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Inguinal orchiectomy

Inguinal orchiectomy, also known as radical inguinal orchidectomy, is a surgical procedure in which one or both testicles are removed along with the full length of the spermatic cord through an incision in the groin area.^[1] This approach ensures high ligation of the spermatic cord at the internal inguinal ring to prevent potential tumor dissemination via lymphatic or vascular routes.^[2] It represents the gold standard for the initial diagnosis and treatment of testicular masses suspicious for malignancy, providing definitive histopathological confirmation, accurate staging, and local tumor control.^[3] The procedure is primarily indicated for suspected germ cell tumors of the testis. The inguinal route is preferred over scrotal approaches to avoid scrotal skin contamination, which could complicate subsequent lymph node dissection if metastasis occurs.^[4]

Indications

Testicular cancer

Inguinal orchiectomy serves as the primary diagnostic and therapeutic intervention for suspected testicular cancer, particularly germ cell tumors, which constitute approximately 95% of all testicular malignancies.^[5] As the gold standard initial treatment, it involves the radical removal of the affected testis and spermatic cord through an inguinal approach to establish a definitive diagnosis and address the primary tumor.^[6] This procedure is recommended for nearly all patients with a palpable testicular mass suspicious for malignancy, enabling accurate histopathological evaluation to guide subsequent management. The diagnostic value of inguinal orchiectomy lies in its ability to provide excised tissue for detailed pathological analysis, confirming the cancer subtype—such as seminoma or nonseminomatous germ cell tumor—and determining the local stage of disease, which informs risk stratification and adjuvant therapy decisions.^[7] By securing high-quality tissue without contamination, it facilitates precise tumor marker correlation and genomic profiling, essential for distinguishing pure seminomas from mixed or nonseminomatous variants that may require different therapeutic pathways. Therapeutically, the procedure removes the primary neoplasm along with the spermatic cord, interrupting potential lymphatic drainage pathways and preventing intra-abdominal spread, which is critical given the tumor's propensity for retroperitoneal metastasis.^[8] For early-stage disease, inguinal orchiectomy alone achieves cure rates exceeding 95% when integrated with active surveillance, chemotherapy, or radiation as needed, reflecting the overall high curability of testicular germ cell tumors.^[9] It is typically performed unilaterally, though bilateral orchiectomy may be indicated in rare synchronous cases affecting both testes.^[10] Importantly, the inguinal route is preferred over a scrotal approach to avoid tumor seeding into scrotal lymphatics, which could complicate local control and increase recurrence risk.^[11]

Other conditions

Inguinal orchiectomy serves as a palliative intervention in advanced prostate cancer to achieve androgen deprivation therapy by reducing testosterone production from the testes.^[12] This procedure, typically performed bilaterally, rapidly lowers serum testosterone levels to castrate range, providing symptomatic relief and slowing disease progression in hormone-sensitive cases. Historically, bilateral orchiectomy was the standard initial treatment for metastatic prostate cancer prior to the development of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists in the 1980s, offering a cost-effective and irreversible alternative to medical therapies. It achieves a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) reduction of greater than 90% in most patients, establishing effective biochemical response and palliation.^[13] Although less common today due to the convenience of reversible medical options, orchiectomy retains relevance in resource-limited settings or for patients non-compliant with long-term injections. In gender-affirming care, inguinal orchiectomy plays a key role for transgender women seeking to align physical characteristics with gender identity, frequently as a standalone procedure or adjunct to hormone therapy.^[14] By eliminating testicular testosterone production, it facilitates feminization effects such as reduced body hair and softer skin, while allowing discontinuation of anti-androgen medications and potentially lowering estrogen doses to mitigate side effects like thromboembolism. Performed via an inguinal approach to preserve scrotal tissue for future surgeries like vaginoplasty, it offers high patient satisfaction rates and is considered safe with low complication profiles when integrated into multidisciplinary care protocols. Rarely, inguinal orchiectomy addresses chronic orchitis refractory to conservative treatments, where persistent inflammation leads to intractable pain (orchialgia) unresponsive to antibiotics or anti-inflammatories.^[15] In such scenarios, the procedure targets nociceptive sources within the testicular parenchyma and spermatic cord, achieving pain resolution in approximately 75% of cases via high ligation. For undescended testes (cryptorchidism) in adults complicated by increased malignancy risk or infertility, orchiectomy is recommended over orchiopexy, particularly for intra-abdominal or high inguinal positions, to mitigate germ cell tumor development.^[16] This intervention is prioritized when the contralateral testis is functional, balancing oncologic safety with endocrine preservation.

Relevant anatomy

Testicular and spermatic cord structures

The testes are paired, oval-shaped gonadal organs located within the scrotum, each measuring approximately 3 to 5 cm in length, 2 to 3 cm in width, and weighing 15 to 25 grams.^[17]^[18] They serve essential exocrine and endocrine functions, producing spermatozoa via spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules and secreting testosterone from Leydig cells to support male secondary sexual characteristics and reproductive physiology.^[17] The testis is enveloped by the tunica vaginalis, a serous membrane consisting of visceral and parietal layers derived embryonically from the processus vaginalis, which covers the anterior and lateral aspects while leaving the posterior surface adherent to the epididymis.^[17] Beneath this lies the tunica albuginea, a thick, fibrous capsule composed of collagen and elastin fibers that encases the parenchyma and extends inward as incomplete septations to compartmentalize the lobules of seminiferous tubules.^[17] The spermatic cord is a tubular extension of fascia and supporting tissues that suspends the testis and epididymis within the scrotum, extending superiorly through the inguinal canal to the deep inguinal ring.^[17] Its core components include the vas deferens, a muscular duct conveying mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra; the testicular artery, a direct branch from the abdominal aorta inferior to the renal arteries, which supplies oxygenated blood to the testicular parenchyma; and the pampiniform venous plexus, a network of veins that coalesces into the testicular vein, facilitating thermoregulation through countercurrent heat exchange with the artery.^[17] Other integral elements are the cremaster muscle, striated fibers from the internal oblique that encircle the cord to reflexively elevate the testis; lymphatic vessels that parallel the vasculature; and nerves, including sympathetic fibers from the hypogastric plexus and sensory branches from the genitofemoral nerve.^[17]^[19] Lymphatic drainage from the testis and epididymis travels along the spermatic cord and testicular vessels, converging primarily into the para-aortic lymph nodes at the L1-L2 level near the renal hilum, bypassing the inguinal nodes that serve the scrotal wall.^[17] This drainage pattern underscores the anatomical basis for high ligation of the cord during orchiectomy to interrupt potential routes of lymphatic metastasis.^[17] The testes originate embryologically from the urogenital ridge in the retroperitoneum during the 6th to 7th gestational weeks and descend into the scrotum in two phases: an initial transabdominal migration to the internal inguinal ring guided by the gubernaculum, followed by an inguinoscrotal phase driven by androgens and intra-abdominal pressure.^[18] This descent through the inguinal canal, typically completing by the 35th gestational week, accounts for the intra-abdominal positioning of key vascular and lymphatic structures, necessitating an inguinal approach in surgical interventions targeting the testis and spermatic cord.^[18]

Inguinal canal and groin region

The inguinal canal is an oblique passage in the lower anterior abdominal wall, measuring approximately 4 cm in length, that extends inferomedially just superior to the inguinal ligament.^[19] It begins at the deep inguinal ring, located at the mid-inguinal point—halfway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic symphysis, lateral to the inferior epigastric vessels—and terminates at the superficial inguinal ring, positioned superomedially to the pubic tubercle.^[20] The canal is bounded anteriorly by the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle (reinforced laterally by the internal oblique), posteriorly by the transversalis fascia and conjoint tendon, superiorly (roof) by the arched fibers of the internal oblique and transversus abdominis muscles, and inferiorly (floor) by the inguinal ligament (thickened medially by the lacunar ligament).^[19]^[20] In males, the canal transmits the spermatic cord, which includes structures such as the vas deferens, testicular artery, and lymphatics.^[19] The groin region overlying the inguinal canal consists of layered tissues, beginning superficially with skin and subcutaneous fat, followed by the external oblique aponeurosis that forms the anterior abdominal wall.^[21] Adjacent neurovascular structures include the ilioinguinal nerve, which traverses the canal to innervate the upper medial thigh, anterior scrotum, and root of the penis, and the external iliac vessels, positioned laterally near the deep inguinal ring.^[19]^[21] Weakening of the canal's posterior wall or rings can predispose to inguinal hernias, where abdominal contents protrude through these defects.^[20] In the context of inguinal orchiectomy, the canal provides critical surgical access to the spermatic cord, enabling high ligation at the deep inguinal ring to securely isolate and divide the cord while capturing associated lymphatics.^[3] This approach is preferred over a scrotal incision because it minimizes the risk of local tumor recurrence in malignancy cases by preventing contamination of the scrotal skin and lymphatic spillage into non-resectable areas.^[3] The typical incision is 5-7 cm long, made parallel to the inguinal ligament approximately 2 cm superior and lateral to the pubic tubercle, allowing dissection through the canal layers without violating the scrotum.^[3]

Surgical procedure

Preoperative preparation

Preoperative preparation for inguinal orchiectomy involves a systematic evaluation to confirm the diagnosis, stage the disease, assess patient fitness, and address fertility and psychological concerns, ensuring optimal safety and outcomes. This process typically occurs on an outpatient basis or with a short hospital stay, allowing patients to return home the same day or after brief observation. Patients are advised to fast for 6-8 hours prior to surgery to prepare for general anesthesia.^[8] Diagnostic workup begins with a high-resolution scrotal ultrasound to confirm the presence of a testicular mass, offering near 100% sensitivity and specificity for distinguishing solid neoplasms from benign conditions like epididymitis or hydrocele. Serum tumor markers, including alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), are measured before surgery to support the diagnosis of germ cell tumors and aid in histologic classification, with elevations seen in up to 90% of nonseminomatous cases. Staging involves contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis to evaluate for metastases, as recommended by major guidelines; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may substitute if CT is contraindicated.^[3]^[22]^[23] Patient assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination to identify comorbidities, followed by routine blood tests such as complete blood count (CBC) to check for anemia or infection and coagulation studies if bleeding risks are present. Cardiac and pulmonary evaluations are performed as needed, particularly in patients with cardiovascular disease, to optimize fitness for surgery; antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications are discontinued per guidelines to minimize bleeding risks. All patients receive counseling on fertility preservation, with sperm banking strongly recommended for those of reproductive age, as orchiectomy and potential adjuvant therapies can impair spermatogenesis even with a normal contralateral testis. Discussion of testicular prosthesis insertion during the procedure is also standard to address cosmetic and psychological impacts.^[8]^[24]^[23] Anesthesia planning favors general anesthesia due to the procedure's brevity and the need to manage traction reflexes, though regional options are occasionally considered. Preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis, such as a single dose of cefazolin, is administered to reduce surgical site infection risk, guided by local resistance patterns. Informed consent is obtained after detailing procedure specifics, potential complications like infertility or infection (occurring in about 1% of cases), and alternatives such as testis-sparing surgery for select small lesions. The surgical site is marked preoperatively by the surgeon and verified with the patient to prevent wrong-side errors. A scrotal support garment is advised post-procedure to reduce swelling, with instructions provided beforehand.^[3]^[8]

Intraoperative technique

The intraoperative technique for radical inguinal orchiectomy emphasizes complete en bloc removal of the testis and spermatic cord through an inguinal approach to minimize the risk of tumor dissemination, distinguishing it from simple orchiectomy, which involves low clamping of the cord and is reserved for non-malignant conditions.^[8] The procedure typically lasts 30 to 60 minutes and is performed under general or spinal anesthesia, focusing on unilateral removal unless bilateral involvement necessitates otherwise.^[25] No microscope is employed, as the surgery relies on direct visualization and blunt dissection.^[8] The surgery begins with patient positioning in the supine position, followed by a transverse or oblique incision measuring 5 to 7 cm, placed just above the pubic tubercle and parallel to the inguinal ligament, extending laterally toward the anterior superior iliac spine.^[4]^[3] The incision is deepened through the skin and subcutaneous tissues to reach the external oblique aponeurosis, which is then incised along its fibers to expose the inguinal canal, taking care to identify and preserve the ilioinguinal nerve.^[8] Blunt dissection is used to mobilize the spermatic cord at the level of the pubic tubercle, encircling it gently with the thumb and forefinger before applying a Penrose drain as a tourniquet proximal to the internal inguinal ring for controlled traction and to prevent vascular dissemination of potential tumor cells.^[3] Once isolated, the spermatic cord is mobilized high at the deep inguinal ring using the triple-clamp technique: two nonabsorbable clamps are placed proximally and one distally to the tourniquet, followed by division of the cord between the clamps.^[8] The proximal end is securely ligated with nonabsorbable sutures (such as 2-0 Vicryl or silk) to achieve hemostasis, while the distal cord, testis, and tunica vaginalis are delivered en bloc through the incision by gentle traction and external scrotal pressure, avoiding any manipulation that could rupture the tunica albuginea.^[3] Any attachments, such as the gubernaculum, are divided and ligated as needed to complete the excision.^[26] Closure proceeds in layers after confirming hemostasis and irrigating the wound with saline: the external oblique aponeurosis is reapproximated with running absorbable sutures (e.g., 2-0 Vicryl) to the level of the external ring, preventing indirect hernia formation; subcutaneous tissues are closed with absorbable material, and the skin is approximated with subcuticular sutures or staples.^[4]^[8] Drains are not routinely used. An optional testicular prosthesis may be inserted into the scrotum for cosmetic purposes prior to scrotal inversion, sized intraoperatively to match the contralateral testis.^[3]

Risks and complications

Short-term risks

Short-term risks of inguinal orchiectomy primarily encompass perioperative complications that arise during surgery or within the immediate postoperative period, typically resolving within weeks. The overall complication rate for this procedure is low, reported at approximately 2.6% across large cohorts.^[8] Intraoperative risks include vascular injury to the spermatic cord vessels, which can lead to bleeding if not adequately controlled during ligation.^[4] Bleeding and hematoma formation represent the most common short-term complications, occurring in 1-2% of cases due to potential disruption of vascular structures in the spermatic cord.^[27] Scrotal swelling and bruising are expected in nearly all patients as a result of this bleeding into the scrotal space, often manifesting as tenderness and discoloration that peaks in the first few days and typically resolves over 2-4 weeks with conservative measures such as ice application and elevation.^[4] Re-intervention for significant hematoma is rare, affecting about 0.4% of patients.^[28] Infection, including wound site or scrotal involvement, occurs in roughly 1% of procedures and is mitigated through perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis.^[3] Clinical signs include fever, localized erythema, or purulent drainage, prompting prompt evaluation to prevent progression. Surgical site infection rates in inguinal urologic procedures, including orchiectomy, have been documented at up to 6.5% in some series, though lower rates are typical with standard protocols.^[29] Anesthesia-related complications, such as nausea, vomiting, or urinary retention, are infrequent but can occur due to general or spinal anesthesia used in the procedure.^[26] Additionally, injury to the ilioinguinal nerve during spermatic cord dissection may cause transient groin or scrotal pain and paresthesia, affecting up to 60% of patients initially, with most cases resolving spontaneously within weeks.^[3] Postoperative pain is nearly universal in the acute phase, peaking on days 1-3 and managed effectively with a combination of opioids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for 1-2 weeks.^[30] This pain often stems from incisional trauma and local inflammation, with about 5-10% of patients experiencing more pronounced short-term issues requiring extended symptomatic support.^[26]

Long-term effects

Following inguinal orchiectomy, particularly for testicular cancer, patients may experience long-term hypogonadism due to reduced testosterone production, even after unilateral removal which typically preserves approximately 50% of gonadal function from the remaining testis. This can manifest as fatigue, decreased libido, loss of muscle mass, osteoporosis, and mood changes, with clinically significant testosterone deficiency affecting up to 17% of patients at one year post-treatment. Monitoring serum testosterone levels is essential, with replacement therapy recommended if levels fall below 300 ng/dL or symptomatic deficiency occurs, as untreated hypogonadism increases risks of metabolic disorders like hypercholesterolemia and hypertension.^[31]^[32]^[33] Infertility represents another enduring consequence, though unilateral orchiectomy generally maintains fertility potential; however, up to 85% of patients show impaired semen parameters, including reduced sperm concentration and 9% developing azoospermia. Permanent infertility occurs if the procedure involves the only functional testis or is bilateral, underscoring the importance of preoperative sperm banking, which is recommended by guidelines for all testicular cancer patients to preserve future reproductive options. Over 50% of men may already have oligospermia at diagnosis, and post-orchiectomy fertility success rates exceed 90% with surveillance alone, though assisted reproductive technologies are needed in about 22% of cases.^[34]^[33] Psychological impacts are common, with body image concerns arising from scrotal changes and potential prosthesis dissatisfaction, alongside elevated rates of depression and anxiety affecting 10-20% of survivors. These effects can diminish quality of life and correlate with sexual dysfunction, often requiring counseling or mental health support to address feelings of loss, shame, or diminished self-esteem. Testosterone replacement therapy, via gels, injections, or patches, not only mitigates hormonal symptoms but also improves psychological well-being and sexual function in affected individuals.^[32]^[33] Testicular cancer survivors face a heightened risk of secondary malignancies, up to twice that of the general population, persisting for over two decades post-orchiectomy and influenced by subsequent treatments like chemotherapy or radiation. Common secondary cancers include contralateral testicular tumors, gastrointestinal types, leukemia, and thyroid cancer, necessitating long-term surveillance to detect these risks early.^[35]

Recovery and aftercare

Immediate postoperative care

Following radical inguinal orchiectomy, patients typically undergo a short hospital stay, often as an outpatient procedure with same-day discharge, though some may remain overnight for observation, resulting in an average length of stay of 0 to 1 day. In the recovery room, vital signs including temperature, pulse, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation are closely monitored to ensure stability. Pain management begins with intravenous analgesics if needed during the initial postoperative period, transitioning to oral medications such as acetaminophen or prescribed opioids for mild to moderate discomfort in the groin and scrotum, which is common in the first few days. Approximately 89% of procedures are performed on an outpatient basis, allowing most patients to return home shortly after surgery.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39] Discharge criteria generally include stable vital signs, adequate pain control with oral medications, normal voiding function, and the ability to tolerate oral intake. At home, wound care involves keeping the incision dry for the first 48 hours, after which gentle showering with mild soap is permitted, followed by patting dry and covering with a sterile gauze if needed; baths, swimming, or soaking should be avoided until cleared by the surgeon, typically after 2 weeks. Ice packs applied intermittently to the groin area for 20 minutes at a time can help reduce swelling and bruising, which may persist for 2 to 4 weeks. Patients are advised to avoid straining activities, such as lifting more than 10 pounds, for at least 2 weeks to prevent complications like hernia formation.^[38]^[40]^[38]^[39]^[4] Activity restrictions emphasize rest on the first postoperative day, with gradual ambulation encouraged starting soon after surgery to promote circulation, aiming for short walks several times daily. Scrotal support, such as a supportive athletic supporter or tight briefs, is recommended to minimize swelling and provide comfort during the initial recovery phase. A follow-up appointment with the surgeon is typically scheduled within 1 to 2 weeks to assess healing and discuss pathology results. Patients should monitor for signs of complications, such as fever exceeding 101°F (38.3°C), excessive redness or drainage from the incision, severe swelling, or difficulty urinating, and seek immediate medical attention if these occur. Long-term hormone monitoring may be initiated if indicated, but initial focus remains on acute recovery.^[38]^[39]^[41]^[38]^[39]

Long-term management

Following inguinal orchiectomy, typically performed as the initial treatment for testicular cancer, long-term management emphasizes ongoing surveillance for disease recurrence, monitoring of hormonal status, preservation of fertility and sexual function, and psychological support to optimize quality of life. Patients are advised to adhere to a structured follow-up regimen tailored to their cancer stage and risk factors, with multidisciplinary involvement from oncologists, urologists, and endocrinologists as needed. This approach aims to detect any residual or metastatic disease early while addressing potential long-term sequelae of surgery and adjuvant therapies.^[42]^[43] Cancer surveillance is a cornerstone of long-term care, particularly for stage I disease where active surveillance is the preferred strategy after orchiectomy to avoid overtreatment. Serial monitoring of tumor markers such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is recommended every 2-3 months in the first year for nonseminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCT), transitioning to every 6-12 months in subsequent years up to year 5. Imaging, including abdominal/pelvic computed tomography (CT) scans, occurs every 6 months initially for seminoma and every 3-6 months for NSGCT, with chest imaging as clinically indicated; frequencies decrease over time, often extending beyond 5 years for high-risk cases. If recurrence is detected, adjuvant therapies such as chemotherapy (e.g., bleomycin, etoposide, cisplatin) or retroperitoneal lymph node dissection may be initiated promptly to improve outcomes.^[42]^[43]^[44] Hormonal management focuses on preventing or treating hypogonadism, which affects 5-10% of patients post-unilateral orchiectomy due to potential compromise of the remaining testis. Annual serum testosterone level checks are advised, with replacement therapy recommended for symptomatic patients exhibiting levels below 250-300 ng/dL, such as those experiencing fatigue, reduced libido, or erectile dysfunction. Options include transdermal patches, gels, or injections, titrated to maintain physiologic levels while monitoring for side effects like erythrocytosis. Routine endocrine evaluation ensures timely intervention, as untreated deficiency can impact bone health and metabolic function.^[45]^[46]^[47] Fertility and sexual health counseling is integral, as orchiectomy and subsequent treatments can impair spermatogenesis and erectile function in up to 30% of survivors. Pre-orchiectomy sperm banking is encouraged when feasible, and post-surgery, patients receive guidance on reproductive options, including assisted reproductive technologies if needed. Sexual dysfunction, such as erectile difficulties, may arise from hormonal changes or psychological factors; phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (e.g., sildenafil) can provide support, while testicular prosthetics offer cosmetic benefits to alleviate body image concerns. Most patients regain normal sexual activity within months, with multidisciplinary clinics addressing these aspects holistically.^[26]^[48]^[49] Full physical recovery typically occurs within 4-8 weeks, allowing resumption of strenuous activities, though return to desk-based work is often possible after 1-2 weeks. Psychological support, including counseling or support groups, is recommended to mitigate elevated risks of depression and anxiety, which affect up to 44% of patients shortly after surgery, particularly among those without strong social support. Early intervention through mental health resources can significantly improve emotional well-being and adherence to follow-up care.^[50]^[51]^[52]

History

Early surgical approaches

The practice of orchiectomy originated in ancient civilizations, where castration was commonly performed as a means to create eunuchs for roles such as harem guardians or court officials, or as a form of punishment for crimes or wartime captives.^[53] In the Roman era, eunuchs were employed as slaves and trusted servants despite imperial bans on castration, with procedures often involving rudimentary scrotal incisions or crushing of the testicles without anesthesia, leading to significant pain and risk of hemorrhage.^[54] These early methods were crude and lacked sterile techniques, frequently resulting in fatal infections or incomplete removal.^[53] By the 19th century, orchiectomy began transitioning from punitive or ritualistic applications to medical interventions, primarily for managing trauma, severe infections, or complications from treatments like mercury for syphilis.^[55] Surgical removal of the testicle was indicated in cases of irreparable injury from accidents or battlefield wounds, as seen in American Civil War reports where urological injuries often necessitated orchiectomy amid rampant suppuration.^[56] A notable advancement occurred in 1877 when Scottish surgeon Thomas Annandale performed the first successful orchiopexy on a 3-year-old boy with an ectopic testicle, employing Joseph Lister's emerging antiseptic methods to fix the testis in the scrotum rather than removing it, marking a shift toward organ preservation.^[57] Pre-1900 mercury therapies for syphilis, which caused testicular toxicity and necrosis, frequently culminated in orchiectomy when conservative measures failed, though outcomes were poor due to limited understanding of the disease.^[55] Early 20th-century developments refined orchiectomy for oncologic purposes, with French urologist Maurice Chevassu describing the radical orchiectomy in 1910 as the preferred approach for testicular tumors.^[58] Chevassu advocated en bloc removal of the testis along with its vascular pedicle and regional lymph nodes via an inguinal incision, which isolated the procedure from scrotal skin to prevent tumor cell contamination and lymphatic spread.^[58] This technique addressed prior high mortality rates from postoperative infections, which exceeded 40% in some pre-antisepsis surgical series before Lister's carbolic acid methods reduced them to around 15% by the late 1860s.^[59] Prior to widespread antisepsis in the 1870s, infection-related complications dominated outcomes, with gangrene and sepsis claiming many lives following even minor genital surgeries.^[60]

Modern standardization

Following World War II, inguinal orchiectomy was adopted as the gold standard for managing suspected testicular malignancies, driven by military studies on over 900 affected soldiers that emphasized its role in histopathological confirmation and improved outcomes when combined with retroperitoneal lymph node dissection.^[61] In the 1950s, integration of chemotherapy agents like actinomycin D and methotrexate with orchiectomy marked a pivotal advancement, demonstrating tumor chemosensitivity and laying the foundation for multimodal therapy.^[61] By the 1970s, advancements in tumor staging, including the use of markers like human chorionic gonadotropin, contributed to rising cure rates for metastatic testicular cancer, increasing from around 10% at the decade's start to 60% by 1978 through refined surgical and adjuvant approaches.^[62] The inguinal approach specifically minimized local recurrence risks compared to scrotal incisions, with reviews showing rates of 0.4% for inguinal versus 2.9% for scrotal violations, underscoring its oncologic superiority.^[63] In the 1980s, pediatric protocols began diverging from adult standards, shifting toward testis-sparing surgery for many childhood tumors—often benign or yolk sac types—while adults continued with radical inguinal orchiectomy to ensure complete resection.^[64] During this period, laparoscopic orchiectomy was explored as a potential alternative, but concerns over inadequate spermatic cord ligation and intra-abdominal tumor seeding led to its limited adoption, with the open inguinal method remaining preferred for oncologic safety.^[3] Recent developments have refined the inguinal orchiectomy with minimally invasive variations, such as subinguinal approaches using smaller incisions (2-3 cm) to reduce postoperative pain and recovery time while maintaining high ligation of the cord.^[65] Emphasis on fertility preservation has grown, with routine sperm banking recommended preoperatively to address potential subfertility from unilateral removal or adjuvant therapies.^[34] In the 2020s, multidisciplinary care involving urologists, medical oncologists, and radiation specialists has become central, optimizing risk-stratified management and long-term survivorship. In recent years, molecular biomarkers such as miR-371a-3p have been incorporated into surveillance protocols to predict relapse more accurately.^[66] Global guidelines, such as the European Association of Urology's 2024 recommendations (reprinted 2025), continue to affirm radical inguinal orchiectomy as the standard initial treatment for testicular germ cell tumors, citing its diagnostic accuracy, staging utility, and low recurrence risk when performed correctly.^[67]

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Hypogonadism and Sexual Dysfunction in Testicular Tumor Survivors
The aim of this review was to summarize the current evidence on hypogonadism and sexual dysfunction in long-term cancer survivors.Abstract · Introduction · Hypogonadism · Sexual Function
[28]
What can a person expect after an orchiectomy? - MedicalNewsToday
Jun 5, 2024 · When to call a doctor after an orchiectomy · bleeding · infection · excessive bruising · seroma, which is a buildup of fluid after surgery · numbness ...
[29]
Fertility considerations in men with testicular cancer - PMC - NIH
This procedure requires an inguinal incision to remove the testicle and spermatic cord at the level of the internal inguinal ring. Several studies have ...Missing: preparation | Show results with:preparation<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
Second Cancers After Testicular Cancer
Aug 10, 2025 · Testicular cancer survivors are up to twice as likely to develop a new cancer outside the testicle. The chance of a second cancer changes over time.
[31]
Resident Involvement in Radical Inguinal Orchiectomy for Testicular ...
Aug 31, 2016 · A total of 238 (89.1%) patients underwent outpatient surgery (87.4% with RI vs. 90.2% with an AO; p = 0.464). The rate of pLOS was 9.7% without ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[32]
Testicular Cancer (Germ Cell Tumors): Radical Orchiectomy
A radical orchiectomy is an outpatient procedure. You go home the same day and do not stay in the hospital. It will take a few days to recover, but you must ...
[33]
[PDF] About Your Orchiectomy - Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
An orchiectomy is a surgery to remove 1 of your testicles. A bilateral orchiectomy is a surgery to remove both testicles.Missing: inguinal antibiotics outpatient
[34]
None
### Postoperative Care Details for Radical Orchiectomy
[35]
Inguinal Orchidectomy | Our Services | Urology Bay of Plenty
Once you are up and about, eating and drinking and you have passed urine you will be able to return home. This may be later on your operation day or the ...Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
[36]
None
### Summary of Immediate Postoperative Care, Hospital Stay, Pain Management, Wound Care, Activity Restrictions, and Discharge Criteria for Orchiectomy
[37]
Diagnosis and Treatment of Early-Stage Testicular Cancer: AUA ...
For patients with low-stage GCT (clinical stage I, IIA, or IIB), long-term survival is 95% or better. As GCT patients are often healthy and young with long ...
[38]
Testicular Cancer - NCCN
No information is available for this page. · Learn why
[39]
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5edf630529a1e75c78a0e903/t/5ee030e4eb44316114037f98/1591750884737/RADICAL+ORCHIECTOMY.pdf
[40]
Testosterone Deficiency Guideline - American Urological Association
The Evaluation and Management of Testosterone Deficiency AUA Guideline provides guidance to the practicing clinician on how to diagnose, treat and monitor the ...
[41]
Effect of Testosterone Replacement Therapy on Quality of Life and ...
In conclusion, 12 months TRT in testicular cancer survivors with mild Leydig Cell insufficiency did improve quality of life and sexual function and should not ...
[42]
Testosterone Therapy in Men with Androgen Deficiency Syndromes
We recommend testosterone therapy for men with symptomatic androgen deficiency to induce and maintain secondary sex characteristics and to improve their sexual ...
[43]
Fertility outcome of patients with testicular tumor: Before and after ...
Of the patients who had not conceived before treatment, 21.9% (21/96) banked their sperm and 23.8% of these patients (5/21) subsequently used the banked sperm.
[44]
Fertility considerations in men with testicular cancer - Parekh
In patients undergoing radical orchiectomy for malignancy, Petersen and colleagues identified a reduction in sperm concentration, total sperm count, and serum ...
[45]
Orchiectomy: What to Expect at Home - MyHealth Alberta
You can expect to feel better each day. But you may have some mild to moderate pain for several days after surgery. You may need pain medicine during this time.
[46]
Orchiectomy Postop Instructions | The Urology Group of Virginia
You will feel more comfortable if you put ice on the scrotum for the first four to six hours after surgery. Place ice for 20 minutes then take a 5 minute break.After Anesthesia · Surgical Care · Medications
[47]
Sexual function, depressive symptoms and marital status in ... - NIH
Directly following orchiectomy, 44% of the singles reported clinically elevated levels of depressive symptoms as compared with 14% of patients in a relationship ...
[48]
THE HISTORY OF HUMAN CASTRATION | Journal of Urology
May 1, 2022 · The earliest records for intentional human castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 21st century BC. Ancient ...Missing: approaches | Show results with:approaches
[49]
Types of Eunuchs in the Roman Empire - ThoughtCo
Jul 18, 2018 · Eunuchs in Roman history were important and held powerful positions despite laws against castration. The term 'spadones' referred to eunuchs ...
[50]
HF01-18 I CANâ - Journal of Urology
Mar 14, 2023 · If treatment with mercury failed, orchiectomy was done. It wasn't until 1910 that French urologist Maurice Chevassu reported radical orchiectomy ...
[51]
UROLOGICAL INJURIES IN THE CIVIL WAR
Surgeons recognized that survival depended on the prompt drainage of urine or the presence of an external urinary fistula to protect the body from infection. In ...
[52]
Thomas Annandale and the first report of successful orchiopexy
Results: Annandale was a surgeon in Edinburgh, Scotland, in the late 19th century. In 1877 he successfully brought down an ectopic testicle in a 3-year-old boy.
[53]
Maurice Chevassu (1877-1957): a pioneer of the study and therapy ...
In his treatise he doubted the effectiveness of simple orchiectomy and suggested the removal of the testis together with its vascular stem, followed by total ...Missing: radical | Show results with:radical
[54]
June 17, 1867: Lister Cuts Clean, Saves Lives - WIRED
Jun 17, 2011 · Between 1864 and 1866, Lister lost 46 percent of his surgical patients. From 1867 to 1870, he lost "only" 15 percent. By 1877, he'd dropped the ...
[55]
Statistics and the British controversy about the effects of Joseph ...
Before antisepsis, the death rates were higher in Lister's wards than in the whole GRI. They fell strikingly with the introduction of his methods, while they ...
[56]
History Forum I (HF01) - Journal of Urology
Apr 28, 2023 · CONCLUSIONS: World War II brought together young men with testis cancer, a rare disease that ignited fifty years of basic and clinical research ...
[57]
Testicular cancer: Fortieth anniversary of a cancer cure.
May 20, 2015 · Conclusions: Progress against testicular cancer has been remarkable: five-year survival increased from around 10% in the 1970s to over 90% today ...
[58]
A review of scrotal violation in testicular cancer: is adjuvant local ...
Patients with scrotal violation are often subjected to potentially morbid or disfiguring local therapies. In addition, patients with scrotal violations are ...
[59]
Partial orchiectomy vs. radical orchiectomy for pediatric testis tumors
Until the mid-1980s, the management of pediatric testis tumors followed guidelines for adult patients, which consisted of radical inguinal orchiectomy.Missing: diverge | Show results with:diverge
[60]
Subinguinal orchiectomy—A minimally invasive approach to open ...
The subinguinal orchiectomy technique avoids opening the inguinal canal by excising the spermatic cord at the external inguinal ring.
[61]
EAU Guidelines on Testicular Cancer - INTRODUCTION
The aim of these guidelines is to present the current evidence for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with cancer of the testis.Testicular Cancer · Disease Management · Follow Up After Curative TherapyMissing: inguinal orchiectomy
[62]
[PDF] EAU Guidelines on Testicular Cancer - Cloudfront.net
Apr 12, 2023 · 2. Summary of changes. For the 2023 Testicular Cancer Guidelines, the key changes incorporated in this publication include: •. A forensic ...