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Geological formation

A geological formation, or simply formation, is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy, defined as a mappable body of rock distinguished from adjacent units by its lithologic characteristics, such as composition, texture, and primary sedimentary structures, while occupying a distinct stratigraphic position.^[1] These units are identified through field mapping and must be traceable over significant distances, typically at scales like 1:24,000, to serve as practical tools for geologic analysis.^[1] Formations are bounded by surfaces of lithologic change, which may be sharp contacts like unconformities or key beds, or arbitrary lines drawn within gradational zones to ensure mappability and internal coherence.^[1] There is no strict minimum thickness, but they range from thin layers to thousands of meters, provided they exhibit sufficient homogeneity or distinctive features for recognition in the field.^[1] Naming follows the North American Stratigraphic Code, combining a geographic term from a type locality—where the unit is well-exposed—with a descriptive lithologic term (e.g., Entrada Sandstone) or simply "Formation" for mixed lithologies (e.g., Summerville Formation).^[1]^[2] In geologic practice, formations enable the systematic classification and correlation of rock layers, forming the basis for mapping regional geology, interpreting depositional environments, and reconstructing Earth's history through the principle of superposition, where younger units overlie older ones.^[2]^[3] They are crucial for resource exploration, such as identifying aquifers, hydrocarbon reservoirs, or mineral deposits, and for hazard assessment, like evaluating landslide or earthquake risks tied to specific rock properties.^[4] Notable examples include the Kaibab Limestone in the Grand Canyon, a Permian marine deposit that records ancient ocean conditions and has been uplifted to over 9,000 feet, illustrating tectonic and erosional processes over 270 million years.^[3] Formations may be subdivided into members for finer detail or grouped into supergroups for broader syntheses, adapting to the complexity of stratigraphic records worldwide.^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

A geological formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy, defined as a body of sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rock, either bedded or unbedded, that is distinguished by its lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic position from adjacent units.^[5] These units form the primary basis for mapping and describing the stratigraphic column based solely on observable physical properties, without reference to age, biologic content, or depositional processes.^[6] The primary criteria for establishing a formation include uniformity in lithology, such as consistent rock type, texture, and composition, along with a defined thickness and geographic extent that allow for practical delineation.^[5] Formations must be mappable at the scale of geologic mapping practiced in the region, ensuring they are identifiable and traceable on the surface or in the subsurface.^[6] Naming conventions, per the North American Stratigraphic Code, use a geographic term from the type locality combined with a descriptive lithologic term for predominant rock types (e.g., Navajo Sandstone) or "Formation" for mixed lithologies, as exemplified by the Morrison Formation, named for exposures near Morrison, Colorado, where it consists of interbedded mudstones, sandstones, and limestones of Late Jurassic age. Another illustrative example is the Navajo Sandstone, a vast eolian deposit of Early Jurassic age characterized by its light-colored, cross-bedded quartz sandstone that forms prominent cliffs and domes across the Colorado Plateau.^[7] This unit highlights how formations are recognized by their dominant lithologic homogeneity, distinguishing them from overlying and underlying strata like the Kayenta Formation below and the Page Sandstone above. Within the broader stratigraphic hierarchy, formations serve as the essential building blocks for constructing more comprehensive rock sequences.^[5]

Lithological and Stratigraphic Features

Geological formations are defined by their lithological properties, encompassing mineral composition, grain size and texture, and associated sedimentary structures that provide diagnostic characteristics for identification and differentiation from overlying and underlying units.^[5] Common lithologies include sandstone composed of quartz and feldspar grains in medium to coarse sizes with cross-bedding indicative of fluvial or eolian environments, limestone formed from calcium carbonate with biogenic textures like ooids or fossils signaling shallow marine deposition, and shale exhibiting fine-grained, clay-rich composition with fissility from parallel platy minerals.^[8] Sedimentary structures such as bedding planes, ripple marks, burrows, or concretions further distinguish formations, reflecting specific depositional processes like current action or bioturbation.^[5] Stratigraphically, formations vary in thickness from less than 1 meter to several thousand meters, with typical ranges of 5 to 100 meters or more in many sedimentary basins, sufficient to allow mapping at regional scales.^[9] Lateral continuity is a fundamental attribute, as formations originally extend horizontally in all directions from their depositional centers, thinning gradually toward margins due to diminishing sediment supply or basin edges, though post-depositional erosion may disrupt this extent.^[10] Factors influencing thickness and continuity include depositional environments, such as rapid subsidence in foreland basins promoting thicker accumulations or stable shelves yielding thinner, more uniform sheets.^[5] Internal variability within formations accommodates minor facies changes, where lithologic attributes shift laterally or vertically in response to local environmental gradients, such as energy levels or water depth, without compromising the unit's overall coherence or mappability.^[8] These variations might manifest as transitions from coarse-grained conglomerates to finer sandstones in a proximal-to-distal fluvial system, or from bioturbated mudstones to shell-rich limestones in a marginal marine setting, provided the dominant lithology and stratigraphic position remain consistent.^[8] Such facies diversity arises from heterogeneous sediment sources and dynamic basin conditions but is bounded to prevent reclassification into separate formations.^[5] Illustrative examples appear in the Grand Canyon Supergroup of Proterozoic age, where the Unkar Group's Bass Limestone formation displays dolomitic limestone with chert bands, fine-grained microcrystalline texture, grayish hues, and moderate erosion resistance forming benches, at thicknesses around 100 meters.^[11]^[12] In contrast, the overlying Hakatai Shale features red and maroon shales interbedded with thin sandstones, fine to very fine grain sizes, prominent fissility, and low erosion resistance leading to slope-forming outcrops, with thicknesses exceeding 240 meters and reflecting a shallow marine to terrestrial transition.^[11]^[12] Further up, the Dox Sandstone exhibits cross-bedded, coarse-grained quartz sandstone in red and brown tones, high erosion resistance creating cliffs, and variable thickness up to 600 meters, highlighting eolian and fluvial influences.^[13]

Role in Stratigraphy

Position in Stratigraphic Hierarchy

In stratigraphic classification, geological formations occupy a central position within the lithostratigraphic hierarchy as the primary formal unit for describing and mapping rock bodies based on their lithologic properties. This hierarchy, established by international standards, organizes sedimentary and volcanic rocks into nested ranks that reflect observable physical characteristics rather than age. Above the formation rank are groups, which consist of two or more contiguous or associated formations sharing diagnostic lithologic traits, and supergroups, which aggregate several related groups or formations exhibiting significant overall lithologic coherence across broad regions. Below formations are members, defined as distinctive lithologic subdivisions within a formation that are mappable at a detailed scale, and beds, the smallest formal units representing single, persistent layers of rock.^[5]^[1] The relationships among these ranks emphasize aggregation and subdivision for practical regional analysis. For instance, multiple formations may collectively form a group, and groups can be combined into a supergroup when they display coherent lithologic patterns over large areas, facilitating the synthesis of complex stratigraphic sequences. A representative example is the Ocoee Supergroup in the southern Appalachian Mountains, which encompasses several groups—such as the Snowbird Group and Walden Creek Group—each composed of multiple formations like the Longarm Quartzite and Rich Butt Sandstone formations, all characterized by metasedimentary rocks including quartzites and schists.^[5]^[1]^[14]^[15] Unlike chronostratigraphic units such as stages or systems, which are defined by specific time intervals and bounded by isochronous surfaces, lithostratigraphic formations are inherently time-transgressive, meaning their boundaries often cross time planes due to lateral variations in depositional environments and facies changes. This diachroneity arises because formations are delineated solely by lithology and stratigraphic position, not inferred ages, allowing the same formation to represent different time spans in different locations. For example, a formation's top in one area might correlate to a younger horizon elsewhere if sedimentation rates or environments varied.^[5]^[1] In practice, this hierarchical positioning enables the construction of stratigraphic columns that stack formations, members, and beds to visualize vertical and lateral rock relationships, aiding in regional correlations where direct tracing is challenging. By focusing on mappable lithologic packages, formations serve as foundational building blocks for correlating strata across basins or orogens, supporting applications in tectonic reconstruction and basin analysis while acknowledging their non-chronologic nature.^[5]^[1]

Boundaries and Correlations

Geological formations are delineated by their boundaries, which are surfaces or thin beds that mark significant changes in lithology, distinguishing one unit from adjacent strata. These boundaries are primarily defined by observable variations in rock composition, texture, or structure, rather than by biostratigraphic events such as fossil assemblages.^[5] According to the North American Stratigraphic Code, boundaries are placed at positions of lithologic change, which may be sharp contacts or positioned arbitrarily within zones of gradual transition to ensure mappability and practical utility.^[1] Boundaries can be classified as conformable or unconformable based on the nature of the contact between formations. Conformable boundaries occur where strata are continuous and parallel, with little to no evidence of erosion, often featuring gradational transitions or fine sedimentary layers that indicate uninterrupted deposition.^[16] In contrast, unconformable boundaries represent erosional hiatuses, where an angular discordance, disconformity, or paraconformity signals a period of non-deposition or erosion, truncating underlying strata before the overlying formation was deposited.^[1] Such unconformities highlight gaps in the geological record and are ideal for defining formation limits when they coincide with lithologic shifts. Correlating formations across regions or globally involves matching these boundaries and lithologic sequences using various techniques to establish equivalency. Marker beds—distinct, laterally persistent layers such as tuff or coal seams—serve as reliable reference points for alignment, as their unique characteristics allow tracing over wide areas.^[17] Geophysical logs, including resistivity and gamma-ray profiles from boreholes, provide quantitative data on lithologic variations, enabling precise well-to-well correlations in subsurface settings.^[17] Chemostratigraphy complements these by analyzing inorganic geochemical signatures, such as elemental ratios, to identify chemical fingerprints that persist despite lithologic variability, facilitating regional or even basin-scale matching.^[18] Despite these methods, correlating formations presents challenges, particularly due to lateral facies changes where depositional environments shift, leading to variations in rock types or thickness. These changes can result in pinch-outs, where a formation thins and disappears laterally, complicating boundary tracing. For instance, the Dakota Sandstone on the Colorado Plateau exhibits rapid lateral transitions from fluvial sandstones to marine shales, with sandstone lenses pinching out into mudstones, which hinders consistent correlation across the Colorado Plateau and adjacent basins.^[19]^[20] Such equivalency issues often require integrating multiple datasets to resolve diachronous boundaries. The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) provides formal guidelines for establishing formation boundaries through the designation of type sections, which are reference exposures that define the unit's lithologic characteristics and limits. A type section must include a detailed description of its location, stratigraphy, and boundaries, serving as the standard for correlation; extensions beyond the type area rely on demonstrable lithologic continuity.^[21] This approach ensures objectivity, with boundary stratotypes marking precise contacts to minimize ambiguity in global stratigraphic frameworks.^[5]

Identification and Mapping

Field Recognition Criteria

Geologists identify geological formations in the field primarily through observable lithologic properties that distinguish one unit from adjacent ones, ensuring mappability at regional scales. Key visual indicators include color, both in fresh and weathered states, which can highlight variations in mineral composition or organic content; texture, such as grain size and sorting in sedimentary rocks; and weathering patterns that reveal resistance to erosion, often manifesting as prominent ridges for resistant formations or recessed slopes for softer ones. Outcrop geometry further aids recognition, with formations exhibiting consistent thickness, lateral continuity, or distinctive topographic expression that allows tracing across the landscape.^[6]^[22] Physical sampling methods complement these observations by providing tangible evidence for classification. Hand samples are collected to examine fresh rock surfaces, often exposed by hammer strikes that test hardness and reveal internal structures like bedding or fossils. Basic stratigraphic logging involves measuring section thickness, noting contact types (sharp, gradational, or faulted), and recording strike and dip to document the formation's orientation and boundaries. These techniques, performed during traverses perpendicular to outcrop strike, enable precise delineation of units without advanced equipment.^[23]^[22] Common pitfalls in field recognition arise from misinterpreting post-depositional changes or incomplete exposures. Diagenetic alterations, such as cementation or recrystallization, can mimic lithologic boundaries, leading to erroneous subdivision of formations if not cross-checked against type localities. Visiting the designated type section is crucial to verify characteristics, as it serves as the reference for the unit's defining features and avoids confusion from local variations. Insufficient documentation, like overlooking concealed contacts or inadequate station measurements, can also result in inaccurately mapped boundaries.^[24]^[6]^[22] A illustrative case is the field identification of the Burgess Shale Formation in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, where geologists recognize its fine-grained, gray mudstones by their dark staining from preserved organic matter and the presence of exceptional soft-bodied fossils. These mudstones, part of the broader Stephen Formation, weather into blocky outcrops with subtle bedding, and the distinctive fossil assemblage—including arthropods and worms—confirms the unit during on-site surveys, often requiring careful splitting of hand samples to reveal the biota. This recognition relies on the formation's lithological uniformity and its type locality at Walcott Quarry, emphasizing the interplay of texture and fossil content in practical fieldwork.^[25]

Modern Mapping Methods

Modern mapping methods for geological formations leverage advanced geophysical, remote sensing, and digital technologies to delineate subsurface and surface features at scales ranging from local outcrops to regional basins. These approaches enable non-invasive imaging and integration of multi-source data, improving accuracy and efficiency over traditional field methods. Geophysical tools play a central role in subsurface delineation. Seismic profiling, including reflection and refraction techniques, images stratigraphic layers by analyzing acoustic wave propagation through rock formations, allowing mappers to identify boundaries and thicknesses of geological units. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) employs electromagnetic pulses to detect shallow subsurface interfaces, such as sediment-bedrock contacts, with resolutions up to centimeters in low-conductivity materials. Magnetometry, often conducted via airborne surveys, measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field to outline magnetic mineral concentrations, aiding in the detection of igneous intrusions or iron-rich formations. These methods are particularly effective for concealed structures where surface exposure is limited. Digital integration enhances mapping through geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite remote sensing. GIS software facilitates the overlay of lithologic data—derived from field samples or geophysical surveys—with topographic models, enabling spatial analysis of formation distributions relative to elevation and slope. Remote sensing via satellites like Landsat utilizes multispectral imagery for spectral analysis, distinguishing rock types based on reflectance signatures in visible, near-infrared, and thermal bands; for instance, Landsat-8 data at 30-meter resolution supports lithological classification through indices like the band ratio for iron oxides or clays. This integration allows for large-scale preliminary mapping, refined by ground-truthing. Standardized data frameworks ensure interoperability across datasets. GeoSciML, an Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standard, provides a conceptual model and XML encoding for exchanging geological features, including formations, from maps to relational databases, promoting consistent representation of lithostratigraphic units. It supports integration with 3D modeling tools by aligning with standards like INSPIRE and ISO 19156 for observations, facilitating volumetric reconstructions of subsurface formations. Post-2000 advancements, particularly in LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), have revolutionized high-resolution outcrop mapping. Terrestrial and airborne LiDAR captures point clouds with sub-meter accuracy, enabling digital outcrop models that quantify stratigraphy, fractures, and sedimentology in three dimensions. In the Rocky Mountains, for example, LiDAR-derived models of the Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene Raton and Poison Canyon Formations in Colorado's Raton Basin have delineated fluvial outcrop distributions and erosion patterns, enhancing understanding of basin evolution. These techniques, combined with photogrammetry, support scalable applications from site-specific analyses to regional correlations. As of 2025, further advancements include the integration of machine learning algorithms with field geological mapping for automated feature detection and classification, as demonstrated in recent studies combining AI with traditional surveys to improve efficiency in complex terrains. Additionally, the USGS's Cooperative National Geologic Map, released in August 2025, synthesizes over 100 preexisting maps into a unified national framework, enhancing the delineation and correlation of formations across the United States using integrated geophysical and remote sensing data. The Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI) has expanded airborne magnetic and radiometric surveys, providing high-resolution data for identifying critical mineral-bearing formations as of September 2025.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Applications and Importance

Use in Geological Surveys

Geological surveys rely on formations as the primary lithostratigraphic units for compiling detailed maps and atlases that document regional rock sequences and structures. In the United States, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) integrates formation data into quadrangle maps at scales like 1:24,000, which delineate mappable bodies of rock based on lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position to support national geologic databases and planning.^[29]^[30] These maps form the backbone of geological atlases, enabling the correlation of strata across large areas. Similarly, the North American Stratigraphic Code, maintained by the North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, establishes standardized lexicons for naming and classifying formations as fundamental units identifiable by their lithology and position, ensuring consistency in survey documentation across Canada, Mexico, and the U.S.^[6] Formations play a central regulatory role in land-use zoning, environmental assessments, and paleontological protection by providing the geological framework for evaluating site suitability and risks. In land-use planning, stratigraphic units like formations inform zoning decisions by assessing engineering properties such as stability and permeability, as outlined in British Geological Survey reports on major rock units.^[31] Environmental impact statements require detailed examinations of formations to identify potential hazards like ground instability or contamination pathways during project approvals. For paleontological protection, agencies like the U.S. Bureau of Land Management classify formations into potential fossil yield categories, mandating mitigation measures under the Paleontological Resources Preservation Act to preserve significant resources in high-potential units such as sedimentary formations.^[32]^[33]^[34] Globally, national surveys employ formation-based digital maps for comprehensive documentation, while international frameworks incorporate them into cross-border resource management. The British Geological Survey's DiGMapGB-50 dataset at 1:50,000 scale attributes polygons to specific geological names, including formations, to create interactive viewers for public and professional use in assessing superficial and bedrock geology.^[35] In transboundary contexts, United Nations frameworks define aquifers as permeable geological formations, facilitating joint assessments and cooperation under conventions like the UNECE Water Convention to manage shared groundwater resources.^[36] Survey organizations periodically revise formation definitions to incorporate new data from field studies, geophysical surveys, and technological advances, ensuring accuracy in mapping and classification. The North American Stratigraphic Code underwent significant updates in 2021, refining articles on formation subunits and lithodemic units based on peer-reviewed amendments since 2017 to address evolving stratigraphic practices.^[6] In Europe, post-2010 initiatives like the OneGeology-Europe project and the Hollis harmonization efforts have standardized formation vocabularies across national surveys, integrating new subsurface data to revise lithostratigraphic units for pan-European databases.^[37]^[38] These revisions often build on modern mapping methods, such as GIS integration, to refine boundaries and correlations.

Role in Resource Exploration and Hazards

Geological formations serve as primary targets in hydrocarbon exploration due to their capacity to trap and store oil and gas, particularly in low-permeability shale units like the Marcellus Formation in the Appalachian Basin, a Devonian-age marine shale rich in organic matter that has become a major source of natural gas through hydraulic fracturing.^[39] Porosity, which measures the void spaces in rock capable of holding fluids, and permeability, which governs the interconnectedness of those spaces allowing fluid flow, are critical properties determining the viability of these formations as reservoirs, with measurements from core samples guiding drilling decisions in oil and gas wells.^[40] Similarly, formations host mineral deposits through favorable stratigraphic and structural settings, such as ore bodies in host rocks identified via geophysical mapping of geological structures.^[41] For groundwater, permeable formations like sandstones and limestones act as aquifers, storing and transmitting water, with hydrogeological mapping assessing their capacity during exploration.^[42] In hazard assessment, certain formations pose risks due to inherent weaknesses, such as clay-rich units with high plasticity and low friction angles that form slip surfaces, making slopes prone to landslides, as seen in weak rock layers like the Petrified Forest Member of the Chinle Formation in Utah.^[43] These materials, often with low permeability, exacerbate instability under rainfall or seismic loading, controlling the overall slide mass behavior.^[44] Seismicity hazards are evaluated by mapping formations near active faults, informing earthquake zoning through probabilistic models that incorporate geologic history and fault data to delineate high-risk areas.^[45] The economic impact of formations is exemplified by the Bakken Formation, a Devonian-Mississippian shale in the Williston Basin that has driven significant oil production, propelling North Dakota to a top U.S. oil state and boosting local economies through job creation and revenue.^[46] However, extraction via hydraulic fracturing raises environmental concerns, including water resource contamination from fracking fluids and spills, as well as fugitive emissions contributing to air pollution, with the Bakken accounting for 1-3% of global ethane emissions in 2014.^[47]^[48] Looking ahead, integrating formation data with climate models is essential for predicting stability under sea-level rise, where coastal geological formations face increased erosion, saltwater intrusion, and instability, potentially altering sediment dynamics and habitat integrity.^[49] Increasingly, geological formations are utilized for carbon capture and storage (CCS), where deep saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs serve as storage sites for CO₂ to mitigate climate change; as of 2025, Class VI wells regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency enable geologic sequestration in suitable formations.^[50] Similarly, in geothermal energy production, permeable hot rock formations are targeted for heat extraction, with global capacity reaching 15.1 GW by 2024 and new regulations supporting enhanced geothermal systems.^[51]

Historical and Conceptual Development

Origin and Evolution of the Concept

The concept of a geological formation emerged in the late 18th century amid debates on the origin of rocks, with Abraham Gottlob Werner introducing the term to denote universal layers of sedimentary rocks precipitated from ancient oceans under his Neptunian theory.^[52] Werner's classification system grouped rocks into sequential "formations" based on mineral composition and relative age, influencing early stratigraphic thought across Europe.^[53] Concurrently, James Hutton advanced uniformitarian principles, describing rock units as products of ongoing cyclic processes like erosion and deposition, though he used "formation" more loosely to refer to coherent masses of stratified rocks.^[54] This period marked the initial shift from viewing rock layers as static, divinely created entities to dynamic assemblages shaped by natural laws. By the 19th century, the concept gained formal structure in American geology through the work of James Hall, New York's first state geologist, who applied "formation" to denote mappable bodies of rock distinguished by lithology, fossil content, and superposition in his extensive surveys of the Appalachian region.^[55] Hall's approach emphasized practical field delineation, diverging from Werner's universalism to accommodate regional variations, and set precedents for North American stratigraphic practice.^[56] The transition from Wernerian Neptunism—positing aqueous origins for all rocks—to Hutton's uniformitarianism profoundly influenced this evolution, promoting interpretations of formations as records of gradual environmental changes rather than sudden global floods.^[57] Global expeditions during this era, such as those by European geologists to the Americas and Asia, further shaped naming conventions by incorporating indigenous geographic features, fostering a more diverse lexicon beyond European type localities.^[58] Key milestones solidified the concept's standardization. In the 1890s, the U.S. Geological Survey's Geologic Names Committee, formalized in 1899, began designating type sections—reference exposures defining formation boundaries and characteristics—to ensure consistent identification and correlation.^[59] The 1970 North American Stratigraphic Code, published by the American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, provided comprehensive guidelines for naming and classifying formations as lithostratigraphic units, addressing ambiguities from prior informal usage.^[1] In the 2020s, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) has advanced updates to its International Chronostratigraphic Chart and Stratigraphic Guide, enhancing digital compatibility through interactive online platforms and data standards that facilitate global integration of formation records in databases. As of 2024, the latest version (v2024/12) refines boundaries and supports digital stratigraphic tools.^[60] Early development of the formation concept exhibited Eurocentrism, with nomenclature rooted in European locales and theoretical frameworks that overlooked non-Western geological contexts, leading to mismatched applications in colonial surveys.^[61] This bias has been mitigated in modern practice by inclusive international lexicons, such as the ICS Guide, which promote geographically neutral criteria and collaborative global ratification to encompass diverse stratigraphic records.^[62]

Key Contributions and Milestones

One of the earliest key contributions to the concept of geological formations came from William Smith, an English surveyor and geologist, who in 1815 produced the first national-scale geological map of England, Wales, and part of Scotland. This map delineated strata based on their lithological characteristics and fossil content, effectively employing formation-like units to correlate rock layers across regions and establishing a practical foundation for stratigraphic mapping.^[63] Smith's work demonstrated the superposition of strata and their predictability through characteristic fossils, influencing subsequent global stratigraphic practices.^[64] In the early 20th century, Arthur Holmes advanced the integration of relative stratigraphy, including formations, with absolute timescales through his pioneering radiometric dating methods. During the 1920s, Holmes refined uranium-lead dating techniques and incorporated them into geological timescales, enabling precise age assignments to stratigraphic units like formations and bridging local rock sequences with global chronologies. His efforts, detailed in works such as the 1927 edition of The Age of the Earth, facilitated the correlation of formations across continents by combining fossil-based relative dating with isotopic absolute ages.^[65] Amadeus W. Grabau's 1913 publication Principles of Stratigraphy provided a systematic framework for understanding sedimentary formations, emphasizing their classification based on lithology, fossils, and depositional environments. This comprehensive text outlined principles for naming and correlating formations, particularly in North America and Europe, and became a seminal reference for formalizing stratigraphic nomenclature.^[66] Building on such foundations, the establishment of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) in 1974 marked a major milestone by creating an international body to standardize stratigraphic units, including formations, through uniform codes and guidelines.^[67] The 1983 adoption of the North American Stratigraphic Code by the North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature addressed regional discrepancies in formation naming and classification, aligning North American lithostratigraphic practices more closely with European and international standards developed earlier in the century. This code resolved inconsistencies in unit definitions and hierarchies, promoting interoperability between continental datasets. Geogenomics, an emerging field integrating genomic data from ancient fossils with stratigraphic records, offers potential for refining biostratigraphic correlations, though it has not yet been formally incorporated into ICS guidelines as of 2025.^[68]

Other Geological Uses of "Formation"

In geology, the term "formation" extends beyond stratigraphic units to describe distinctive landforms and structural features shaped by erosional, igneous, or tectonic processes. In a geomorphological context, rock formations refer to natural sculptures carved primarily by weathering and erosion from pre-existing rock layers, contrasting with the depositional origins of stratigraphic formations. For instance, hoodoos in Bryce Canyon National Park are tall, irregular spires formed from the Claron Formation's limestones, sandstones, and shales through freeze-thaw cycles and chemical dissolution, where water seeps into cracks, expands as ice, and progressively sculpts the rock over millions of years.^[69] These features, exposed by uplift of the Colorado Plateau around 50 million years ago, highlight differential erosion rates between harder caprocks and softer underlying layers, creating pinnacles up to 200 feet tall.^[69] Similarly, in Arches National Park, sandstone formations such as natural arches and fins emerge from the Entrada Sandstone through erosional processes acting on jointed rock. Initially deposited as desert dunes 190 million years ago during the Jurassic, these layers were later folded, fractured by tectonic uplift, and sculpted by water infiltration and freeze-thaw action, which widens joints into openings spanning up to 300 feet.^[70] Unlike the uniform layering of stratigraphic units, these erosional landforms emphasize the role of gravity, wind, and precipitation in transforming solid rock into freestanding structures like Delicate Arch.^[70] In structural geology, "formation" denotes large-scale igneous or tectonic assemblages. Igneous formations include batholiths, massive intrusive bodies of cooled magma exceeding 100 square kilometers in area, composed mainly of granite with feldspar and quartz.^[71] Formed when magma solidifies underground without erupting, batholiths like the Sierra Nevada in California influence regional tectonics, contributing to seismic activity and mineral resources through their immense scale and depth.^[71] Tectonic fold formations arise from compressional stresses that bend rock layers without fracturing them, producing anticlines, synclines, and other curved structures in sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.^[72] These develop at convergent plate boundaries, where ductile deformation warps strata into wave-like patterns.^[72] Mineralogically, "formation" describes the growth of crystal aggregates within cavities or deposits, independent of broader rock unit classifications. In geodes, these are hollow, rind-encased structures where crystals such as quartz, calcite, or dolomite radiate inward from the walls, forming druses or lined interiors up to several feet across.^[73] Originating in sedimentary host rocks like limestones through silica-rich groundwater precipitation over millions of years, geodes from Kentucky's Mississippian formations exemplify this process, with chalcedony rinds sealing cavities for subsequent crystal development.^[73] In ore deposits, crystal formations manifest as euhedral minerals in veins or replacements, such as pyrite or galena cubes in hydrothermal systems, where cooling fluids deposit ordered lattices within fractures.^[74] For example, in the Iron River-Crystal Falls district, iron-formation ores feature crystalline rosettes and pyritohedrons up to several inches, illustrating supergene enrichment and primary mineralization in banded iron layers.^[75]

Distinctions from Similar Units

Geological formations are distinguished from smaller lithostratigraphic subunits such as members and beds primarily by scale and hierarchy. A formation represents a mappable body of rock defined by its lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic position, serving as the fundamental unit for dividing the stratigraphic column.^[5] In contrast, members are subdivisions within a formation that exhibit distinct lithologic properties and are laterally persistent, such as the limestone member embedded within a predominantly shale formation, while beds constitute the smallest formal units, typically thin, distinctive layers like marker beds used for correlation.^[1]^[5] At the larger scale, formations differ from groups and supergroups in terms of rank and uniformity. Groups encompass two or more contiguous formations sharing similar lithologic traits but lacking the uniformity required for a single formation, facilitating broader regional classification without implying a single mappable entity.^[5] Supergroups extend this further, comprising several associated groups or formations with common lithologic features, often used in extensive regional syntheses.^[1]^[5] Formations also contrast with informal terms like lithosomes and complexes, which describe heterogeneous rock bodies not qualifying for formal status. A lithosome refers to a segregated body of sedimentary rock characterized by specific lithic content and genetic significance, often intertonguing with adjacent bodies and serving as a component within or across formations rather than a standalone formal unit.^[76] Complexes, meanwhile, denote units of diverse rock types—including sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic—with irregular lithology or structure, typically applied to non-tabular, lithodemic rocks outside the standard stratigraphic hierarchy.^[1] Boundary cases arise when deciding to elevate a complex to formal formation status, guided by International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) and North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature (NACSN) rules emphasizing mappability and lithologic consistency. A complex qualifies as a formation if it can be delineated at regional mapping scales (e.g., 1:24,000) and displays persistent lithologic properties justifying primary unit recognition, requiring designation of a type section and publication.^[5]^[1] For instance, the Wasatch Formation in the western United States, comprising Eocene continental sediments of fluvial and lacustrine origin, includes members like the Cathedral Bluffs Tongue and intertongues with the Green River Formation (which has the Tipton Member), illustrating how a once-complex assemblage of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates was formalized due to its mappable extent and shared lithology, rather than treating its heterogeneous parts as separate informal complexes.^[6]

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The thickness of formations may range from less than a meter to several thousand meters. In other words, a formation is a series of beds that is distinct from ...
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https://geo.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geology/Introduction_to_Historical_Geology_(Johnson_et_al.)/09%3A_Geologic_Time_and_Relative_Dating/9.01%3A_Lateral_Continuity_Superposition_and_Inclusions
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Geolex — Unkar publications - National Geologic Map Database
Aug 28, 2025 · Unkar group of Grand Canyon series. Divided into five new formations (ascending): Hotauta conglomerate, 6 feet; Bass limestone, 335 feet; ...
[12]
Geology of Grand Canyon National Park - USGS.gov
The middle rock set, the Grand Canyon Supergroup, is primarily sandstone and mudstone, both sedimentary rocks, with some areas of igneous rock. They are from ...
[13]
Geolex — Dox publications - National Geologic Map Database
Aug 28, 2025 · Is one of five formations of Unkar Group of Grand Canyon Supergroup. Overlies Shinumo Quartzite of Unkar. Underlies Cardenas Basalt. Term ...
[14]
Provenance of the Lower Ocoee Supergroup, eastern Great Smoky ...
Jul 1, 2012 · Provenance and tectonic setting of clastic rocks of the Neoproterozoic Ocoee Supergroup were assessed using modes of detrital framework ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
Chapter 3 - Basic Geologic Principles - GotBooks.MiraCosta.edu
conformable boundary—an arrangement where layers of sedimentary strata are parallel, but there is little apparent erosion and the boundary between two rock ...
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Stratigraphy and Correlation
Stratigraphy uses formations as basic units. Correlation fits strata from different places, using rock type, bed sequences, and fossils to determine age.Missing: logs | Show results with:logs<|separator|>
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Chemostratigraphy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Chemostratigraphy is a reservoir correlation technique using inorganic geochemical data to characterize and correlate sedimentary rocks, identifying unique ...
[18]
Dakota Group of Colorado Plateau1 | AAPG Bulletin
Mar 2, 2017 · Three sandstone lenses in the Burro Canyon Formation in this locality can be traced laterally into varicolored mudstone; all three lenses pinch ...
[19]
Stratigraphic Guide - International Commission on Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy, from Latin stratum + Greek graphia, is the description of all rock bodies forming the Earth's crust and their organization into distinctive, ...
[20]
[PDF] INTRODUCTION TO FIELD MAPPING OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
• Identification of formations (or other mappable units) at the contact. • Nature of the contact (disconformity; gradational; fault; igneous; etc.) • Strike ...
[21]
[PDF] USBR Engineering Geology Field Manual Volume 1 Chapter 4
This chapter presents a system for the identification and classification of rocks and includes standard terminology and descriptive criteria for physical ...
[22]
Diagenetic control on mineralogical suites in sand, silt, and mud ...
Failure to recognize such a fundamental diagenetic bias leads to grossly mistaken paleogeographic reconstructions, as documented paradigmatically by ...
[23]
The Burgess Shale - University of California Museum of Paleontology
The slate and shale of the Stephen Formation are the gray layers, and this is where most of the fossils have been found. Taphonomy and Study of Burgess Fossils.Missing: recognition | Show results with:recognition
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National Geologic Map Database - USGS.gov
USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) National Geologic Map Database.MapView · topoView · Geolex Search · Standards
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https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/burgess.html
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[PDF] Environmental Geology in Land Use Planning
Mar 3, 1998 · A series of BGS reports covering the engineering properties of major British geological formations is currently being undertaken. The formations ...
[27]
Implementing the Paleontological Resources Preservation Act of ...
Aug 1, 2022 · The Potential Fossil Yield Classification (PFYC) system provides an estimate of the potential that important paleontological resources will be ...
[28]
Paleontological Resources Preservation - Federal Register
Aug 2, 2022 · This regulation provides for the management, preservation, and protection of paleontological resources on lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management.
[29]
[PDF] Standard Procedures for the Assessment and Mitigation of Adverse ...
Rocks units classified as having high potential for producing paleontological resources include, but are not limited to, sedimentary formations and some ...
[30]
BGS Geology - 50k (DiGMapGB-50) version 8 - Data.gov.uk
Data identifying landscape areas (shown as polygons) attributed with geological names. The scale of the data is 1:50 000 scale.
[31]
[PDF] Progress on Transboundary Water Cooperation - UNECE
Transboundary aquifer – a permeable water-bearing geological formation underlain by a less permeable layer and the water contained in the saturated zone of.
[32]
[PDF] Explanatory Notes for the Vocabulary to describe Spatial Geological ...
The document provides guidance on the agreed vocabulary, the terms, their definitions and their relations, which must be used by all OneGeology-Europe ...
[33]
[PDF] Integrating geological data in Europe to foster multidisciplinary ...
Aug 25, 2022 · The European Geological Surveys have a long history of engagement with these international initiatives. BRGM,. France, was represented on the ...
[34]
Geology and geomechanics of hydraulic fracturing in the Marcellus ...
The Marcellus shale gas play located in the Appalachian Basin is the Devonian-age marine-deposited shale formations, containing abundant organic matters. This ...
[35]
OFR-03-420 - A Catalog of Porosity and Permeability from Core ...
Jan 12, 2013 · Porosity and permeability measurements are frequently made on plugs extracted from core from wells drilled for oil and gas exploration. The ...
[36]
Using geophysics for mineral exploration - Geoscience Australia
Aug 29, 2025 · Mineral deposits have historically been classified according to a number of geological parameters including their geological setting, host rocks ...
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Aquifers and Groundwater | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The saturated area beneath the water table is called an aquifer, and aquifers are huge storehouses of water. In our sand hole example, you have essentially dug ...
[38]
[PDF] PLATE 2 Landslide Hazard - ugspub.nr.utah.gov
... Formation, a weak, clay-rich rock unit. The movement also involved the overlying Moenave Formation and alluvium and colluvium derived from the Kayenta Formation ...
[39]
Formation of Clay-Rich Layers at The Slip Surface of Slope Instabilities
Since these clayey levels have a very low permeability, high plasticity, and low friction angle, they control the stability of the entire slide mass.
[40]
Introduction to the National Seismic Hazard Maps - USGS.gov
A probabilistic map takes into account a wealth of geologic and seismic information, including: The past history of earthquakes on a given fault;; The past ...
[41]
Oil & Gas | University of North Dakota
Oil production in the Bakken Formation has propelled North Dakota to one of the top oil-producing states in the United States and has had a major economic ...Missing: considerations | Show results with:considerations
[42]
Potential water resource impacts of hydraulic fracturing from ...
Increase in crude oil production in the Bakken shale and consequences of existing crude oil infrastructure · Transportation hazards and corrosion problems.
[43]
Fugitive emissions from the Bakken shale illustrate role of shale ...
Apr 26, 2016 · The Bakken shale in North Dakota accounted for 1–3% total global ethane emissions in 2014 · These findings highlight the importance of shale ...
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Climate Change and Its Impact on Geological Formations in Coastal ...
Jan 28, 2025 · This study examines the effects of climate change on erosion, saltwater intrusion and geological instability in coastal areas. Sea level rise, ...
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Historical geology & the geological time scale
Abraham Gottlieb Werner and Universal Formations: a failed model for the history of rocks. The basic idea was that different rock types formed at different ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
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THE IDEAS OF A.G. WERNER AND J. HUTTON IN AMERICA
Aug 30, 2022 · The ideas of James Hutton on igneous origin for rocks, and those of Abraham Gottlob Werner on rock deposition from water solution or suspension ...
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James Hutton, Geologic Cycle, Time - Geochronology - Britannica
In the late 1780s the Scottish scientist James Hutton launched an attack on much of the geologic dogma that had its basis in either Werner's Neptunist approach ...
[48]
James Hall | Paleontology, Stratigraphy & Geology - Britannica
Sep 18, 2025 · James Hall was an American geologist and paleontologist who was a major contributor to the geosynclinal theory of mountain building.Missing: formalization | Show results with:formalization
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[PDF] james and sarah hall the geology of western new york (1843)
James Hall was amongst those who thought the U.S. should formalize its own stratigraphy. The New York reports aroused great interest in Europe, and James Hall ...Missing: formation | Show results with:formation
[50]
Geologic Principles—Uniformitarianism - National Park Service
Sep 27, 2018 · Hutton persuasively argued that seemingly weak, slow-acting processes could, over long spans of time, produce effects that were just as great as ...
[51]
Global peregrinations: four centuries of geological travel
Jan 1, 2007 · The imposition of Old World nomenclature was also a problem in the United States from the 1840s where some American geologists struggled to ...
[52]
[PDF] Stratigraphic nomenclature and description
The term "geologic name" as used in STA is the name of a defined rock body, or the local name ap- plied to a mapped rock unit. The map unit is recog- nized by ...
[53]
Chronostratigraphic Chart - International Commission on Stratigraphy
This page contains the latest version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (v2024-12) which visually presents the time periods and hierarchy of ...
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Geology uprooted! Decolonising the curriculum for geologists - GC
Jul 8, 2022 · This paper aims to demystify decolonising the curriculum, particularly with respect to geology. We explain what decolonising the curriculum is and then outline ...
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Stratigraphic Guide - International Commission on Stratigraphy
The Abridged Version of the International Stratigraphic Guide, like the Guide itself, was developed to promote international agreement on principles of ...Preface · Litho · Definitions · Chronostratigraphic Units
[56]
Britain's first geological map - Natural History Museum
His concept of using fossils to identify rocks is still very important today. Download a larger version of William Smith's 1815 geological map PDF (6.4MB) ...Missing: formations | Show results with:formations
[57]
The development and evolution of the William Smith 1815 ...
Smith realized that an understanding of the “ordering of strata” was essential in geological mapping, and it was the application of his stratigraphic method ...
[58]
Arthur Holmes' vision of a geological timescale - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · He pioneered the uranium-lead dating technique before the discovery of isotopes; he developed the principle of 'initial ratios' thirty years ...Missing: 1920s stratigraphic
[59]
Principles of Stratigraphy - Amadeus William Grabau - Google Books
Principles of Stratigraphy. Front Cover. Amadeus William Grabau AG Seiler, 1913 - Geology - 1185 pages. From inside the book. Contents. 51 other sections not ...
[60]
International Commission on Stratigraphy
The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) is the largest and oldest constituent scientific body in the International Union of Geological Sciences ...Chronostratigraphic Chart · The 2023/06 International... · Stratigraphic Guide · LinksMissing: mappable | Show results with:mappable
[61]
[PDF] International Commission on Stratigraphy ANNUAL REPORT 2023
Aug 31, 2024 · International Stratigraphic Guide which will also be outlined during 2024. ... incorporate the latest revisions to the International Stratigraphic ...
[62]
Botany and geogenomics: Constraining geological hypotheses in ...
Apr 1, 2024 · Plant geogenomics uses botanical research, integrating genetics, to explore how the landscape shaped plant evolution and test geological ...
[63]
Geology of Bryce Canyon National Park - USGS.gov
While some of the lowest (oldest) rocks in the region are metamorphic and igneous, the more visible and characteristic rocks are layered, sedimentary rocks with ...<|separator|>
[64]
Geologic Formations - Arches - National Park Service
Apr 18, 2025 · Arches formed from sandstone that was folded, fractured, and then eroded by water, creating fins and arches. The park has the densest ...
[65]
EarthWord: Batholith | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The magma cools beneath the earth's surface, forming a rock structure that extends at least one hundred square kilometers across (40 square miles), and extends ...
[66]
Tectonic Folding (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 22, 2020 · Folding occurs when tectonic processes put stress on a rock, and the rock bends, instead of breaking. This can create a variety of landforms.Missing: features | Show results with:features
[67]
Rocks and Minerals, Kentucky Geological Survey, University of ...
Jan 5, 2023 · Geodes differ from concretions in that they are hollow and the crystals grow inward from an outer shell. Concretions are solid and grow outward ...Missing: mineralogy | Show results with:mineralogy
[68]
[PDF] GEOLOGY AND ORE DEPOSITS - USGS Publications Warehouse
formed pyritohedrons, a crystal form made up of twelve faces each having five edges. These crystals range from the smallest recognizable grains to indi ...
[69]
[PDF] Geology and Ore Deposits of the Iron River-Crystal Falls District, Iron ...
... Formation in the Crystal Falls area. A. Appearance of bedding surfaces. B ... solutions that formed ore in the iron-formation. In at least two of the ...
[70]
[PDF] a progress report - USGS Publications Warehouse
A lithosome is "a vertically and horizontally segregated body of sedimentary rock, characterised by its lithic content and inferred genetic significance, which ...