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Huni

Huni was the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt's Third Dynasty, succeeding Khaba and preceding Snefru, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, during a reign estimated at around 24 years according to the Turin King List.^[1]^[2] His name, meaning "the smiter," appears in king lists such as the Turin Canon, Saqqara King List, and Abydos King List (where it is rendered as Neferkare), though his Horus name remains uncertain and contemporary inscriptions are scarce.^[2]^[3] Huni's rule marked the transition from the formative Old Kingdom phase to the era of monumental pyramid construction epitomized by the Fourth Dynasty, with evidence suggesting he oversaw administrative reorganizations that may have involved establishing royal estates in provinces, symbolized by small step pyramids built at sites including Elephantine, Edfu, Zawiyet el-Meitin, and others across Upper Egypt.^[3]^[2] These structures, often modest in scale and linked to local nomes, contrast with the later grand pyramids but indicate a shift toward centralized control and experimentation in architecture.^[4] Family ties further bridged dynasties, as Huni was likely the father of Queen Hetepheres I, who married Snefru, potentially stabilizing succession amid sparse records of direct descent.^[2] While attributions like the Meidum Pyramid to Huni remain debated—with most evidence favoring Snefru as builder or completer—his era laid groundwork for the engineering advances of successors through such provincial projects and possible fortifications, such as at Elephantine.^[1]^[2] The paucity of personal monuments reflects evidentiary gaps typical of late Third Dynasty rulers, reliant heavily on later king lists rather than inscriptions, underscoring uncertainties in Egyptological reconstructions.^[1]

Identity and Nomenclature

Cartouche Name and Readings

The prenomen of Huni, enclosed in a cartouche as the first attested royal use of this protective oval device, is transliterated as ḥw-nꞽ and conventionally rendered in English as Huni, with the meaning "the smiter."^[5] This throne name, announced at coronation and symbolizing royal authority, appears in contemporary inscriptions such as the Palermo Stone (verso, line 5e) and an Elephantine stele (JE 41556), where it is expanded as nswt-ḥw ("king of smiting").^[5] Later king lists provide variants: the Turin King List (4.8) reads ḥwꞽ.., while the Saqqara Canon (no. 44) gives Huni.^[5] The hieroglyphic composition typically features phonetic and ideographic elements evoking the act of striking, including the candle wick sign (Gardiner V28, phonetic ḥw), often combined with signs for beating (A25) and water ripples (N35) in Ramesside transcriptions to clarify pronunciation and semantics.^[3] These variants reflect scribal adaptations over time, but the core reading derives from Old Kingdom attestations linking the name to martial prowess, consistent with Third Dynasty titulary emphasizing dominance.^[5] Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath, in his standard reference on royal names, confirms the primary transliteration ḥwnj based on these sources, rejecting unsubstantiated alternative etymologies lacking inscriptional support.^[5] No Horus name is definitively linked in cartouche form to Huni, though proposals like ḫꜤ-bꜢ ("appearing in power") exist from fragmentary evidence; these remain speculative without direct cartouche attestation.^[5] The consistent use of the cartouche for Huni's prenomen marks a transitional practice toward Fourth Dynasty conventions, where it becomes standard for enclosing both prenomen and nomen.^[3]

Horus Name Attribution and Evidence

The Horus name of Huni, the final attested king of Egypt's Third Dynasty (c. 2637–2613 BCE), is not directly linked to his cartouche name in surviving inscriptions, an anomaly compared to most Old Kingdom pharaohs whose serekhs (palace facade symbols enclosing the Horus name) precede or accompany cartouches.^[4] This absence has prompted Egyptologists to propose attributions based on chronological fit, stylistic similarities in serekhs, and elimination of other candidates from the late Third Dynasty, rather than explicit contemporaneity.^[6] The predominant hypothesis identifies Huni with the Horus name Qa-hedjet ("Arm Raised High"), attested in isolated serekhs from sites like Saqqara and Abusir but lacking an associated cartouche.^[7] This attribution, advanced in corpora such as Jochem Kahl's Die Inschriften der 3. Dynastie (1995), rests on Qa-hedjet being the sole unattributed Horus name from the dynasty's latter phase, aligning temporally with Huni's estimated reign following Khaba and preceding the Fourth Dynasty transition.^[6] Scholars like Winfried Barta have similarly equated the two, citing the serekh's late Third Dynasty paleography and Huni's non-royal origins or transitional role as contextual support, though direct epigraphic linkage remains absent.^[6] Critics note the proposal's reliance on negative evidence, as no artifacts bearing both Huni and Qa-hedjet have surfaced despite excavations at potential sites like Meidum.^[3] Alternative identifications include equating Huni with Horus Khaba, known from the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan and ivory labels, but this view encounters resistance due to Khaba's earlier stylistic markers and distinct architectural attributions, rendering it less parsimonious without confirmatory inscriptions.^[8] A further suggestion posits Neb-hedjetnwb ("Lord of the White-Golden Crown"), inferred from crown iconography in fragmentary reliefs, yet this lacks serekh corroboration and is dismissed by most as speculative, given the name's rarity and non-alignment with Huni's documented titulary.^[8] Overall, these theories underscore the fragmentary nature of Third Dynasty evidence, where Palermo Stone annals and private stelae provide regnal data but omit Horus-name pairings for Huni, prioritizing instead his nisut-biti (dual king) title in cartouches from mastabas like those of his officials at Saqqara.^[4]

Distinction from Other Rulers

Huni is identified as a distinct pharaonic ruler through the enclosure of his nomen within a royal cartouche, a practice that differentiates him from private individuals bearing the name Huni, such as officials attested in Third Dynasty tombs at sites like Saqqara.^[4] This cartouche appears on limited artifacts, including a red granite conical vessel fragment from Elephantine dated to the late Third Dynasty and entries in the Palermo Stone annals, which list him separately from predecessors like Khaba and successors like Sneferu.^[9] The conventional reading "Huni" derives from these sources, though the precise vocalization remains uncertain due to the nature of Egyptian hieroglyphs.^[9] Unlike earlier Third Dynasty kings such as Djoser (Horus Netjerikhet) or Sanakht (associated with Horus Nebka), whose Horus names are attested in serekhs on numerous monuments, no such serekh bearing a Horus name has been conclusively linked to Huni.^[10] This lack of a verified Horus name contributes to his status as a "shadowy figure" in Egyptological records, with identifications relying instead on king lists like the Turin Canon, which positions him as the final ruler of the dynasty without conflation to other kings' titulary.^[9] Speculative proposals equating fragmentary Horus names (e.g., potential links to Nebka variants) with Huni have been advanced but lack supporting archaeological evidence, maintaining his separation as a unique entity based on cartouche attestations alone.^[7] Huni's distinction extends to his transitional role, evidenced by inscriptions at South Sinai mining sites and possible associations with provincial pyramid constructions, which differ in scale and style from the centralized step pyramids of Djoser or Sekhemkhet.^[4] These features, combined with the absence of overlapping titulary with Fourth Dynasty rulers like Sneferu—despite debated familial ties—affirm his independent reign circa 2613–2589 BCE, as estimated from the Turin King List's attribution of approximately 24 years.^[9] No credible evidence supports merging Huni's identity with other rulers, such as Nebka, whose throne name appears in distinct contexts predating Huni's cartouche records.^[7]

Primary Sources and Attestations

Textual and Inscriptional Evidence

The textual evidence for Huni derives mainly from post-contemporary king lists, reflecting the limited survival of Third Dynasty administrative records. The Turin King List, a Ramesside-era papyrus canon, positions Huni as the last king of the Third Dynasty, immediately before Sneferu, with a reign length estimated at 24 years based on the damaged entry.^[1] The Saqqara King List, carved on the tomb wall of a New Kingdom priest at Saqqara, similarly attests Huni within the Third Dynasty sequence but omits some predecessors, highlighting potential gaps in transmission.^[4] Huni's absence from the Abydos King List of Seti I underscores variability across these compilations, possibly due to selective editing or lost originals.^[4] Inscriptional attestations are rare and mostly non-royal, consistent with the transitional nature of late Third Dynasty material culture. A key example is a red granite cone from Elephantine Island, unearthed in early 20th-century excavations, inscribed with "ssd Hwni" (diadem of Huni) and a palace determinative, indicating it marked a royal foundation or estate named "Hut-nisut-hu" (House of the King of the Smiter).^[3] This object's cartouche usage for Huni's nomen—uncommon in the dynasty except for Nebka—suggests evolving titulary practices bridging to the Fourth Dynasty.^[8] Rock-cut inscriptions at Aswan quarries, including Elephantine, bear Huni's name in contexts of resource extraction, evidencing state-directed projects under his authority.^[4] A magnesite vessel fragment with incised cartouche further corroborates these, though its provenance ties to elite contexts rather than direct royal monuments.^[8] These sources, while fragmentary, align on Huni's role as a Third Dynasty capstone figure, with orthographies like Njswt-Hw emphasizing royal agency ("King of the Smiter").^[8] No extensive stelae or temple reliefs survive, contrasting with earlier dynasts, likely due to perishable materials or overshadowed Fourth Dynasty constructions.^[4]

Archaeological Artifacts Bearing Huni's Name

A red granite cone, discovered in 1909 near the Pyramid of Elephantine on the island's eastern end, bears an inscription with Huni's cartouche, marking one of the earliest uses of this royal enclosure for his nswt-bity name.^[11]^[8] The object, measuring roughly 160 cm in length and 50 cm in width, likely served as a dedicatory or foundation deposit item, possibly referencing a palace or construction project under Huni's oversight.^[12] This find provides direct epigraphic evidence tying Huni to provincial pyramid-building activities in Upper Egypt, though its precise function remains interpretive due to the Third Dynasty's transitional stylistic features.^[13] In 2007, excavations at a mastaba tomb in southern Abusir yielded a polished magnesite stone bowl inscribed with Huni's royal name in the form nswt-bjtj H(wj), lacking a cartouche but confirming his titulary as king of Upper and Lower Egypt.^[14]^[15] The vessel was among over 100 stone artifacts in the tomb's substructure, which features a deep shaft and complex burial chamber dated to Huni's reign through associated finds.^[14] This inscription, rare for its orthography, underscores Huni's administrative reach into the Memphite necropoleis and supports the mastaba's attribution to a high official serving during his rule.^[14] Additional attestations appear in private tomb inscriptions, such as that of the official Metjen at Saqqara, where Huni's name is recorded in hieroglyphs as njswt-Hw, detailing administrative roles under his authority.^[12] These secondary contexts, while not standalone artifacts, embed Huni's nomenclature in biographical narratives, evidencing his oversight of elite bureaucracy without yielding further royal-commissioned objects. The overall scarcity of such material—limited to these and fragmentary mentions—reflects the Third Dynasty's relatively modest monumental output compared to successors, with no confirmed statues, seals, or large-scale stelae beyond the noted examples.^[14]^[8]

Familial Relations and Succession

Known or Proposed Relatives

No direct contemporary inscriptions or artifacts definitively identify any relatives of Huni, leaving familial connections reliant on later interpretations of titles, tomb associations, and king lists such as the Turin Papyrus.^[16] Proposed wives include Djefatnebty, attested by an inscription from Elephantine explicitly naming her as consort to Huni, and Meresankh I, suggested by contextual links in Abusir mastaba tombs invoking her alongside Sneferu but lacking explicit ties to Huni himself.^[12] Among proposed children, Hetepheres I—principal wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu—is frequently cited as Huni's daughter based on her title "Daughter of the King of His Body" (interpreted as referencing a deified predecessor like Huni) and tomb evidence from Giza excavations linking her parentage to the end of the Third Dynasty.^[16] However, this attribution remains speculative, as no inscription names Huni directly in her titles or burial goods, and some scholars argue the epithet could apply more broadly without confirming biological descent. Sneferu, Huni's successor and Fourth Dynasty founder, has been hypothesized as a son through Meresankh I, but evidence is circumstantial, deriving from succession patterns and the absence of clear breaks in royal lineage rather than explicit filiation; alternative views posit Sneferu as Huni's son-in-law via marriage to Hetepheres I.^[3] Huni's own parentage is unattested, with no inscriptions or artifacts proposing specific forebears, reflecting the scarcity of Third Dynasty genealogical records compared to later periods.^[6] These proposals stem primarily from archaeological correlations rather than primary textual evidence, underscoring the challenges in reconstructing Old Kingdom royal families amid incomplete sources and potential biases in Manethonian or Turin list interpretations favoring dynastic continuity.^[17]

Debate on Parentage and Descendants

Huni's parentage is unattested in surviving sources, with no inscriptions, stelae, or artifacts identifying his parents or lineage from prior Third Dynasty rulers such as Khaba. Speculation linking him to Khasekhemwy or other predecessors lacks epigraphic support and stems primarily from assumptions of dynastic continuity rather than direct evidence.^[9] The debate over Huni's descendants centers on his potential paternity of Sneferu, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty. Proponents of this view cite the immediate succession recorded in king lists like the Turin Canon and Prisse Papyrus, alongside the attribution of Queen Meresankh I—who is named as Sneferu's mother in Cairo Annals Fragment 1—as Huni's wife, implying biological descent. This interpretation, advanced by scholars such as William Stevenson Smith, posits Meresankh's role bridging the dynasties through marriage and motherhood, reinforced by administrative continuity evidenced by vizier Kagemni's service under both rulers in the Instructions of Kagemni. However, direct filiation remains unproven, as no royal inscriptions explicitly name Huni as Sneferu's father; critics argue the link could reflect political alliance, adoption, or non-biological inheritance rather than blood relation, with the annals' fragmentary nature allowing alternative readings of Meresankh's marital ties.^[9]^[18] A related contention involves Hetepheres I, Sneferu's principal wife and mother of Khufu, whose titles including "Daughter of the King of His Body" and references to a deified royal father have led some, including excavator George Reisner, to identify Huni as her parent, positioning her as Sneferu's half-sister via a secondary union. This hypothesis draws from Hetepheres' Giza tomb (G 7000X) inscriptions and artifacts suggesting elite Third Dynasty origins, but it is disputed for lacking Huni's cartouche or explicit naming, with alternative views attributing her royal status to an unattested earlier king or viewing the titles as honorific without precise genealogy. No other children or spouses of Huni are verifiably attested, leaving his familial legacy inferred largely from Fourth Dynasty overlaps rather than contemporaneous records.^[16]^[19]

Transition to Fourth Dynasty

The transition from Huni's rule to the Fourth Dynasty is marked by the accession of Sneferu as the dynasty's founding pharaoh, conventionally dated around 2613 BCE based on integrated chronologies from king lists and radiocarbon data.^[20] The Turin Royal Canon positions Huni as the terminus of the Third Dynasty, enumerating his reign at 24 years, while commencing the Fourth with Sneferu, reflecting an ancient scribal demarcation that persists in modern Egyptology despite lacking explicit rationale in primary sources.^[3] This division aligns with Manetho's later summation, which assigns Huni to the Third Dynasty's end without detailing causal factors for the shift.^[8] Direct evidence for Sneferu's filiation to Huni is absent from contemporary inscriptions or artifacts, leading scholars to debate whether Sneferu was Huni's biological son or ascended via alternative mechanisms such as coregency or adoption.^[20] Some propose a maternal link through a queen named Meresankh I, inferred from fragmentary onomastic patterns, but this remains speculative without corroborating tomb or stelae evidence.^[8] Later historical records occasionally juxtapose the two rulers, yet these derive from Ptolemaic-era compilations prone to retrospective harmonization rather than empirical attestation.^[11] A more substantiated continuity emerges through marital ties, particularly Queen Hetepheres I, Sneferu's principal consort and mother of Khufu. Excavations at Giza by George Reisner in 1925 revealed her tomb goods and titles, including "Daughter of the King" and associations with a predecessor pharaoh, which Egyptologists attribute to Huni, positioning Hetepheres as the pivotal heir securing dynastic legitimacy via her union with Sneferu.^[16] This alliance implies a calculated inheritance strategy, common in Old Kingdom successions to preserve royal bloodlines amid potential noble challenges, evidenced by the absence of attested civil unrest or rival claimants in transitional inscriptions.^[21] Architectural developments further illustrate seamless progression: the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan, linked to Huni, represents late Third Dynasty experimentation with stepped forms, while Sneferu's Meidum project—possibly initiated under Huni and converted to a true pyramid—embodies the causal evolution toward Fourth Dynasty innovations in casing and corbelling, driven by accumulated engineering knowledge rather than rupture.^[20] Overall, the handover evinces institutional stability, with no archaeological indicators of disruption, such as abandoned settlements or militarized frontiers, contrasting sharper breaks in later periods.^[22]

Chronology and Reign

Estimated Reign Length

The Turin Royal Canon, a Ramesside-era king list compiled from earlier records, attributes a reign of 24 years to Huni, positioning him as the final ruler of the Third Dynasty immediately preceding Sneferu.^[1] This figure aligns with the preserved hieratic notation "rnpt 24" in the canon's Fourth Dynasty section, though the document's fragmentary state and reliance on secondary compilations introduce uncertainties.^[23] No contemporary inscriptions, such as year labels from monuments or annals, directly confirm this duration, as Huni's attestations are sparse and lack regnal dating.^[1] Egyptologists reconstruct Huni's rule within an absolute chronology of approximately 2637–2613 BCE, integrating the Turin estimate with astronomical data, radiocarbon dating from Third Dynasty contexts, and synchronisms with Mesopotamian records, yielding a margin of error of several decades for the dynasty overall.^[8] Shorter reigns proposed in some older reconstructions (e.g., under 20 years) have been largely discarded due to inconsistencies with the scale of attributed provincial pyramid constructions, which imply sustained administrative capacity over two decades.^[3] The absence of biennial cattle count records or jubilee mentions further limits precision, but the 24-year attribution remains the scholarly consensus absent contradictory evidence.^[23]

Position Within Third Dynasty

Huni is conventionally placed as the fifth and final pharaoh of Egypt's Third Dynasty, following Djoser, Sekhemkhet, and Khaba in the standard sequence of rulers.^[24]^[2] This ordering derives from fragmentary king lists, such as the Turin Canon, which attributes to him a reign of approximately 24 years, positioning him at the dynasty's close before the transition to Sneferu.^[3]^[8] Evidence for Huni's terminal position includes the Prisse Papyrus (an ancient copy of the Maxims of Ptahhotep), which explicitly links his death to Sneferu's immediate accession, underscoring direct succession without intervening rulers.^[8]^[3] Autobiographical inscriptions from officials, such as those in the tomb of Metjen at Saqqara, further corroborate Huni's oversight of late Third Dynasty administration, aligning with artifacts bearing his Horus name Nisut-Bity in contexts predating Fourth Dynasty styles.^[3] Although minor uncertainties persist regarding the precise order of Khaba and Huni—due to incomplete contemporary records and variant attributions in later sources—Huni's role as the dynasty's endpoint remains the consensus among Egyptologists, reflecting a shift from step pyramid experimentation to the true pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty.^[2]^[3] This placement highlights Huni's reign as a transitional phase, with administrative continuity evident in provincial mastabas and inscriptions that echo Third Dynasty conventions while foreshadowing Sneferu's innovations.^[8]

Historical Context of Rule

Huni's reign, dated approximately to 2637–2613 BCE based on the Turin King List's attribution of 24 years, occurred during the waning phase of Egypt's Third Dynasty in the Early Old Kingdom, a period defined by architectural experimentation and centralized state power. The dynasty, spanning roughly 2686–2613 BCE, followed the unification under the Second Dynasty and featured pioneering stone masonry in royal tombs, evolving from Djoser's iconic Step Pyramid at Saqqara—constructed circa 2670 BCE with its six-tiered design—to unfinished projects like Sekhemkhet's pyramid and Khaba's Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan. This era reflected a stable, Nile-dependent economy supporting massive labor mobilization, with the pharaoh embodying divine kingship to legitimize resource extraction for monumental works amid minimal evidence of external threats or internal strife.^[8]^[3] Under Huni, the historical context emphasized continuity in pyramid-building traditions but with a shift toward smaller-scale, provincial step pyramids at sites like Elephantine, Seila, and Naqada, suggesting efforts to extend royal influence over nome administrations and fortify regional control rather than solely Memphis-centric grandeur. Such constructions, often mud-brick cored with limestone casing remnants, indicate resource constraints or strategic decentralization, possibly restructuring local governance to facilitate tribute flows and labor corvées essential for the dynasty's engineering feats. This transitional rule bridged the Third Dynasty's step pyramid phase to the Fourth Dynasty's true pyramids, as Huni's projects prefigured Sneferu's innovations in sloping-sided structures, amid a bureaucracy increasingly reliant on overseers and scribes for quarrying and logistics.^[8]^[3]^[25]

Architectural Contributions and Attributions

Provincial Step Pyramids

Several small step pyramids constructed in provincial locations across Egypt during the late Third Dynasty are attributed by archaeologists to the reign of Huni, the dynasty's final king, circa 2637–2613 BCE.^[26] These structures, numbering around seven, differ from the larger royal pyramids near Memphis by their modest scale, rudimentary construction using local limestone without casing, and absence of associated tombs or burial chambers, suggesting a primarily cultic or symbolic function rather than funerary use.^[27] Locations include Edfu in Upper Egypt, Seila in the Fayum region, Zawyet el-Maiyitin, Sinki, Ombos (modern Kom Ombo), Naqada, El-Kula, and Elephantine island.^[28] ^[29] The Edfu South Pyramid, excavated in 2014 near the modern village of al-Ghonemiya, exemplifies these monuments: originally approximately 13 meters tall with three visible steps, it was built atop a natural hill and oriented to the cardinal directions, featuring a small offering chapel but no substructure for interment.^[26] Similarly, the pyramid at Zawyet el-Maiyitin, a low step structure without tombs, aligns with this pattern of decentralized royal markers possibly intended to assert centralized authority over distant nomes or facilitate local worship of the king.^[29] The Elephantine pyramid, constructed from granite blocks, stands out for its material sourced from local quarries, measuring about 5.2 meters in base width and preserving traces of an enclosure wall.^[26] Attribution to Huni remains provisional, as none bear direct inscriptions naming him, with some scholars proposing his successor Sneferu of the Fourth Dynasty as the builder due to stylistic similarities with early Fourth Dynasty works; however, their Third Dynasty dating, based on pottery and architectural typology, favors Huni's era as a transitional phase toward true pyramids.^[27] ^[28] These pyramids likely served to integrate provincial elites into the royal cult, reflecting Huni's efforts to consolidate power amid the dynasty's end, though their exact purpose—whether cenotaphs, ritual platforms, or administrative foci—continues to elude consensus due to limited epigraphic evidence.^[26]^[29]

Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan

The Layer Pyramid, located in the southern portion of the Zawyet el-Aryan necropolis approximately 7 kilometers north of Saqqara, is a severely eroded step pyramid constructed primarily from local limestone blocks arranged in horizontal layers or accretions with inward-sloping faces.^[30] Its square base measures roughly 84 meters on each side, and it was likely planned as a five-step structure originally reaching a height of 42–45 meters, though extensive quarrying and erosion have reduced it to scattered low mounds averaging 5–10 meters high.^[11] The pyramid's name derives from its distinctive construction technique, involving thick, leaning layers built up around a core, representing an evolutionary step between earlier mastaba tombs and more advanced step pyramids like that of Sekhemkhet.^[31] Excavations began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries under Alessandro Barsanti, who documented the substructure but left much of the site unexcavated due to limited resources and political instability; later surveys by scholars such as Vito Maragioglio, Gino Rinaldi, and Aidan Dodson clarified the layout, revealing a complex substructure with multiple corridors, a descending passage, and an unfinished burial chamber accessed via a vertical shaft, but no definitive royal inscriptions or artifacts linking it to a specific owner.^[32] The absence of casing stones, reliefs, or identifiable pottery has fueled ongoing debates, with radiocarbon and stylistic analysis placing construction in the mid-Third Dynasty, post-Sekhemkhet (circa 2650–2620 BCE), based on similarities to contemporary Memphite pyramids. Attribution of the Layer Pyramid centers on Khaba, a mid-Third Dynasty king attested by ivory labels and fragments from nearby mastabas, whose Horus name aligns with the site's context and whose reign fits the pyramid's transitional architectural features, as argued by Egyptologists like Aidan Dodson and Miroslav Verner.^[30] However, a minority view, advanced by Verner among others, proposes equating Khaba with Huni—the final Third Dynasty ruler—based on chronological overlaps, shared epithets in fragmentary sources, and the pyramid's late-dynastic style bridging step pyramids and the true pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty; this identification relies on reconciling king lists like the Turin Papyrus, which list Huni's reign at 24 years, potentially encompassing Khaba's monuments. Alternative attributions to predecessors like Neferka (per Nabil Swelim) exist but lack material evidence, underscoring the pyramid's role in broader uncertainties about Third Dynasty succession and Huni's potential contributions to pyramid evolution.^[6] No conclusive proof ties it directly to Huni independently of the Khaba merger, and most recent analyses favor Khaba as distinct, with Huni more commonly linked to provincial step pyramids or the Meidum complex's initiation.^[8]

Meidum Pyramid Debate

The Meidum Pyramid, situated about 100 kilometers south of Cairo, exemplifies an experimental phase in Old Kingdom pyramid evolution, beginning as a seven-stepped structure before an attempt to encase it in smooth limestone casing to approximate a true pyramid form, resulting in partial collapse during or after construction.^[33] Its ownership remains contested, primarily between Huni, the final Third Dynasty ruler circa 2637–2613 BCE, and Sneferu, founder of the Fourth Dynasty circa 2613–2589 BCE, with no cartouches or direct inscriptions identifying Huni at the site.^[33] ^[34] Early 20th-century scholarship, including works by Flinders Petrie, often credited Huni with initiating the pyramid as a stepped monument akin to provincial Third Dynasty structures like the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan, positing that Sneferu later expanded and modified it into a true pyramid prototype.^[8] This view drew on the pyramid's core design, which features large limestone blocks and rubble fill more characteristic of late Third Dynasty techniques, potentially reflecting Huni's architectural experimentation before dynastic transition.^[35] Proponents further cite indirect familial ties, such as Sneferu's possible sons Nefermaat and Rahotep depicted in nearby mastabas with stylistic links to Huni's era, suggesting continuity in patronage.^[36] Counterarguments emphasize the absence of empirical evidence for Huni's role, noting that quarry marks and mason's inscriptions at Meidum align more closely with Fourth Dynasty practices under Sneferu, whose three major pyramids (Meidum, Bent, and Red) demonstrate progressive refinement in angle and casing techniques.^[37] Architectural analysis indicates a unified construction sequence, with the stepped core's irregularities better explained as intentional experimentation by Sneferu rather than an inherited unfinished project, as the filling and casing phases show consistent tooling and material sourcing from local quarries.^[34] Scholars like Franck Monnier argue that attributing the core to Huni overlooks the lack of comparable scale or complexity in verified Third Dynasty pyramids, rendering the theory speculative without textual or epigraphic support.^[37] Contemporary consensus favors Sneferu as the primary builder, supported by the pyramid's integration into his broader corpus of monuments and the Turin King List's implication of Sneferu's extensive building campaigns, though a minority persists in hybrid models due to the transitional stepped-to-true form bridging dynasties.^[34] ^[35] The debate underscores methodological challenges in attribution, reliant on indirect architectural parallels amid sparse inscriptions, with future geophysical surveys potentially clarifying subsurface features like potential subsidiary chambers.^[38]

Other Possible Structures

Some Egyptologists have proposed attributing a small mudbrick pyramid remnant at Abu Rawash to Huni, citing its architectural parallels with late Third Dynasty constructions, including simple substructures and lack of advanced casing typical of the Fourth Dynasty.^[6] This structure, documented among early explorations of the site, differs from the larger, later pyramid of Djedefre nearby, supporting a potential Third Dynasty origin, though no inscriptions bearing Huni's name have been found to confirm ownership. The attribution relies primarily on typological analysis rather than direct evidence, highlighting ongoing uncertainties in assigning unfinished or eroded monuments from this transitional period.^[39] Beyond pyramidal forms, fragmentary evidence suggests Huni may have initiated non-funerary projects, such as administrative centers or estate markers, inferred from toponyms potentially deriving from his Horus name and scattered royal seals, but these lack substantial archaeological corroboration and are often reinterpreted as generic Old Kingdom foundations.^[8] Inscriptions from Sinai expeditions under Huni indicate organized quarrying operations, possibly involving temporary camps or stelae as rudimentary structures to commemorate resource extraction, yet these ephemeral works have not yielded durable monuments attributable solely to his reign.^[1] Such attributions underscore the challenges of distinguishing Huni's contributions amid sparse records and overlapping dynastic styles.

Burial and Post-Mortem Cult

Proposed Tomb Sites

The burial site of Huni has not been identified with certainty, as no inscriptions or artifacts directly link a specific tomb to him, reflecting the scarcity of Third Dynasty royal funerary evidence compared to later periods. Early attributions to the Meidum Pyramid were common but have been largely rejected in favor of Sneferu as its primary builder and user, based on architectural analysis and textual references from the Fourth Dynasty onward.^[8] One proposed location is a mastaba at Saqqara, where several Third Dynasty elite tombs cluster, potentially accommodating a royal burial if Huni did not complete a pyramid for himself. A specific candidate is an unidentified mastaba (possibly designated as number 17 in early surveys) on the northeast side of the Fifth Dynasty Pyramid of Unas, featuring a typical Old Kingdom burial shaft but lacking confirmatory inscriptions; its dating to Huni's reign relies on typological comparisons with known contemporary structures rather than direct proof.^[3] Alternative suggestions include a large mastaba at Meidum, advanced by Egyptologist Rainer Stadelmann, who argued it aligns with Huni's transitional role between step pyramids and true pyramids, though this remains speculative without epigraphic support.^[40] Other sites, such as mastabas at Abusir dated to Huni's reign via inscribed vessels, pertain to officials rather than the king himself and do not indicate his personal interment.^[14] The absence of a confirmed royal pyramid or cult complex for Huni underscores methodological challenges, including erosion, reuse of materials, and limited excavation in potential areas.^[39]

Evidence for Funerary Practices

Archaeological excavations at Abusir have uncovered mastaba AS 54, dated to Huni's reign through an inscribed magnesite bowl bearing his Horus name, providing indirect evidence of elite funerary practices contemporary with the king.^[14] The tomb features a deep burial shaft measuring 12.60 meters and a complex chamber accessed via a stairway, constructed primarily of mud bricks with an embedded cult chapel for offerings, reflecting standard Third Dynasty customs of securing the deceased against disturbance while enabling ritual access.^[14] Over 100 stone vessels, predominantly calcite and alabaster bowls, were recovered from the mastaba, used likely for libations and provisions in the afterlife, a practice consistent with early Old Kingdom burials emphasizing material continuity for the ka.^[14] These artifacts indicate reliance on durable, symbolic goods rather than perishable organics, with the inscription tying the assemblage directly to Huni's era and suggesting standardized provisioning across elite and possibly royal contexts.^[14] Inscriptions referencing funerary estates (pr-dt) associated with Huni, such as those in Urkunden I, attest to institutional mechanisms for sustaining the royal mortuary cult through agricultural endowments, implying perpetual offerings of bread, beer, and cloth to maintain the deceased king's eternal existence.^[41] This system, evolving from Early Dynastic precedents, underscores a causal emphasis on economic realism in funerary ideology, where land grants ensured ritual efficacy independent of political fluctuations.^[41] The proximity of such tombs to potential royal necropoleis, like Abusir's alignment with later Fourth Dynasty pyramids, evidences spatial integration of elite and royal funerary domains, facilitating shared cultic personnel and practices like daily invocations to deities such as Anubis for protection.^[14] However, the absence of confirmed royal reliefs or texts detailing Huni-specific rituals limits attribution, with scholars inferring continuity from Djoser's Step Pyramid complex rather than unique innovations.^[41]

Lack of Confirmed Mummy or Tomb Goods

No mummy attributable to Huni has been identified through archaeological investigation, reflecting the broader scarcity of intact royal burials from the Third Dynasty due to ancient tomb plundering and environmental degradation.^[8] Similarly, no tomb goods—such as inscribed vessels, jewelry, or canopic equipment—have been definitively associated with his interment, despite fragmentary artifacts bearing his name from non-funerary contexts like administrative seals.^[14] This evidentiary void persists because Huni's primary tomb site eludes confirmation; while structures like the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan have been probed, they contain no burial chamber remnants or royal accoutrements linked to him.^[3] The lack of such material contrasts with better-documented Third Dynasty elites, where mastabas occasionally yield inscribed stoneware or minor grave goods, as seen in Abusir tombs from Huni's reign, but these pertain to subordinates rather than the king himself.^[14] Proposed alternatives, including unexcavated areas in Saqqara or associations with provincial step pyramids, have failed to produce diagnostic funerary evidence, hampered by incomplete surveys and the era's transitional pyramid-building practices that may not have prioritized subterranean royal vaults.^[8] Ongoing searches, such as those targeting potential undiscovered pyramids, continue without yielding biological remains or artifacts that could verify Huni's post-mortem cult or embalming rites.^[42] This gap fuels debates over whether Huni's burial adhered to evolving Old Kingdom norms or was obscured by dynastic shifts under Sneferu.

Scholarly Debates and Uncertainties

Pyramid Ownership Controversies

The attribution of pyramids to Huni, the last pharaoh of Egypt's Third Dynasty (circa 2637–2613 BCE), remains highly debated among Egyptologists due to the absence of direct inscriptions bearing his name on major pyramid structures and reliance on architectural typology, masonry styles, and contextual evidence from surrounding tombs. No pyramid has been conclusively identified as Huni's primary burial monument, leading scholars to propose various candidates ranging from unfinished or modified large pyramids to networks of smaller provincial step pyramids. This uncertainty stems from the transitional architectural phase between step pyramids and true pyramids, compounded by later dynastic modifications and looting that erased definitive markers.^[37] A primary controversy centers on the Meidum Pyramid, located south of modern Cairo, initially constructed as a seven-step pyramid around 2575 BCE but later partially converted toward a true pyramidal form before partial collapse. Some scholars, including Rainer Stadelmann, argue Huni initiated its construction as a step pyramid, citing stylistic similarities to Third Dynasty precedents like Djoser's at Saqqara and the presence of unfinished elements consistent with a dynastic shift to Sneferu, Huni's likely successor and son. However, the majority view, supported by Eighteenth Dynasty graffiti inside the pyramid explicitly naming Sneferu as builder and detailed masonry analysis showing Fourth Dynasty refinements, attributes the core structure and modifications to Sneferu alone, relegating any Huni involvement to speculative precursors or none at all. This debate highlights methodological challenges, as core samples and subsidence patterns suggest construction spanned reigns, but lack of Huni-specific cartouches undermines claims of his ownership.^[37]^[34] The Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan, an unfinished structure with exposed mudbrick core layers dating to the late Third Dynasty (circa 2600 BCE), represents another contested attribution. Proposed owners include Khaba (Horus name Hor-Djedefre), a king whose sequence relative to Huni is unclear, with some equating Khaba to Huni based on fragmentary king lists and the pyramid's rudimentary substructure lacking burial chambers. Miroslav Verner and others favor Khaba as a distinct successor to Huni, pointing to ceramic dating and nearby mastabas aligned with Third Dynasty elites but without Huni's attested seals. Proponents of Huni's ownership cite the pyramid's abandonment mid-construction, mirroring potential political instability at dynastic transitions, though excavation reports from the 1920s reveal no confirmatory inscriptions, leaving the link tentative and reliant on indirect prosopographic ties from provincial estates.^[30]^[31] Additional disputes involve smaller step pyramids scattered across Upper Egypt, such as those at Edfu, Hierakonpolis, and Naqada, totaling up to seven documented by the late nineteenth century. These diminutive structures (bases 15–25 meters) feature no internal chambers and are interpreted as symbolic markers for royal domain boundaries or cult centers rather than tombs, with Albert Naguib Vandier attributing them to Huni based on their uniform Third Dynasty dating and absence of earlier parallels. Critics argue this dispersal reflects broader administrative reforms under Huni rather than personal funerary intent, as no associated queen's pyramids or valley temples confirm royal ownership, and parallels exist with non-Huni Third Dynasty projects. Excavations at Abusir and Abu Rawash have yielded late Third Dynasty mastabas with Huni-era vessels, suggesting proximity to unexcavated pyramids like Lepsius No. 1, but restricted access and erosion prevent resolution, perpetuating views of Huni as a bridge figure whose monuments were overshadowed or repurposed by Fourth Dynasty builders.^[43]^[44]

Relation to Sneferu and Dynastic Transition

Huni is conventionally identified as the concluding pharaoh of Egypt's Third Dynasty, reigning circa 2637–2613 BCE, with Sneferu emerging as the inaugural ruler of the Fourth Dynasty immediately thereafter, around 2613–2589 BCE. This succession delineates a pivotal dynastic boundary in Manetho's framework, yet archaeological and textual records reveal no evidence of rupture, such as civil conflict or foreign intervention, suggesting a seamless transfer of power consistent with hereditary continuity. The Palermo Stone and fragmentary annals provide limited regnal data for Huni but omit explicit linkages to Sneferu, while the Turin King List, though damaged in this era, aligns the sequence without noting disruptions.^[22]^[45] Scholarly consensus leans toward a paternal connection, positing Sneferu as Huni's son, possibly by a consort named Meresankh I, who may have held secondary queen status under Huni before linking the lineages. This view draws from indirect attestations, including clay sealings bearing Sneferu's Horus name alongside Huni's, unearthed at Elephantine, which imply administrative or monumental overlap rather than mere coincidence. However, no contemporary inscription unequivocally declares Huni as Sneferu's father, and alternative hypotheses invoke marriage alliances—such as Sneferu wedding a daughter of Huni—to explain the transition, emphasizing matrilineal ties amid sparse patriarchal proofs. Egyptologists like Rainer Stadelmann highlight the rarity of ancestral records for Sneferu, attributing the filiation primarily to positional inference from unbroken succession.^[46]^[45]^[47] The dynastic shift under Huni's tenure reflects evolving architectural and administrative paradigms, bridging Third Dynasty step pyramids with Fourth Dynasty true pyramids, as evidenced by potential Huni-era foundations at sites like Meidum, later augmented by Sneferu. This continuity underscores causal stability in royal authority, with Huni's probable initiation of provincial pyramid cults presaging Sneferu's expansive building campaigns, fostering ideological unification across nomes. Uncertainties persist due to lacunae in primary sources, prompting debates on whether the divide represents genuine familial rupture or Manetho's retrospective categorization, yet the absence of rival claimants affirms Huni's role in enabling the Fourth Dynasty's monumental zenith.^[48]^[49]

Methodological Challenges in Attribution

One primary challenge in attributing monuments to Huni stems from the scarcity of direct epigraphic evidence, such as royal cartouches or inscriptions bearing his name, within the structures themselves. For instance, while the Meidum Pyramid has been tentatively linked to Huni by some scholars seeking to assign him a major monument, no contemporary inscriptions identifying him have been found at the site, leading to reliance on circumstantial architectural transitions from step to true pyramids rather than definitive proof.^[1] ^[4] Similarly, the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan lacks any inscribed attribution to Huni, with its unfinished state and rudimentary construction complicating chronological placement between the Third and Fourth Dynasties.^[50] ^[8] Attributions often depend on indirect textual sources like the Turin King List and Manetho's Aegyptiaca, which place Huni at the end of the Third Dynasty but provide no specific monument details, introducing uncertainties from fragmentary preservation and later compilations. These lists, dating to the Ramesside and Ptolemaic periods respectively, reflect retrospective kingly sequences prone to telescoping or errors in reign lengths, as evidenced by discrepancies in Huni's reported 24-year rule across sources.^[39] Moreover, smaller step pyramids scattered along the Nile, sometimes associated with Huni for ritual or provincial purposes, suffer from ambiguous dating via pottery or stylistic analysis, which yields broad ranges overlapping multiple reigns without resolving ownership.^[8] Archaeological methodologies exacerbate these issues through site disturbances from ancient quarrying, modern looting, and incomplete excavations, limiting stratigraphic correlations to Huni's era around 2630–2610 BCE. For example, satellite pyramids like that at Meidum yield architectural data suggesting Third Dynasty origins, but without inscribed seals or tomb goods naming Huni, interpretations hinge on debated familial links, such as his purported fatherhood of Sneferu, which influences assumptions of unfinished projects passed to successors.^[51] ^[34] This reliance on inference over empirical markers underscores a broader methodological tension in Old Kingdom Egyptology, where pyramid evolution is reconstructed via comparative morphology, yet transitional forms like those at Meidum or Zawyet el-Aryan resist firm royal assignments absent confirmatory artifacts.^[6]

Legacy in Egyptology

Influence on Pyramid Evolution

Huni's reign marks a transitional phase in Old Kingdom pyramid architecture, bridging the step pyramid designs of the early Third Dynasty, exemplified by Djoser's complex at Saqqara around 2670 BCE, and the true pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty. Some scholars propose that Huni initiated construction of smaller step pyramids in provincial locations such as Elephantine (Sinki), Naqada (Ombos), and Abu Rawash, diverging from the Memphite-centric tradition and possibly experimenting with modular or decentralized building techniques that foreshadowed the logistical expansions under Sneferu.^[2] These structures, dated to circa 2630–2610 BCE based on stratigraphic and ceramic evidence, featured rudimentary core masonry and casing, reflecting incremental refinements in quarrying and ramp systems that would scale up in subsequent reigns.^[4] Attribution of the Meidum pyramid's initial phase to Huni remains contentious, with theories suggesting he began it as a seven-step structure before Sneferu expanded and converted it around 2613–2589 BCE, representing an early attempt to fill step layers with internal ramps or accretion layers to achieve a smoother profile.^[52] However, archaeological consensus leans against direct Huni ownership due to the absence of his cartouches or funerary inscriptions in the core, with core samples and masonry analysis indicating a unified Fourth Dynasty campaign under Sneferu.^[8] Similarly, the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el-Aryan, potentially Huni's, exhibits horizontal layering akin to transitional experiments, where mudbrick cores were encased in limestone, hinting at causal links to the casing failures later observed at Meidum and influencing Sneferu's Bent Pyramid adjustments.^[8] These attributions, if valid, underscore Huni's role in fostering architectural innovation amid dynastic transition, as evidenced by the proliferation of subsidiary pyramids and the shift toward larger-scale labor mobilization documented in Fourth Dynasty records.^[47] The empirical progression—from Huni's purported modest steps to Sneferu's iterative failures and Khufu's Giza success—demonstrates causal evolution driven by empirical trial-and-error in angle stability and material bonding, rather than abrupt ideological shifts, though source biases in later king lists may overemphasize continuity to legitimize Fourth Dynasty claims.^[53] Uncertainties persist due to limited epigraphic evidence, with future geophysical surveys potentially clarifying Huni's direct contributions to the true pyramid's emergence by circa 2580 BCE.^[54]

Representations in Modern Scholarship

In contemporary Egyptology, Huni is depicted as a transitional monarch whose reign bridged the Third and Fourth Dynasties, marked by sparse epigraphic and architectural evidence that contrasts with the more prolific monuments of predecessors like Djoser. Scholarly consensus positions him as the dynasty's final ruler, with reign estimates around 2637–2613 BCE derived from king lists such as the Turin Papyrus and Palermo Stone fragments, though absolute chronology remains approximate due to incomplete regnal data.^[11] Representations emphasize his potential role in decentralizing royal authority, evidenced by inscriptions from quarries and private tombs indicating administrative oversight rather than grandiose central projects.^[55] A key aspect of modern interpretations centers on Huni's architectural legacy, particularly the small step pyramids constructed in provincial locales, which scholars interpret as strategic assertions of pharaonic presence or local cult foundations rather than elite burial complexes. Examples include the Elephantine pyramid, inscribed with Huni's name in a granite block, and similar structures at Seila, Naqada, and the 2014 Edfu discovery—part of a series of seven such "provincial" pyramids attributed to Huni or his kin, standing up to 43 feet high and built with local limestone.^[56] ^[57] These differ from Djoser's Saqqara edifice in scale and function, suggesting experimentation or resource distribution amid evolving pyramid typology. The earlier hypothesis linking Huni to the Meidum pyramid as its initiator has been widely rejected, with analyses favoring Sneferu based on stylistic progression to Dahshur prototypes and the absence of Huni's cartouches amid core masonry collapses.^[21]^[58] Dynastic relations form another focal point, with Huni often portrayed as Sneferu's immediate predecessor but not necessarily direct progenitor; while some reconstructions infer patrilineal succession from Manetho's Aegyptiaca and Turin Canon sequencing, others highlight matrilineal ties via Hetepheres I—titled as Huni's daughter and Sneferu's consort—potentially stabilizing the transition through alliance rather than bloodline.^[8] This uncertainty underscores broader scholarly caution against over-relying on fragmentary sources, positioning Huni as an enigmatic figure whose era facilitated the monumental escalation under Sneferu, as synthesized in Old Kingdom overviews.^[39] Recent studies, including quarry inscriptions and material analyses, continue to probe these gaps, advocating interdisciplinary approaches like radiocarbon dating to refine attributions.^[11]

Gaps in Knowledge and Future Research Directions

Despite the accumulation of archaeological data from Third Dynasty sites, significant gaps persist in understanding Huni's reign, particularly regarding the attribution of monumental architecture. No pyramid has been definitively linked to Huni through contemporary inscriptions or structural analysis, with proposed candidates like the Layer Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan and the early phases of Meidum remaining contested due to the absence of royal cartouches or diagnostic tomb goods.^[8]^[59] This uncertainty extends to his familial ties, including unconfirmed paternity of Sneferu or queens like Hetepheres I, reliant on indirect evidence from later king lists prone to scribal errors.^[60] Chronological precision for Huni's rule is another void, with reign lengths estimated variably at 18–24 years from fragmented sources like the Palermo Stone, but lacking corroboration from stratified artifacts or astronomical alignments specific to his era.^[60] The scarcity of administrative documents or private monuments bearing his name limits insights into governance, economic policies, and the causal factors in the Third-to-Fourth Dynasty transition, such as resource allocation for pyramid experimentation. Future research should prioritize non-invasive geophysical techniques, including ground-penetrating radar and muon tomography, at sites like Zawiyet el-Aryan and Meidum to map subsurface chambers and detect potential Huni-era modifications without risking structural integrity.^[61] Integrated radiocarbon dating of organic remains from contemporary settlements, calibrated via Bayesian statistical models against known Old Kingdom sequences, could narrow reign endpoints and clarify succession dynamics.^[60]^[61] Comparative petrographic and isotopic analyses of stone quarries and masonry could further attribute pyramid cores, while digitization and AI-assisted pattern recognition of seal impressions might reveal overlooked administrative links to Huni's court.

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Jun 25, 2024 · The last king of the Third Dynasty, Huni, does not appear to have built a pyramid tomb. There are a series of small step pyramids scattered from ...<|separator|>
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https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/4600-year-old-step-pyramid-uncovered-in-egypt/
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4,600-Year-Old Step Pyramid Uncovered in Egypt | Scientific American
Feb 3, 2014 · The step pyramid, which once stood as high as 43 feet (13 meters), is one of seven so-called "provincial" pyramids built by either the pharaoh ...
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Seven Small Pyramids | Ancient Egypt Online
It is composed of three granite steps clad in pink granite and bound with clay and is oriented to the west bank of the island. An inscription naming Huni is ...
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Pyramid Age: Huni to Radjedef - eScholarship
The early to mid-4th Dynasty (c. 2600-2500 BCE) stands out as a peak of monumentality in the early historical periods of Pharaonic Egypt.
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[PDF] Astronomy, topography and dynastic history in the Age of the ... - arXiv
After, the so-called Layer Pyramid (Z1) was built at Zawiet el Arian and another very far south, in Meidum. The attribution of these two is uncertain; the ...
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[PDF] UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology - eScholarship.org
Sep 17, 2017 · Our sources for the chronology of the Old Kingdom comprise a mere handful of contemporary written documents, supplemented by radiocarbon ...<|separator|>
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Dating the Egyptian Old Kingdom: The reign of Djedkare (5th dynasty)
Nov 5, 2024 · The royal necropolis established by king Djedkare is located on a small hill at South Saqqara, surrounded by a valley on its north and south and ...