Inscribed square problem

The inscribed square problem, also known as the square peg problem or Toeplitz' conjecture, is an open question in plane geometry that conjectures every simple closed continuous curve—a Jordan curve—in the Euclidean plane contains four points forming the vertices of a square.^[1] Proposed by German mathematician Otto Toeplitz in 1911 during a conference talk on topology, the problem asks whether such an inscribed square exists for any Jordan curve, regardless of its shape or smoothness, as long as it is a non-self-intersecting loop dividing the plane into an interior and exterior region.^[2] Toeplitz himself proved the conjecture for convex curves, but a full general proof eluded him, and the problem has resisted resolution for over a century despite extensive efforts.^[1] Early progress included Arnold Emch's 1916 proof for piecewise analytic curves and Lev Schnirelmann's 1929 result for curves with bounded curvature, later refined for C^2-smooth curves.^[2] In 1989, Walter Stromquist established the existence for all C^1-smooth curves using topological methods involving the Brouwer fixed-point theorem.^[1] The conjecture holds for polygonal curves, as shown by work on finite total curvature without cusps, and for locally monotone curves.^[3] More recent advances have extended the result to certain non-smooth cases, such as curves that are unions of two Lipschitz graphs with Lipschitz constant less than 1, proven by Terence Tao in 2017 via an integration approach that leverages conserved quantities like the integral \int y \, dx.^[4] Despite these partial successes, the general case for arbitrary continuous Jordan curves remains unsolved, with challenges arising from potential degenerate configurations and the lack of differentiability.^[1] The problem has inspired related questions, such as the inscribed rectangle problem, which was affirmatively resolved in 2020 for all smooth Jordan curves using symplectic geometry.^[5]

Fundamentals

Problem Statement

The inscribed square problem, also known as the square peg problem, conjectures that every Jordan curve in the plane admits an inscribed square. A Jordan curve is defined as a continuous simple closed curve in \mathbb{R}^2, which is topologically equivalent to the unit circle S^1 and thus embeds the circle into the plane without self-intersections.^[6] This conjecture was posed by Otto Toeplitz in 1911.^[7] An inscribed square on such a curve consists of four distinct points on the curve that serve as the vertices of a square, with the sides of the square connecting consecutive points in the order they appear along the curve's parametrization.^[8] Equivalently, the square peg problem asks whether every simple closed curve in the plane contains a non-degenerate square with all four vertices lying on the curve.^[8] Formally, consider a Jordan curve parametrized by \gamma: [0,1] \to \mathbb{R}^2 such that \gamma(0) = \gamma(1) and \gamma is injective on (0,1). The conjecture asserts the existence of parameters t_1 < t_2 < t_3 < t_4 in [0,1) where the points \gamma(t_1), \gamma(t_2), \gamma(t_3), and \gamma(t_4) form the vertices of a square, meaning the vectors \gamma(t_2) - \gamma(t_1), \gamma(t_3) - \gamma(t_2), \gamma(t_4) - \gamma(t_3), and \gamma(t_1) - \gamma(t_4) (with the last adjusted for closure) have equal lengths and adjacent sides are perpendicular.^[3]

Illustrative Examples

One of the simplest examples is the circle, where inscribed squares abound. Consider the unit circle parametrized by \gamma(\theta) = (\cos \theta, \sin \theta) for \theta \in [0, 2\pi). For any angle \theta, the points \gamma(\theta), \gamma(\theta + \pi/2), \gamma(\theta + \pi), and \gamma(\theta + 3\pi/2) form the vertices of an inscribed square, with side length \sqrt{2} and diagonal equal to the diameter 2.^[9] These squares can be rotated arbitrarily, yielding infinitely many distinct inscribed squares. To construct such a square geometrically, draw a diameter of the circle, then erect a perpendicular bisector through the center to intersect the circle at two additional points; connecting these four points yields the square.^[10] Ellipses also admit inscribed squares, though typically unique up to symmetry and not aligned with the principal axes unless the ellipse is a circle. For instance, in a non-circular ellipse, the inscribed square's vertices lie at points where the curve intersects lines of equal parametric advance adjusted for the eccentricity, ensuring equal side lengths and right angles. This existence stems from the ellipse's smoothness and affinity to the circle, where affine transformations map inscribed parallelograms, but specific square configurations persist due to the curve's convexity and differentiability.^[11] Among regular polygons, the square itself serves as a trivial example: the boundary curve is precisely an inscribed square. For an equilateral triangle, inscribed squares exist in multiple orientations; for example, one configuration places two adjacent vertices on one side of the triangle and the other two on the remaining sides, maximizing area when the square's base aligns symmetrically with the triangle's base. Construction involves erecting auxiliary squares outwardly on the sides and finding intersections of lines from the opposite vertex to the new points, yielding the inscribed square's position. There are three such maximal squares, one per side.^[12] A simple non-convex example is a star-shaped Jordan curve, such as a smooth, non-self-intersecting dimpled limaçon (e.g., r = 1 + 0.75 \cos \theta in polar coordinates), which is star-shaped with respect to an interior point and admits an inscribed square. For star-shaped C^2-curves, existence of inscribed cyclic quadrilaterals, including squares, follows from known results for smooth curves. To find inscribed squares in these cases conceptually, consider pairs of points on the curve as potential opposite vertices; their midpoint must lie on the curve's axis of symmetry or the intersection of perpendicular bisectors of adjacent sides. For the circle, this reduces to intersecting perpendicular diameters. Pseudocode for a symmetric case like the circle might proceed as: select initial \theta; compute points P_1 = \gamma(\theta), P_2 = \gamma(\theta + \pi/2), etc.; verify distances |P_1 P_2| = |P_2 P_3| = |P_3 P_4| = |P_4 P_1| and angles 90°; rotate \theta for variants. This approach builds intuition for more complex curves by emphasizing midpoint loci and perpendicularity constraints.^[10]

Historical Background

Origins and Early Proofs

The inscribed square problem, also known as the square peg problem, was first posed by Otto Toeplitz in 1911 during a talk titled "Über einige Aufgaben der Analysis situs" at the meeting of the Swiss Society of Natural Sciences in Solothurn. Toeplitz conjectured that every simple closed continuous curve in the plane—now known as a Jordan curve—admits four points that form the vertices of a square. This question arose as an extension of earlier results in geometric topology on inscribed polygons.^[2] The initial motivation for Toeplitz's conjecture was to generalize well-understood cases for specific curve types, such as circles (which admit infinitely many inscribed squares) and polygons (where the existence is intuitive but required proof), to arbitrary continuous Jordan curves. Toeplitz suggested the problem to his students as an exercise, highlighting its apparent simplicity yet challenging nature in bridging combinatorial geometry and topology. Although Toeplitz claimed a solution for convex curves in his 1911 talk, no detailed proof was published at the time.^[2]^[3] The first significant progress came in 1916 with a proof by Arnold Emch for a broad class of curves, including every polygonal Jordan curve, which is a piecewise linear simple closed curve with finitely many vertices. Emch demonstrated that such curves always admit an inscribed square, employing continuity arguments based on side lengths and angles of potential quadrilaterals. His method involves selecting pairs of points on the curve to form chords and considering rotations to identify perpendicular chords of equal length, which connect to form a rhombus; by continuously varying the orientation, the side lengths and angles adjust continuously, guaranteeing a configuration where they equalize to form a square due to the intermediate value theorem applied to the difference in side lengths. This approach relies on the analytic nature of the arcs, but since linear segments are analytic, it directly applies to polygons.^[13]^[2] Emch's work built on his earlier 1913 paper addressing convex curves and was prompted by a suggestion from mathematician Aubrey J. Kempner, who was aware of Toeplitz's conjecture. Early related developments included connections to classical results in differential geometry, such as the four-vertex theorem (established by Mukhopadhyaya in 1909), which asserts that every closed convex curve has at least four vertices (points of extremal curvature), providing a geometric foundation for analyzing inscribed polygons. Additionally, Emch's continuity-based oscillation arguments echo techniques in Sturm's theorem on the number of zeros of oscillatory functions, which underpins counting intersections in such proofs, though explicit links were not formalized until later works. These foundational efforts set the stage for extending the result beyond piecewise linear and analytic cases.^[2]

Key Milestones in the 20th Century

In the early decades of the 20th century, significant progress was made on the inscribed square problem for convex curves. Arnold Emch established foundational results, proving in 1913 that sufficiently smooth convex closed curves admit an inscribed square by analyzing secant lines and medians to identify perpendicular chords of equal length. He extended this in 1915 to convex curves under weaker smoothness assumptions, employing limit arguments that implicitly cover all convex cases. By 1916, Emch further generalized his approach to piecewise analytic convex curves with finitely many inflection points, ensuring the existence of tangents at nonsmooth vertices and leveraging continuity of medians. These works built on earlier polygonal proofs, but shifted focus to continuous curves using geometric continuity arguments.^[14] The 1920s brought advances for smoother nonconvex curves. In 1921, Konrad Zindler provided an independent proof for general convex curves, confirming Emch's results through variational methods that minimized certain functionals over inscribed quadrilaterals. Lev Schnirelmann achieved a breakthrough in 1929 (published posthumously in 1944) by proving the conjecture for curves slightly more regular than C², employing bordism arguments from algebraic topology to show that continuous deformations of the curve preserve the parity of inscribed squares. This topological approach marked a departure from purely geometric techniques and influenced later extensions to less regular classes.^[14] Mid-century efforts targeted analytic curves. In 1961, Richard P. Jerrard resolved the problem for analytic Jordan curves, utilizing complex analysis and fixed-point theorems on the Riemann sphere to guarantee the intersection of perpendicular chords. This result relied on analytic continuation properties, establishing the existence of inscribed squares via degree theory. Additional confirmations for convex curves appeared, such as C. M. Christensen's 1950 proof and Roger Fenn's 1970 application of the table theorem with mod-2 homology arguments.^[14] The late 20th century saw proofs for broader classes, including monotone and symmetric curves. In 1989, Walter Stromquist proved the conjecture for locally monotone continuous curves, constructing inscribed rhombi and showing that monotonicity ensures perpendicular sides without "special trapezoids"—isosceles trapezoids with equal non-parallel sides that are not squares. This avoided pathological configurations by pairing potential trapezoids topologically. In 1995, Mark J. Nielsen and Stephen E. Wright extended the result to curves symmetric with respect to a line or point, exploiting group actions to reduce the problem to fixed-point existence on invariant subsets. These developments highlighted the role of symmetry and monotonicity in circumventing obstructions for general Jordan curves.^[14]

Year	Author(s)	Key Result
1911	Otto Toeplitz	Formulation of the inscribed square conjecture for Jordan curves.^[14]
1913	Arnold Emch	Proof for smooth convex curves via secants and medians.
1915	Arnold Emch	Extension to convex curves with weaker smoothness.^[14]
1916	Arnold Emch	Proof for piecewise analytic curves with finite inflections.^[14]
1921	Konrad Zindler	Independent proof for convex curves using variational methods.^[14]
1929	Lev Schnirelmann	Proof for curves slightly beyond C² using bordism (published 1944).^[14]
1950	C. M. Christensen	Confirmation for convex curves.^[14]
1961	Richard P. Jerrard	Proof for analytic curves via complex analysis and fixed points.^[14]
1970	Roger Fenn	Proof for convex curves using the table theorem and homology.^[14]
1989	Walter Stromquist	Proof for locally monotone curves, avoiding special trapezoids.^[14]
1995	Mark J. Nielsen and Stephen E. Wright	Proof for line- or point-symmetric curves via group actions.^[14]

Resolved Cases

Analytic and Piecewise Analytic Curves

The existence of inscribed squares in analytic and piecewise analytic curves is established through proofs that exploit the curve's local smoothness and global continuity, enabling the application of intermediate value and degree-like arguments. In 1916, Arnold Emch proved that every piecewise analytic Jordan curve with finitely many inflection points admits at least one inscribed square. The proof partitions the curve into finitely many analytic arcs separated at inflection points or corners. On each analytic arc, pairs of points are selected, and the potential completing sides of a square are constructed geometrically, such as by drawing lines perpendicular to the chord at its midpoint or considering medians of the quadrilateral formed by the points. As the pair of points varies continuously along the arc, the distance between the intersection points of these constructions with the curve varies continuously; by the intermediate value theorem, this distance must vanish at some position, yielding the other two vertices of the square on the curve. For the global curve, these local constructions are combined across arcs, ensuring at least one configuration closes to form a full inscribed square without self-intersections. This method particularly applies to the subcase of polygons, where the arcs are straight line segments; here, an explicit algorithm emerges by applying the intermediate value theorem to the lengths of diagonals between points on opposite edges, guaranteeing a position where the diagonals are equal and perpendicular, forming a square.^[15] Emch's result was extended to fully analytic curves by R. P. Jerrard in 1961, who showed that a simple closed real-analytic plane curve—parameterized analytically over the circle—has either an odd finite number of inscribed squares or infinitely many forming a continuous family. Parameterizing the curve via real-analytic functions x(t) and y(t) with period T, Jerrard constructs a multi-valued analytic function f(t) that encodes the parametric shifts needed for the other two vertices of a square given an initial chord. The graph of f over [0, T] consists of continuous branches, with isolated tangent points where branches meet or become double-valued. By analyzing the connectivity and multiplicity of these branches—ensuring at least one component has odd degree in its winding or intersection properties—Jerrard applies continuity and parity arguments to conclude that the equation f(t) = t \pmod{T} has an odd number of solutions, corresponding to inscribed squares. This relies on power series expansions of the analytic parameterization to resolve local behavior near singularities, guaranteeing global solvability through a topological degree analogous to Brouwer's fixed-point theorem.^[16] The distinction between C^1-smooth and analytic curves lies in the latter's allowance for precise local approximations via convergent power series, which facilitate holomorphic-like extensions and stronger multiplicity counts in configuration spaces. In contrast, piecewise analytic curves permit discontinuities in higher derivatives at finitely many points, so proofs like Emch's rely on patching local analytic solutions with global topological continuity rather than uniform holomorphy. Recent developments for the piecewise linear subcase, such as polygons, include purely topological proofs using equivariant methods on configuration spaces, avoiding analytic tools altogether; for instance, by considering the action of the dihedral group on pairs of edges and applying Borsuk-Ulam-type theorems to show fixed points corresponding to squares. These approaches highlight how analyticity enables degree-theoretic guarantees, while piecewise cases bridge to more general smooth curves through approximation.^[17]^[2]

Monotone and Lipschitz Curves

A locally monotone curve is defined as a Jordan curve where, at every point, there exists a neighborhood such that the tangent angle is non-decreasing along the curve in that neighborhood.^[2] This condition captures curves with controlled directional variation, including convex curves and piecewise linear curves. In 1989, Walter Stromquist established that every locally monotone Jordan curve admits an inscribed square. His proof proceeds topologically by considering the configuration space of inscribed rectangles on the curve and showing a continuous deformation path that transforms any such rectangle into a square, leveraging the monotonicity to ensure the existence of a fixed point under this variation. Lipschitz graphs provide another class of curves with bounded slope variation, where a function f: [a, b] \to \mathbb{R} satisfies |f(x) - f(y)| \leq K |x - y| for some constant K \geq 0, and the graph is the set \{(x, f(x)) \mid x \in [a, b]\}.^[8] For a simple closed curve formed by the union of two such graphs sharing endpoints, early progress came from Lev Schnirelmann in 1929, who proved the existence of an inscribed square for curves with bounded continuous curvature, a condition implying a Lipschitz constant K < 1 in suitable parameterizations.^[2] In 2017, Terence Tao extended this to Lipschitz constants K < 1, using an integration argument over potential square positions.^[8] The 2024 improvement by Joshua Greene and Andrew Lobb further raised the threshold to K < 1 + \sqrt{2}, establishing that such curves always contain an inscribed square.^[18] Their approach employs symplectic geometry on the configuration space of quadrilaterals, focusing on flux integrals of the form \int_{\gamma} x \, dy - y \, dx along candidate square boundaries \gamma. By demonstrating that a non-zero flux corresponds to a non-trivial winding number in the symplectic form, they show that the zero set of this flux must intersect the space of potential squares, guaranteeing existence.^[18] Another resolution arises for Jordan curves avoiding special trapezoids, defined as inscribed isosceles trapezoids with equal-length parallel sides that are not squares. Stromquist's 1989 work also covers this case: any such curve without special trapezoids of slope 1 admits an inscribed square. The proof relies on a contradiction argument in the space of chord families, where the absence of these trapezoids implies an odd parity in the number of inscribed rhombi that must resolve into a square via topological invariance under deformation.

Symmetric and Annular Configurations

In symmetric configurations, the inscribed square problem benefits from geometric invariances that enforce the existence of inscribed quadrilaterals, often via fixed-point principles or pairing arguments. For Jordan curves exhibiting bilateral symmetry across a line (reflection symmetry), the reflection maps points on one side to the other, allowing the construction of inscribed rectangles by pairing corresponding points and ensuring perpendicularity through the symmetry axis. This result extends to continua symmetric across a hyperplane, where the symmetry guarantees at least one inscribed rectangle.^[19] Similarly, for curves invariant under central symmetry (180-degree rotational invariance about a point), the antipodal mapping pairs opposite points on the curve, yielding inscribed rectangles that include squares as special cases when the aspect ratio is 1:1. These symmetries align potential square vertices along axes of invariance, leveraging the curve's self-mapping properties to avoid degenerate configurations.^[19] Piecewise symmetric cases, where the curve possesses bilateral symmetry over distinct segments, further apply reflection pairings to localize inscribed rectangles within symmetric portions, then extend globally via continuity. For instance, if a Jordan curve is composed of arcs each symmetric across parallel lines, reflections pair endpoints to form candidate sides, and intersection arguments ensure a closed quadrilateral. This approach handles non-smooth transitions by restricting to compact subsets where symmetry holds locally.^[2] In annular configurations, Jordan curves embedded in an annulus—specifically, those separating two concentric circles—admit inscribed squares due to the region's topological constraints. A seminal extension shows that any such curve in an annulus with outer radius at most $1 + \sqrt{2} times the inner radius contains an inscribed square, often with sides oriented radially and tangentially to exploit the annular geometry.^[2] The proof relies on the annulus's fundamental group \pi_1(A) \cong \mathbb{Z}, which ensures the curve winds non-trivially around the origin, preventing evasion of square inscriptions. If the annulus is sufficiently thin, the space of potential inscribed squares (parameterized by position, size, and orientation) decomposes into two connected components separated by the curve; topological invariance then forces an odd number of intersections, guaranteeing at least one square. Variants of the Schoenflies theorem normalize the annular embedding, ensuring the separating curve behaves like a standard circle under homeomorphisms that preserve radial and angular coordinates, thereby facilitating chord constructions that form squares via crossing perpendicular bisectors.^[2] A representative example is a Jordan curve in the annulus $1 \leq \|x\| \leq 1 + \sqrt{2} that spirals monotonically from the inner to outer boundary. An explicit inscribed square can be constructed by identifying minimal and maximal radial extents at orthogonal angles (e.g., 0° and 90°), then pairing tangential points at equal arc lengths to form sides: let r_{\min}(\theta) and r_{\max}(\theta) denote the curve's radial profile; the square vertices occur at angles \theta, \theta + 90^\circ, \theta + 180^\circ, \theta + 270^\circ with radii interpolated as (r_{\min}(\theta) + r_{\max}(\theta))/2, adjusted for perpendicularity, yielding side length at least \sqrt{2} by the thinness condition. This construction aligns two opposite sides tangentially (constant radius) and the others radially (constant angle), confirmed to lie on the curve via the separation property.^[2]

Approximations to Smooth Curves

Recent advances in the inscribed square problem have addressed Jordan curves that approximate smooth ones, providing a pathway toward the general case through perturbation and stability arguments. In particular, results establish the existence of inscribed squares for curves sufficiently close to those with higher regularity, leveraging the known solvability for C^2 Jordan curves.^[20] A key contribution is the work showing that if a Jordan curve \gamma in \mathbb{R}^2 is sufficiently close to a C^2 Jordan curve \beta—specifically, if there exists a map f such that \|f(x) - x\| < 1/(10\kappa) for all x, where \kappa is the maximum unsigned curvature of \beta, and f \circ \gamma has winding number 1—then \gamma contains an inscribed square. This theorem, proved by Chambers in 2022, relies on C^0 convergence of \gamma to \beta and the stability of square configurations under small perturbations. The proof constructs a continuous homotopy between \beta and approximations \alpha_i of \gamma, using curvature bounds to ensure that inscribed squares in \beta (with segment lengths at least \pi/\kappa) persist without collapsing into degenerate configurations during the deformation. Intermediate-sized squares are ruled out by Proposition 3.3, which exploits the geometry of close C^2 curves to maintain non-degeneracy.^[20] This approach builds on earlier resolutions for C^2 curves, which were partially addressed using integration methods to track potential square vertices via conserved quantities like signed areas \int_\gamma y \, dx. Tao's 2017 analysis provided a framework for such smooth cases by applying the contraction mapping theorem and homological invariants, though it remained partial for general C^2 curves without additional Lipschitz constraints. The perturbation result thus inherits existence from these smooth bases through continuous dependence, bridging to less regular curves.^[8] An extension by Greene and Lobb in 2021 further supports this direction by proving that every smooth Jordan curve admits inscribed cyclic quadrilaterals of arbitrary aspect ratios, with squares emerging as the special case of equal sides and right angles. Their proof, while focused on rectangles, implies the abundance of square-like configurations in smooth settings, reinforcing the stability arguments for nearby curves. However, these approximation results are limited: the perturbation parameter \varepsilon (or equivalent distance) must be sufficiently small relative to the curvature of the approximating C^2 curve, and the method does not extend to arbitrary continuous Jordan curves without such proximity to smoothness.

Variants and Generalizations

Rectangular and Cyclic Quadrilaterals

The rectangular peg problem extends the inscribed square problem by asking whether every Jordan curve admits an inscribed rectangle similar to any given one with prescribed aspect ratio. In 2020, Joshua Greene and Andrew Lobb resolved this affirmatively for smooth Jordan curves, proving that for every smooth Jordan curve \gamma and any rectangle R in the Euclidean plane, there exists a rectangle similar to R whose vertices lie on \gamma.^[21] Their approach embeds the curve \gamma into a contact manifold via Seidel's representation and leverages embedded contact homology (ECH) capacities to detect the existence of symplectic fillings corresponding to the desired rectangle.^[21] This framework naturally generalizes to cyclic quadrilaterals. In 2021, Greene and Lobb extended their methods to show that for every smooth Jordan curve \gamma and any cyclic quadrilateral Q in the Euclidean plane, there exists a cyclic quadrilateral inscribed in \gamma that is similar to Q, using symplectic geometry and embedded contact homology capacities to detect existence via properties of Lagrangian tori in \mathbb{C}^2.^[22] Squares represent special instances of both cases: as rectangles with aspect ratio 1 or as cyclic quadrilaterals with all angles equal to $90^\circ. These results provide partial progress toward the inscribed square problem by confirming the existence of such configurations for smooth curves, though the full square peg problem remains unresolved for general non-smooth Jordan curves. For non-smooth Jordan curves, the rectangular peg problem with prescribed aspect ratio lacks a general resolution.

Higher-Dimensional and Polygonal Extensions

The inscribed square problem extends to the existence of inscribed regular n-gons in Jordan curves for n > 4. For odd n ≥ 3, every Jordan curve admits an inscribed regular n-gon. This was resolved in the 1980s using arguments from topological degree theory, building on Meyerson's 1980 proof for equilateral triangles (n=3), which showed that any continuous simple closed curve in the plane contains the vertices of infinitely many equilateral triangles via a degree computation on the configuration space of triangle vertices. The generalization to higher odd n relies on similar equivariant topology, ensuring the existence map has nonzero degree due to the odd rotational symmetry preventing fixed-point-free maps. For even n > 4, the problem remains open in general, though counterexamples exist for certain curves, such as a semicircle connected by its diameter, which admits no inscribed regular n-gon for even n ≥ 6. Variants of the problem involving non-regular quadrilaterals, such as rhombi and parallelograms, have been resolved for smooth Jordan curves using affine invariance. Any parallelogram is the affine image of a square, and affine transformations preserve both the smoothness of the curve and the inscription property (mapping inscribed squares to inscribed parallelograms). Since smooth Jordan curves admit inscribed squares by classical results (e.g., Emch's 1916 theorem), they therefore admit inscribed parallelograms of any prescribed shape up to affine equivalence. Rhombi, as special parallelograms, follow similarly, with existence guaranteed for smooth curves via the same mechanism; recent work by Greene and Lobb (2021) extends this to confirm that every smooth Jordan curve inscribes every possible rectangle (a special rhombus or parallelogram) up to orientation-preserving similarity. In higher dimensions, the problem generalizes to inscribing regular polytopes or their analogues in knotted curves or hypersurfaces. A key open question is whether every knotted curve in ℝ³ admits an inscribed regular tetrahedron. Partial results exist for the boundaries of convex bodies: for instance, every centrally symmetric convex body in ℝ³ admits an inscribed cube, proven using equivariant topology on the symmetry group of the cube. Similar techniques yield existence for spheres (the boundary of the unit ball), but the knotted case remains unresolved, with no known counterexamples. The rectangular peg problem also extends to higher dimensions, asking whether every smooth hypersurface in ℝᵈ admits an inscribed hyperrectangle of prescribed aspect ratios; this is open beyond d=2, though existence holds without aspect ratio constraints for smooth cases via degree-theoretic arguments analogous to the planar version. Open problems in these extensions include whether every smooth knotted curve in ℝ³ admits an inscribed equilateral triangle. Partial affirmative results exist for specific classes of space curves, such as those with prescribed curvature, where Wu (2004) showed existence of inscribed regular polygons approximating the curve via variational methods. Connections arise to Steinitz's theorem, which characterizes graphs realizable as boundaries of convex polyhedra in ℝ³; inscribed regular polytopes on knotted curves or spheres relate to realizing such graphs with straight-line embeddings on the curve, providing a topological obstruction or existence criterion for polyhedral approximations in higher dimensions.