning an infinite countable number of generators.Missing: formal language
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[PDF] Lectures on Representations of Quivers by William Crawley-Boevey
The theory of representations of quivers touches linear algebra, invariant theory, finite dimensional algebras, free ideal rings, Kac-Moody Lie algebras, and ...
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[PDF] 1 Algebras, Quivers, Representations, and Categories
The algebra U3(k) is isomorphic to kQ, the path algebra of the quiver in Example 1.1.3. Proof. We need to construct an isomorphism between the two algebras.
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(PDF) From Numbers to Rings: The Early History of Ring Theory
Aug 6, 2025 · The genesis of the theories of commutative and noncommutative rings dates back to the early 19th century, while their maturity was achieved only in the third ...Missing: 1940s Garvin<|separator|>
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[PDF] 18.745 F20 Lecture 12: The Universal Enveloping Algebra of a Lie ...
Homassociative(U(g),A) → HomLie(g,A) given by φ 7→ φ ◦ ρ is a bijection. Part (ii) of this proposition implies that any Lie algebra map ψ : g → A can be ...
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[PDF] Fall, 2022 Lecture IIIA: The Universal Enveloping Algebra, Free Lie ...
Sep 27, 2022 · In the polynomial algebra every homogeneous polynomial of degree n in P(L) is a linear combination of nth powers of elements in L. In P(L).
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Quantum Groups and Noncommutative Geometry - SpringerLink
In this expanded write-up of those lectures, Manin systematically develops an approach to quantum groups as symmetry objects in noncommutative geometry in ...
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[PDF] QUANTUM GROUPS AND NONCOMMUTATIVE GEOMETRY
The group algebra can be constructed as the free vector space KG with basis G and the algebra structure of KG is given by KG ⊗ KG 3 g ⊗ h 7→ gh ∈ KG and ...