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Installable File System

The Installable File System (IFS) is a modular file system architecture developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM as part of their collaboration on OS/2, first implemented in MS-DOS/PC DOS 4.x in 1988 and introduced in OS/2 1.2 in 1989 to enable the kernel to support diverse storage formats through dynamically loadable drivers that translate file operations into device-specific commands.^[1]^[2] This design allows multiple file systems, such as FAT and HPFS, to coexist on the same machine without requiring kernel recompilation, providing extensibility for local disks, network shares, and specialized devices.^[3] IFS drivers are loaded at boot time via the CONFIG.SYS file, interfacing with the OS/2 kernel through standardized APIs to handle tasks like reading, writing, and directory enumeration.^[2] Introduced as a core feature in OS/2 1.2 to support the High Performance File System (HPFS), IFS marked a significant advancement in file system flexibility for personal computing, building on its earlier implementation in MS-DOS/PC DOS 4.x.^[2]^[1] By OS/2 Warp 3 and 4, native support included FAT16 and HPFS, with third-party IFS drivers extending compatibility to formats like FAT32, NTFS (read-only), EXT2, and Joliet for CD-ROMs.^[4] Key components include the IFS Manager for coordinating drivers and the File System Handler (FSH) for legacy compatibility, ensuring seamless integration with OS/2 applications and tools.^[2] This architecture improved performance for large volumes and enabled innovations like the Journaled File System (JFS), which added crash recovery capabilities.^[3] Microsoft continued the IFS model in Windows 9x and adapted it for Windows NT and subsequent versions, providing the Installable File System Kit as a development toolkit for creating custom file systems and filters that support features like opportunistic locks for data caching and coherency.^[5] In Exchange 2000, IFS was notably used to expose mailbox storage as the M: drive, allowing direct file access to MIME messages and optimizing protocols like SMTP and NNTP, though it was later disabled by default due to security and stability risks in kernel mode.^[6] Overall, IFS exemplifies an influential approach to file system modularity, influencing modern operating systems' support for pluggable storage drivers while highlighting trade-offs in performance, security, and compatibility.^[5]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

The Installable File System (IFS) is a modular filesystem application programming interface (API) that enables operating systems to dynamically load and manage drivers for accessing and manipulating diverse filesystem formats beyond the native File Allocation Table (FAT). This architecture allows the OS kernel to interface with installable filesystem drivers (FSDs), which translate high-level file operations into low-level disk I/O requests, supporting formats such as the High Performance File System (HPFS) for larger volumes and long filenames or the Compact Disc File System (CDFS) for optical media. By providing a standardized entry point for filesystem operations, IFS ensures that applications interact transparently with multiple storage types without needing awareness of the underlying format.^[7]^[7]^[8] The primary purpose of IFS is to deliver extensibility to the operating system, permitting the addition of support for new or specialized storage media—such as network filesystems, write-once read-many (WORM drives, or emerging formats—through loadable drivers rather than recompiling or rebuilding the core kernel. This modularity separates filesystem-specific logic from device drivers and the base OS, fostering improved compatibility with non-standard storage devices and enabling seamless multitasking access to shared resources across different filesystem types. Key benefits include enhanced system maintainability, as updates to individual drivers do not affect the overall architecture, and greater portability for applications that rely on a unified file I/O model.^[7]^[7]^[7] Historically, the need for IFS arose from the constraints of fixed-filesystem designs in early 1980s operating systems like MS-DOS, which exclusively supported FAT and imposed severe limitations on partition sizes—initially capped at around 10 MB under FAT12 in MS-DOS 1.x, expanding modestly to 32 MB under FAT16 but still inadequate for growing hard disk capacities approaching 1 GB. These restrictions, including single-user access patterns and inefficient handling of large volumes, hindered support for multitasking environments and diverse peripherals, prompting the development of installable mechanisms to enable broader filesystem compatibility without disrupting legacy DOS applications.^[9]^[10]^[7]

Core Components

The Installable File System (IFS) employs a layered architecture that serves as a bridge between the operating system's I/O subsystem and filesystem-specific logic, enabling modular handling of diverse storage formats through dynamic loading of File System Drivers (FSDs).^[11] This design allows the OS to route file operations transparently to the appropriate driver without requiring recompilation of core system components.^[11] Across implementations, common components include the IFS manager, which oversees the loading and unloading of FSDs; the FSD itself, which acts as the primary handler for filesystem operations such as reading, writing, and opening files; and auxiliary helper modules that support functions like caching and request redirection.^[11]^[12] The IFS manager functions as a central router, directing I/O requests from the OS kernel to the relevant FSD based on volume identifiers or pathnames.^[11] FSDs encapsulate the logic for specific filesystems, managing data structures, metadata, and hardware interactions while adhering to a standardized interface.^[12] Helper modules, often implemented as dynamic link libraries (DLLs), provide shared services such as buffer management or asynchronous I/O to optimize performance across multiple FSDs.^[11] In OS/2, the architecture expands into a four-part structure: the MicroIFS, which interfaces directly with the kernel for low-level system calls; the MiniIFS, an abstraction layer that standardizes filesystem operations; the IFS, which contains driver-specific implementation for tasks like volume mounting and file manipulation; and helper DLLs, such as those for caching mechanisms that reduce disk access latency.^[2] This stratification ensures isolation between kernel-level primitives and filesystem idiosyncrasies, promoting stability and extensibility.^[2] Windows NT adopts a streamlined two-part structure, featuring a simplified IFS manager that coordinates kernel-mode operations and FSDs optimized for 32-bit protected mode execution.^[12] The IFS manager integrates with the I/O manager to process asynchronous requests via I/O request packets (IRPs), while FSDs operate in protected kernel space to enforce security boundaries and handle paging.^[12] This approach emphasizes robustness in a multi-user environment by leveraging the OS's memory protection features.^[12] Key APIs in IFS revolve around standardized entry points, such as IFS_Dispatch, which serves as the primary dispatcher for file operations including create, delete, read, write, and directory enumeration.^[2] These entry points form a dispatch table that FSDs populate to map OS requests to internal handlers, ensuring consistent behavior across different filesystems without exposing underlying complexities to applications.^[12]

History

Origins in OS/2 Collaboration

The development of the Installable File System (IFS) originated in the mid-1980s as part of the joint OS/2 project between IBM and Microsoft, aimed at creating a more advanced operating system than MS-DOS to support multitasking and larger storage capacities.^[13]^[14] In June 1985, IBM and Microsoft signed the Joint Development Agreement (JDA), formalizing their collaboration to build a protected-mode operating system that addressed the limitations of the File Allocation Table (FAT) filesystem, such as its 8.3 filename restrictions, 2 GB volume size cap, and vulnerability to fragmentation and data loss on larger hard drives.^[13]^[15] This partnership sought to future-proof the OS for emerging hardware trends, including multitasking environments and high-capacity fixed disks, moving beyond DOS's single-tasking roots.^[14] Key figures in the collaboration included engineers from both companies, with Microsoft playing a central role in filesystem architecture; notably, Gordon Letwin, Microsoft's Chief Architect for OS/2, led the design of the High-Performance File System (HPFS) as the inaugural IFS implementation to demonstrate the framework's capabilities.^[14]^[15] The initial design goals for IFS emphasized modularity through installable drivers, enabling the OS to support evolving storage technologies without core kernel modifications, while providing features like long filenames up to 255 characters and extended attributes for better data management on volumes up to 64 GB.^[14] This approach was motivated by the need to overcome FAT's inefficiencies for professional and server applications, ensuring OS/2's competitiveness in a market shifting toward larger, more reliable storage solutions.^[15] Conceptual work on IFS began during the planning for OS/2 1.0, announced in 1987, where early prototypes explored advanced filesystem interfaces to integrate with the OS's protected-mode architecture.^[13]^[14] However, the full IFS mechanism was finalized and integrated into OS/2 1.2, reflecting iterative refinements from the ongoing IBM-Microsoft partnership amid growing tensions over project direction.^[14]^[15]

Introduction in DOS 4.x and Early Adoption

The Installable File System (IFS) made its initial public appearance in MS-DOS 4.0, released by Microsoft in July 1988, and concurrently in IBM's PC DOS 4.0, as a partial implementation designed to support extended filesystems beyond the standard FAT structure. This early version of IFS was constrained to 16-bit real-mode operation, limiting its scope primarily to network redirectors that allowed DOS applications to access remote resources as local drives, rather than providing a full-fledged filesystem architecture for local storage. For instance, it enabled basic integration with LAN protocols, marking a step toward modular device handling in DOS environments.^[1]^[16] The full realization of IFS emerged in IBM OS/2 1.2, released in October 1989, where it debuted as a core subsystem enabling dynamic loading of filesystem drivers at boot time through the CONFIG.SYS file. This version introduced the High Performance File System (HPFS) as the flagship IFS-driven filesystem, offering improved performance and support for larger volumes compared to FAT, with features like long filenames and better disk space utilization. HPFS.IFS, the driver for HPFS, was loaded via statements such as IFS=C:\OS2\HPFS.IFS in CONFIG.SYS, allowing OS/2 to mount and manage diverse storage media seamlessly.^[14]^[17] Key milestones in this period included the 1989 release of HPFS as the first major filesystem leveraging the IFS framework, which addressed FAT's limitations in handling growing hard drive capacities.^[2]^[18] Despite these advances, DOS 4.x's IFS implementation faced significant compatibility challenges, including bugs in memory management and disk utilities that caused data corruption on non-IBM hardware, contributing to its short lifespan as a mainstream product. These issues, coupled with higher conventional memory usage and incomplete feature stability, prompted Microsoft to deprioritize further DOS development in favor of OS/2, where IFS could evolve in a more robust, protected-mode environment.^[19]^[1]

Implementations

In MS-DOS and PC DOS 4.x

The Installable File System (IFS) in MS-DOS 4.x and PC DOS 4.x represented an early adaptation of filesystem extensibility to the constraints of a 16-bit real-mode environment. Device drivers for IFS, known as File System Drivers (FSDs), were loaded as .SYS files through the CONFIG.SYS file using the IFS= directive, which specified the driver filename and optional parameters. These drivers integrated with the core system files IBMBIO.COM, responsible for device initialization, and IBMDOS.COM, handling the DOS kernel, to enable redirection of file operations without altering the base FAT filesystem.^[20]^[1] Supported features were primarily limited to basic filesystem redirection, allowing integration with peripherals like networks and optical media. For instance, network access relied on LAN redirectors that hooked into the IFS interface via interrupt 2Fh function 11h, treating remote shares as local drives to facilitate early file sharing without native multi-filesystem mounting. Similarly, CD-ROM support was achieved through MSCDEX.EXE, a redirector loaded via DEVICE= in CONFIG.SYS, which redirected block device calls to the IFS layer for ISO 9660 access, though this remained a pseudo-filesystem extension rather than true multi-volume support. However, memory constraints in the 640 KB conventional RAM limit prevented full multi-filesystem capabilities, restricting IFS to auxiliary redirection rather than replacing the primary FAT handler.^[1] The IFS implementation in DOS 4.x proved short-lived due to the version's instability; MS-DOS 4.0, intended for broader release, was largely withdrawn in 1988 following severe bugs in areas like memory management and driver compatibility, with IBM's PC DOS 4.0 facing similar issues that prompted a rapid patch to version 4.01 later that year. Advanced filesystems like HPFS were not natively supported, as plans to extend IFS for such formats via modules like IFSFUNC.EXE never fully materialized amid the platform's rocky launch. Overall, the mechanism emphasized extensibility for peripherals over comprehensive filesystem innovation, with support dropped entirely in MS-DOS 5.0 and later.^[21]^[1]

In IBM OS/2

The Installable File System (IFS) in IBM OS/2 evolved into a sophisticated layered architecture that facilitated protected-mode operation and multi-file-system support, distinguishing it from earlier DOS implementations. Central to this design is a four-layer model: the microIFS layer interfaces directly with kernel calls to manage low-level file operations; the miniIFS layer provides abstraction for higher-level interactions; the IFS layer implements the core file system driver (FSD) logic specific to each supported format; and helper components handle auxiliary functions such as caching and resource management. This modular structure enabled OS/2 to dynamically extend storage capabilities without kernel modifications.^[2] OS/2's IFS natively supported key file systems across its versions, starting with the High-Performance File System (HPFS) introduced in OS/2 1.2 in 1989, which enhanced performance on larger drives through features like long filenames and reduced cluster sizes. The File Allocation Table (FAT) system was available from the initial OS/2 releases and persisted throughout all versions for compatibility with DOS partitions. Support for the ISO 9660 standard, enabling CD-ROM access, was added in OS/2 2.0 in 1992 via the CDFS.IFS driver. Support for the Universal Disk Format (UDF) was introduced for OS/2 Warp 4.0 through subsequent fixpacks and Convenience Packs in the late 1990s, enabling compatibility with DVD and advanced optical media.^[14]^[10]^[22] while the Journaled File System (JFS), offering journaling for data integrity and larger volume sizes up to 2 TB, debuted in OS/2 4.5 in 1999. Third-party FAT32 support emerged in the late 1990s, with ongoing development in post-IBM projects like eComStation and ArcaOS, allowing access to larger FAT volumes.^[23] IFS drivers in OS/2 are installed at boot time through IFS= statements in the CONFIG.SYS file, where the initial entry designates the boot volume's file system to ensure system startup. These drivers primarily operate as 16-bit components in ring 0 for compatibility and stability, though unofficial 32-bit variants emerged for enhanced performance in later environments. Unique to OS/2's IFS is its tight integration with the Presentation Manager GUI, which leverages long filename support from systems like HPFS for seamless user interaction, alongside provisions for installable volume managers to handle logical volume configurations.^[24]

In Microsoft Windows 9x

The Installable File System (IFS) in the Microsoft Windows 9x family, encompassing versions from Windows 3.11 to Windows ME, builds directly on the MS-DOS foundation to provide enhanced file access capabilities. Introduced with Windows for Workgroups 3.11 in 1993, the IFS relies on the IFSHLP.SYS device driver to enable 32-bit file access through thunking mechanisms that bridge the 16-bit DOS environment to the 32-bit protected-mode components of Windows. This helper driver intercepts MS-DOS interrupt 21h calls and redirects them to the IFS Manager (IFSMGR.VXD), allowing applications to perform file operations without relying solely on slower real-mode DOS services. By integrating these elements, Windows 9x achieves improved performance for tasks like long filename support while maintaining backward compatibility with legacy DOS applications and drivers.^[25] The architecture of IFS in Windows 9x is inherently hybrid, blending 16-bit and 32-bit elements to handle file system requests across different execution modes. The IFS Manager operates in ring-0 protected mode, managing a layered model of virtual device drivers (VxDs) that process I/O requests via a packet-based dispatch system, such as the ifsreq structure for synchronous and asynchronous operations. For operations unsupported in protected mode, the system falls back to real-mode DOS IFS calls through thunking, facilitated by components like VWIN32_Int21Dispatch and real-mode mappers, ensuring seamless interaction between Win32 APIs, Win16 applications, and V86-mode DOS. This design draws from the DOS IFS heritage but extends it with Windows-specific hooks and shared data areas, like lin_IFSHLP_data, to coordinate between modes. However, the ring-0 execution of IFS components exposes the system to potential instability, as faulty VxD interactions can trigger crashes without the isolation provided by higher privilege rings.^[25]^[26] Windows 9x IFS natively supports key file systems tailored to consumer needs, including VFAT for handling long filenames on FAT volumes and CDFS for CD-ROM access compliant with ISO-9660 standards. VFAT, registered with provider IDs for local drives, extends traditional FAT functionality to accommodate filenames up to 255 characters while preserving DOS compatibility through 8.3 short names. CDFS enables read-only access to optical media, integrating seamlessly with the IFS layers for block-device operations. Compatibility with HPFS is available only through third-party add-ons, as native support is absent in the core Windows 9x implementation. These file systems are loaded as installable drivers during system initialization, allowing flexible configuration via the layered architecture.^[25] Despite its advancements, the IFS in Windows 9x suffers from significant limitations rooted in its non-native, DOS-dependent design, which contributes to reliability issues. The ring-0 access model makes the system vulnerable to crashes from re-entrancy problems, such as page faults during thread switches, and incomplete hooking of certain APIs like FindFirstChangeNotification. Additionally, v86 callback dependencies can lead to performance bottlenecks and conflicts with legacy hardware. By Windows ME in 2000, the 9x line's IFS approach was effectively phased out in favor of the more secure, kernel-mode file system architecture in the Windows NT lineage, marking the end of this hybrid model's prominence in Microsoft's consumer operating systems.^[25]

In Microsoft Windows NT and Later

The Installable File System (IFS) in Microsoft Windows NT and later operates through a two-layer architecture, with the IFS Manager running in kernel mode to coordinate file system operations and File System Drivers (FSDs) handling filesystem-specific tasks such as mounting volumes and processing I/O requests.^[27] This design, introduced as a 32-bit subsystem with Windows NT 3.1 in 1993, integrates with the executive services of the I/O Manager, which uses I/O Request Packets (IRPs) to manage asynchronous, preemptible, and interruptible I/O operations across the kernel.^[27] From its inception, IFS supported the FAT file system for compatibility with earlier Microsoft operating systems, the High Performance File System (HPFS) for advanced features like long filenames, and NTFS as the primary file system offering journaling, security, and compression.^[27] HPFS support continued natively until Windows NT 4.0 in 1996, after which it was discontinued in favor of NTFS, though legacy drivers from NT 3.51 could be manually added for access to existing volumes.^[10]^[10] With Windows 2000 in 2000, IFS expanded to include read/write support for FAT32 volumes (with formatting limited to 32 GB partitions) and the Universal Disk Format (UDF) for optical media compatibility.^[10]^[28] Core features of the NT IFS emphasize secure kernel-mode execution to prevent user-mode interference and ensure high performance for critical operations like file locking and caching.^[27] Dynamic loading of FSDs is managed through registry entries, allowing administrators to enable or disable file systems without rebooting in some cases.^[27] Windows 2000 introduced the Encrypting File System (EFS) as a native NTFS feature, enabling per-file and per-directory encryption using public-key cryptography integrated directly into the IFS kernel components.^[29] By Windows XP in 2001, IFS evolution shifted toward layered extensibility, with filter drivers—such as minifilters introduced in this version—attached above FSDs to intercept and modify I/O without altering core file system code, supporting applications like antivirus scanning, replication, and quota management.^[30] This approach enhanced modularity while maintaining backward compatibility with earlier NT file systems.^[30]

Extensions and Legacy

Third-Party Drivers

Third-party drivers for the Installable File System (IFS) framework have been developed by independent programmers and communities to extend support for non-native filesystems, particularly Unix-like and Macintosh formats, in both OS/2 and Windows environments. These drivers leverage the modular IFS architecture to provide seamless read/write access to foreign volumes, filling gaps left by official implementations. A prominent example is the Ext2 IFS driver for Windows, created by Stephan Schreiber in the late 1990s, which enables full read/write operations on Linux ext2 and ext3 partitions directly from Windows NT/2000/XP systems without requiring a reboot.^[31] This driver installs as a kernel-mode filesystem component, handling features like long filenames and permissions mapping to Windows ACLs. While official support extends to Windows Server 2012 R2, community efforts maintain compatibility in newer versions for niche use.^[31] In the OS/2 ecosystem, similar community efforts have produced drivers such as EXT2-OS2.IFS, which grants read/write access to Linux ext2 volumes, originally ported from Linux kernel code around 1998 and maintained for compatibility with later variants like eComStation (released in 2001) and ArcaOS.^[32] Another key example is HFS/2, developed by Marcus Better starting in the late 1990s, providing read/write support for Macintosh Hierarchical File System (HFS) volumes, including diskettes and CD-ROMs, through the HFS.IFS component.^[33] These drivers continue to function in post-2001 OS/2 derivatives like eComStation and ArcaOS, where the IFS framework remains integral to the kernel.^[34] Developing these third-party IFS drivers typically involves utilizing the IFS APIs to build File System Drivers (FSDs), which interface with the operating system's I/O subsystem to manage volume mounting, file operations, and error handling. Programmers must implement core functions like FS_ATTACH and FS_OPEN while adhering to platform-specific constraints, such as IBM's licensing terms for the OS/2 Device Driver Kit (DDK), which restrict commercial redistribution without approval.^[35] Additional challenges include ensuring 32-bit compatibility in aging OS versions, where memory addressing limits and lack of official updates complicate testing and stability, often requiring custom adaptations for hardware like USB controllers.^[36] The impact of these drivers has been significant in promoting interoperability, allowing users to access files on cross-platform media—such as USB drives formatted with Linux ext2 on Windows or Macintosh HFS floppies on OS/2—without data conversion or dual-booting. This capability proved especially valuable in mixed-environment setups during the 1990s and 2000s, reducing workflow disruptions for developers and IT professionals handling diverse storage. As of 2025, these drivers persist in niche applications within vintage computing communities, supporting legacy hardware preservation and emulation projects where modern filesystems are incompatible.^[31]^[32]

Evolution to Modern File System Architectures

The transition from Installable File System (IFS) file system drivers (FSDs) to file system filter drivers in Windows represents a key evolution in modular file system architecture. Filter drivers were introduced in Windows 2000 as kernel-mode components that attach to the file system stack, enabling interception and modification of I/O operations without replacing the core file system. This approach built on the IFS model by providing a more flexible framework, with legacy filter drivers evolving into the preferred minifilter model supported by the Filter Manager starting in Windows XP.^[30] By Windows 10, filter drivers had matured significantly, incorporating enhancements for better stability and interoperability in multi-vendor environments.^[37] A primary advantage is the ability to stack multiple filters non-intrusively; for instance, BitLocker leverages filter drivers to encrypt entire volumes by transparently handling data at the I/O level, independent of the underlying IFS-based file system.^[30]^[38] In the OS/2 lineage, ArcaOS, released in 2017 and continuing through version 5.1 as of 2025, preserves IFS for backward compatibility with legacy applications and drivers.^[39] It maintains core IFS functionality, such as loading installable drivers like FAT32.IFS and JFS.IFS in the boot process, while prioritizing stability over new architectural overhauls.^[40] Enhancements focus on existing file systems, including updates to JFS (Journaled File System) up to version 1.9.9 for improved recovery and volume handling, but no major innovations in the IFS framework itself have emerged since its OS/2 origins.^[41] ArcaOS operates in 32-bit mode despite supporting 64-bit CPUs, limiting native 64-bit IFS extensions.^[42] Conceptual successors to IFS modularity appear in contemporary operating systems, emphasizing userspace implementation for safer extensibility. In Linux, FUSE (Filesystem in Userspace) serves as a framework where non-privileged users can implement and mount custom file systems via a kernel module and userspace library, mirroring IFS's installable nature but avoiding kernel-level risks.^[43] Similarly, macOS's FSKit, introduced in macOS Sequoia, allows developers to create modular file system extensions (FSModules) as user-space app extensions, enabling support for new formats like ExFAT without kernel modifications.^[44] The original IFS architecture exhibits gaps that render it incompatible with modern demands. It lacks native 64-bit support in its primary OS/2 implementation, constraining addressable memory and file sizes to 32-bit limits. Security features are absent, with no built-in encryption; such capabilities emerged later in Windows NT extensions like the Encrypting File System (EFS), introduced in Windows 2000.^[45] By 2025, IFS is outdated for SSD and NVMe storage, as its driver model predates these interfaces and requires contemporary optimizations for low-latency, high-throughput operations that legacy designs cannot efficiently provide.

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Aug 10, 2020 · In this article, we review several significant changes that were first introduced in Windows 10 Anniversary Update, Version 1607 (build 14393.0).
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BitLocker Overview - Microsoft Learn
Jul 29, 2025 · BitLocker is a Windows security feature that provides encryption for entire volumes, addressing the threats of data theft or exposure from lost, stolen, or ...
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ArcaOS - Wikipedia
Like OS/2 Warp, ArcaOS is a 32-bit single user, multiprocessing, preemptive multitasking operating system for the x86 architecture. It is supported on both ...
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Change History ArcaOS 5.0 - Arca Noae
Feb 17, 2025 · ArcaOS(TM) 5.0 Change History. This document contains up-to-date issue resolution in the current ISO release of ArcaOS 5.0.Missing: JFS2 onward
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System Requirements for ArcaOS 5.1 - Arca Noae
64 Bit CPUs are supported (however ArcaOS will run in 32-bit mode). Computers with ARM CPUs are not supported. Apple Computers are not supported (regardless ...Hardware Requirements · Virtualized Installations · Application-specific...
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FUSE — The Linux Kernel documentation
FUSE is a userspace filesystem framework. It consists of a kernel module (fuse.ko), a userspace library (libfuse.*) and a mount utility (fusermount).
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FSKit | Apple Developer Documentation
With FSKit, you can extend macOS by enabling access to new types of file systems. You do this by developing an FSKit module ( FSModule ), which you deliver as ...
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File Encryption - Win32 apps | Microsoft Learn
Jul 9, 2025 · The Encrypted File System (EFS) provides an additional level of security for files and directories. It provides cryptographic protection of individual files.Missing: built- | Show results with:built-