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File

A file in computing is a named, ordered collection of bytes representing data, such as text, executables, or multimedia, stored persistently on a storage device like a hard disk or solid-state drive, enabling programs to access and manipulate it independently of runtime memory.^[1]^[2] Files form the foundational unit of data organization in operating systems, abstracted from underlying physical storage blocks to facilitate portability and user control, with metadata including size, timestamps, and permissions dictating access behaviors.^[3]^[4] Operating systems employ file systems—such as NTFS, ext4, or APFS—to manage files hierarchically within directories, supporting operations like creation, deletion, and searching while enforcing security through attributes that prevent unauthorized modifications or data corruption.^[5]^[6] Distinct file types, differentiated by extensions (e.g., .txt for plain text or .exe for executables), determine how content is interpreted, with binary files storing unstructured data for efficiency and text files enabling human-readable formats, though mismatches in interpretation can lead to parsing errors or vulnerabilities exploited in attacks like buffer overflows.^[6] This structure underpins modern data persistence, from personal documents to vast enterprise databases, evolving from early tape-based systems to support scalability in cloud storage where files may span distributed nodes without altering the core abstraction.^[4]^[7]

Mechanical tools and processes

Historical development

The earliest precursors to modern files were stone rasps used for shaping materials, with archaeological evidence indicating their employment in ancient civilizations for sharpening and finishing primitive implements.^[8] By the Bronze Age, metal rasps emerged, including copper and brass variants in Egypt around 1200 BC, followed by iron rasps among the Assyrians in the 7th century BC, marking the transition from abrasive stone tools to cuttable metal ones capable of finer material removal.^[8]^[9] In medieval Europe, file production advanced alongside the growth of specialized metalworking trades, particularly for cutlery, edge tools, and armaments, with early centers in regions like Sheffield, England, and Solingen, Germany, where water-powered forges supported hammer-forged blanks and hand-chiseled teeth. These developments were driven by expanding trade in iron goods and the need for precise shaping of blades and fittings, though files remained labor-intensive handmade items until the early modern era.^[10] The Industrial Revolution catalyzed significant refinements, with improved steel alloys—enabled by processes like puddling in the late 18th century—providing harder, more uniform blanks resistant to wear during use.^[11] Precision file-cutting machines, introduced in the mid-19th century, mechanized tooth formation for consistent cuts, facilitating mass production and broader applications in engineering and machinery assembly.^[11] This shift reduced reliance on skilled hand labor while expanding file versatility in industrial metalworking.^[12]

Types and materials

Mechanical files are classified primarily by their cross-sectional shape, which determines their suitability for specific contours and surfaces, and by the pattern of teeth, which affects cutting aggression and finish quality. Common shapes include flat files for straight surfaces and corners, round files for enlarging or smoothing holes, half-round files for concave surfaces, square files for slots and keyways, triangular files for acute angles and saw teeth, and knife files for narrow spaces.^[13]^[14] These shapes are available in American pattern, suited for general metalworking with coarser cuts, or Swiss pattern for precision tasks with finer gradations.^[15] Cut patterns further differentiate files by tooth arrangement: single-cut files feature one set of parallel, diagonal teeth for producing smooth finishes on metals, ideal for light-pressure finishing after rough shaping.^[16] Double-cut files have two intersecting sets of teeth forming diamond-shaped cutting points, enabling faster stock removal with heavier pressure but coarser finishes, commonly used in initial material reduction.^[16]^[17] Tooth coarseness is graded by teeth per inch (TPI), with bastard cuts typically at 30-50 TPI for rapid removal, second cuts at 50-60 TPI for intermediate work, and smooth cuts exceeding 60 TPI for fine finishing, though exact TPI varies by file length and pattern—shorter files yield higher effective density.^[13]^[14] Files are constructed from high-carbon tool steels, such as those with 1.0-1.25% carbon content (e.g., equivalent to AISI 1095 or T12), which are heat-treated for hardness to retain sharp edges during abrasive contact with metals.^[18]^[19] This composition provides durability against wear, with hardening processes achieving resistance to deformation under repeated filing strokes. Specialized variants include needle files, slender tools 3-6 inches long in multiple shapes for intricate precision work like jewelry or die-making, often double-cut with fine TPI (e.g., 00 cut at approximately 41 TPI) for detailed shaping without excessive material loss.^[15]^[14] Rasps, by contrast, feature distinct, individually raised triangular teeth rather than uniform rows, enabling deeper, coarser cuts for rapid shaping of wood or soft materials, though they produce rougher surfaces than standard files and clog more readily with debris.^[20]^[21]

Manufacturing and usage techniques

The production of metal files begins with high-carbon steel blanks that are annealed to soften the material, facilitating the formation of cutting teeth. Teeth are then incised using specialized chisels for hand-cut files or precision milling machines for machine-cut variants, creating patterns such as single-cut or double-cut configurations.^[22] Following tooth formation, the files undergo hardening through austenitizing heat treatment—typically heating to around 800–850°C—followed by rapid quenching in oil or water to achieve a Rockwell C hardness of approximately 60–65 HRC, enhancing abrasion resistance while maintaining toughness via subsequent tempering.^[22]^[23] In usage, effective filing relies on controlled mechanics to abrade material via the teeth's wedging action. Files primarily cut on the forward push stroke, with the return stroke lifted slightly to prevent dulling the teeth; draw filing, an alternative for finishing, involves sideways push-pull motions across the workpiece.^[24] The file is held at a slight angle of 10–15 degrees to the work surface to engage teeth optimally without rocking, which ensures even material removal and minimizes binding.^[25] Light, even pressure applied across the full file length promotes uniform abrasion, while lubrication—such as light oil for soft metals like aluminum—reduces heat buildup and tooth loading, though dry filing suffices for harder steels.^[26] Safety and efficiency demand proper handling to mitigate risks like tang puncture or repetitive strain. Files require fitted handles—traditionally wooden but increasingly ergonomic plastic or rubber-coated for vibration damping and grip security—to prevent hand injuries and enhance control during prolonged use.^[27] Common errors, such as over-filing with excessive pressure or inconsistent strokes, result in uneven surfaces, material waste, or accelerated file wear, underscoring the need for measured passes and periodic workpiece checks.^[28]

Documents and records

Physical filing systems

Physical filing systems organize tangible documents, such as letters, reports, and memos, into structured containers like manila folders, which serve as bound collections for efficient record-keeping in offices. These systems originated in the late 19th century, evolving from earlier methods like bound volumes and pigeonhole storage to vertical filing innovations that allowed papers to be stored on edge for quicker access. By the 1890s, the introduction of specialized folders and cabinets marked a shift toward standardized office infrastructure, enabling the handling of growing paperwork volumes in businesses and government agencies.^[29]^[30] Key components include tabs for labeling and indexing, metal fasteners or prongs to secure multiple documents in place, and suspension (hanging) files with hooks that fit into drawer rails for vertical storage in cabinets, reducing sagging and improving drawer organization. Standard letter-size (8.5 by 11 inches) manila folders, often made from 11-point stock, feature scored expansions—typically 0.75 inches—to accommodate varying thicknesses, with capacities generally ranging from 100 to 200 sheets of standard 20-pound bond paper before requiring reinforcement or expansion variants. These elements facilitate manual sorting and retrieval, leveraging physical tangibility for intuitive browsing without reliance on electronic interfaces.^[31]^[32] Despite these advantages, physical systems exhibit empirical drawbacks, including high space demands—a single four-drawer cabinet can occupy over 10 cubic feet while holding thousands of documents—and retrieval inefficiencies, where locating a specific item in large archives often requires manual searching that consumes several minutes per query due to linear scanning and potential misfiling. Studies of records management highlight how physical handling exacerbates issues like document deterioration from wear, dust, or environmental factors, contrasting with the direct sensory access that allows immediate verification of contents without intermediary technology.^[33]^[34]

Organizational methods and standards

Physical document filing systems commonly employ alphabetical arrangement by names, subjects, or entities; numerical sequencing for coded or sequential identifiers; chronological ordering by date; or subject-based categorization incorporating geographic or topical subdivisions.^[35]^[36] These methods facilitate retrieval by aligning organization with the primary access criteria, such as client names in legal practices or transaction dates in accounting.^[37] To enhance efficiency, color-coding overlays these systems, assigning distinct hues to categories, subcategories, or retention periods for rapid visual scanning and error reduction in large volumes.^[38] For instance, terminal digit filing uses color bars on folders to indicate year-end digits, enabling quick location within shelves and minimizing misfiling rates to under 1% in implemented systems.^[39] International standards like ISO 15489-1:2016 establish principles for records management, mandating metadata for authenticity, reliability, and usability alongside policies for retention scheduling and disposition to mitigate risks of loss or unauthorized alteration.^[40] These guidelines promote audit trails through controls ensuring records' integrity over their lifecycle, applicable to physical formats via systematic classification and access logging.^[41] Despite these approaches, manual systems often incur significant inefficiencies; studies indicate knowledge workers devote 19-30% of their time—up to 1.8 hours daily—to searching for and gathering information in disorganized physical files, exacerbating costs in bureaucratic environments reliant on paper without hybrid verification.^[42]^[43] Such waste stems from inherent limitations in scalability and human error, underscoring the causal trade-offs of analog persistence over automated alternatives.^[44]

Transition to digital formats

The transition from paper-based filing systems to digital formats began as an analog precursor in the mid-20th century with microfilm technology, which compressed documents onto film reels to address escalating storage demands in libraries and archives. Developed commercially in the 1920s and widely adopted by the 1930s, microfilm enabled the preservation of vast newspaper collections and records by reducing physical volume by factors of up to 98%, driven by the causal need to manage growing paper accumulations without prohibitive warehouse costs.^[45]^[46] This shift was empirically motivated by space constraints, as institutions like the Library of Congress faced deteriorating paper holdings that required compact, durable alternatives for long-term retention.^[47] The acceleration to fully digital formats occurred in the 1990s, propelled by advancements in scanning hardware and optical character recognition (OCR) software, which converted scanned images into searchable text. Commercial OCR tools became accessible during this decade, coinciding with falling costs of personal computers and flatbed scanners, allowing organizations to digitize legacy paper files en masse for scalability and efficiency.^[48]^[49] For instance, historical newspaper digitization projects leveraged OCR to index content, transforming static archives into queryable databases and reducing retrieval times from hours to seconds via keyword searches.^[50] Key drivers included substantial cost savings in storage and maintenance: digital formats consolidate equivalent warehouse-scale paper holdings—often millions of documents—into terabytes of data on servers or disks, eliminating expenses for climate-controlled facilities, shelving, and physical handling.^[51]^[52] Enhanced searchability through metadata tagging further amplified benefits, enabling instant access across distributed networks, which scaled operations without proportional increases in personnel or infrastructure. However, challenges persist, including data degradation known as bit rot, where silent corruption from media decay or errors erodes file integrity over decades, necessitating regular integrity checks and format migrations to avert loss.^[53] Empirical adoption accelerated via policy mandates, such as the U.S. Government's 1998 Paperwork Elimination Act, which affirmed the legal equivalence of electronic records to paper, and the 2019 OMB Memorandum M-19-21, requiring federal agencies to transition to fully electronic recordkeeping by 2022 (extended to 2024) to minimize paper dependency and streamline processes.^[54]^[55] These measures, informed by audits revealing billions in annual paper-related expenditures, have driven substantial reductions in physical storage needs, with agencies reporting cuts in filing space and associated costs exceeding traditional systems.^[56]^[57]

Computing and data management

Core concepts and definitions

A computer file is a discrete, persistent unit of data represented as a named, ordered sequence of bytes stored on a non-volatile storage medium, such as a disk drive.^[58]^[59] This abstraction separates the logical view of data from physical storage details, enabling applications to read, write, or append bytes at specified offsets without direct hardware interaction.^[60] Unlike transient data streams, which facilitate sequential input/output operations potentially across networks or devices without guaranteed persistence, files emphasize durability and random access via naming.^[1]^[61] The foundational model emerged in early multitasking operating systems, notably UNIX developed between 1969 and 1973 by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs, where files are defined as unstructured sequences of bytes to unify handling of diverse data types and devices under a uniform interface.^[62] This design addressed the era's batch processing demands, where modular data units allowed offline storage and reuse across jobs, decoupling programs from specific hardware configurations like tapes or drums.^[63] The term "file" in computing, first attested around 1950 in contexts like RCA documentation, analogizes physical office files—systematically arranged document collections strung on threads or wires for retrieval—reflecting the intent to organize digital records similarly for efficiency.^[64]^[65] Essential metadata attributes delineate a file's identity and governance: a unique name within its directory (often with an extension indicating type), size measured in bytes, protection bits encoding read/write/execute permissions for owner, group, and others, and timestamps recording creation, last modification, and access times.^[66]^[67] These contrast with ephemeral memory objects, which reside in volatile RAM without filesystem integration or survival across system restarts, prioritizing speed over longevity. In POSIX-compliant systems, such attributes ensure files function as self-contained, addressable entities, supporting causal chains of data dependency in software execution.^[68]

File systems and structures

File systems organize data hierarchically on storage media through directories and subdirectories, forming a tree-like structure that enables logical grouping and navigation independent of physical layout. Directories function as special files containing entries that map file names to metadata locations, allowing users and applications to traverse paths like root/subdir/file. This abstraction decouples user-visible organization from underlying block allocation, where storage is divided into fixed-size units—such as clusters in FAT and NTFS or blocks in ext4—to minimize overhead from partial block usage.^[69]^[70] In Unix-like systems, including those using ext4, inodes serve as core metadata structures, each holding attributes like permissions, timestamps, and pointers to data blocks for a single file or directory, with a fixed pool allocated at filesystem creation to balance space efficiency against file limits. Allocation units represent the smallest contiguous storage quanta, where larger sizes reduce metadata overhead but increase internal fragmentation for small files, trading wasted space for fewer seek operations on mechanical drives. These mechanisms support scalability but introduce trade-offs: dynamic inode allocation in ext4 enhances flexibility for large volumes up to 1 exabyte, yet fixed inode counts in older designs constrain file counts relative to capacity.^[71] The FAT family, originating in the late 1970s and refined for MS-DOS in the 1980s, employs a simple table-based structure for chain-linked clusters, prioritizing compatibility across devices at the cost of fragmentation susceptibility as files grow and shrink, leading to non-contiguous blocks that inflate seek times. NTFS, introduced by Microsoft in 1993, advances this with a master file table indexing file records and journaling to log metadata changes for crash recovery, though features like access control lists impose computational overhead during operations, increasing latency in high-throughput scenarios compared to leaner systems. Ext4, released in Linux kernel 2.6.28 on December 25, 2008, incorporates extents—contiguous block ranges—for reduced fragmentation in large files, enabling better scalability on multi-terabyte volumes while maintaining backward compatibility with ext3.^[72]^[73]^[74] Empirical analyses reveal fragmentation's operational toll: in aged filesystems, dispersed blocks can elevate I/O latency by forcing multiple seeks, with studies on mobile storage showing degraded read/write performance due to non-sequential access patterns, particularly for frequently modified files. While modern extents and delayed allocation in ext4 mitigate this—preserving up to 90% contiguity in workloads—legacy FAT volumes often exhibit higher entropy, amplifying slowdowns on spinning disks where seek times dominate. These structures thus embody causal trade-offs between simplicity, reliability, and performance, shaped by hardware evolution from floppies to SSDs.^[75]^[76]^[77]

Formats, security, and management practices

File formats specify the internal structure and encoding of data within files, enabling consistent interpretation across software and hardware. The Portable Document Format (PDF), developed by Adobe Systems and introduced in 1993, preserves document layout, fonts, and images for cross-platform portability independent of the originating application.^[78] Similarly, the JPEG format, standardized by the Joint Photographic Experts Group in 1992, applies lossy compression to raster images, balancing file size reduction with acceptable visual fidelity for photographic content.^[79] These formats often incorporate metadata and headers that define decoding rules, ensuring files can be rendered without proprietary dependencies. File extensions, typically three or four characters appended after a dot in filenames (e.g., .pdf, .jpeg, .exe), serve as conventional indicators of format and intended use, allowing operating systems to associate files with appropriate handlers for opening, editing, or execution.^[80] For instance, the .exe extension denotes Windows executable binaries, triggering direct machine code interpretation by the loader, while .pdf prompts invocation of a viewer like Adobe Acrobat. Extensions facilitate automated management but rely on user or system enforcement, as they do not enforce format compliance and can be altered or spoofed. Security practices for files emphasize encryption, access controls, and redundancy to counter unauthorized access or corruption. Symmetric encryption via the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), selected by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2000 and formalized in Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 197 on November 26, 2001, secures file contents by applying block ciphers with key lengths of 128, 192, or 256 bits, rendering data indecipherable without the key.^[81] Access controls, implemented through file system permissions (e.g., read, write, execute attributes in Unix-like systems or NTFS ACLs in Windows), restrict operations based on user or group identities, preventing escalation of privileges that could enable tampering. Regular backups to separate media or offsite storage provide recovery from deletion, hardware failure, or malicious overwriting, with verifiable integrity checked via checksums like SHA-256. Ransomware poses a persistent threat by exploiting weak permissions to encrypt files en masse, demanding payment for decryption keys; attacks succeed when adversaries gain write access through misconfigurations, such as overly permissive shares or unpatched vulnerabilities allowing privilege escalation.^[82] Management protocols include versioning tools like Git, initiated by Linus Torvalds in April 2005 for Linux kernel development, which maintain historical snapshots, diffs, and branches to revert alterations without data duplication.^[83] For traditional hard disk drives (HDDs), defragmentation consolidates fragmented files—split across non-contiguous sectors due to repeated writes—into sequential blocks, reducing mechanical seek times and elevating input/output throughput by up to 20-50% in high-fragmentation scenarios.^[84] These practices, when audited periodically, enhance operational robustness against both accidental degradation and deliberate interference.

Recent technological advancements

In 2025, Microsoft introduced semantic indexing to Windows 11 on Copilot+ PCs, enhancing File Explorer with AI-driven semantic search capabilities that interpret user intent through natural language processing, improving file retrieval accuracy over keyword-based methods.^[85]^[86] This feature, initially tested in Insider builds, combines lexical and vector-based ranking to surface relevant documents, photos, and settings, addressing limitations in traditional indexing for unstructured content.^[87] CubeFS, a cloud-native distributed file system, achieved CNCF graduation in March 2025, enabling scalable storage for AI and large language model workloads by decoupling metadata and data planes for low-latency access to petabyte-scale unstructured data.^[88]^[89] Designed for containerized environments like Kubernetes, it supports high-throughput operations in big data scenarios without the sharding bottlenecks of legacy systems, as evidenced by its adoption in platforms separating storage from compute.^[90]^[91] Zero-trust security models integrated with edge computing have advanced file management by enforcing continuous verification at distributed nodes, reducing breach risks in hybrid setups while minimizing latency for real-time data access.^[92]^[93] Empirical deployments show edge-based processing cuts file transfer delays compared to centralized cloud storage, with benefits including up to 50-100 ms latency reductions in 5G-enabled environments for IoT and analytics workloads.^[94]^[95] These trends prioritize causal efficiency in data locality, outperforming pure local storage in bandwidth-constrained scenarios.^[96]

Other meanings

Military and processional contexts

In military terminology, a file denotes a column of soldiers aligned one directly behind the other, forming a single line ahead, in contrast to a rank, which arranges troops shoulder-to-shoulder across the front.^[97]^[98] This arrangement facilitates marching, initial deployments, and transitions to broader battle formations, with the number of files determining a unit's frontage when deployed into line.^[97] Historically, files have enabled tactical flexibility, as seen in Roman legions from the 3rd century BCE onward, where centuries—basic maneuver units of approximately 80-100 men—were subdivided into 10 files of 6-10 ranks each, allowing rapid shifts between column advances and extended lines for combat, superior to the immobile Greek phalanx in varied terrain.^[99] Such formations prioritized control and speed over massed depth during maneuvers, though they exposed flanks to enfilading fire if not screened. In later eras, like the Napoleonic Wars, advancing in files or deep columns offered advantages for rapid movement across fields but proved vulnerable to disciplined volley fire from the sides; at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815, French infantry columns under d'Erlon were devastated by British artillery and musket enfilade from angled positions, contributing to over 4,000 casualties in a single assault wave due to the narrow frontage concentrating losses.^[100]^[101] In processional and ceremonial contexts, a file describes a disciplined single-line queue, as in "single file," employed for orderly progression through narrow paths, doorways, or formal parades to prevent disorder and ensure precise alignment. This practice, rooted in military drill since at least the early modern period, extends to non-combat movements like escort formations or color parties, where troops merge into files at angles to the objective for controlled spacing and visibility.^[102] Its utility in crowd control derives from minimizing width while maintaining cohesion, a principle echoed in historical accounts of scouting or deception tactics, such as Mongol horsemen riding single file to obscure numbers.^[103]

Biological and natural references

Filefish of the family Monacanthidae derive their common name from the rough, file-like texture of their skin, formed by numerous small denticles or scales that create a sandpaper-esque surface.^[104] This dermal structure facilitates adaptive camouflage, enabling species such as the slender filefish (Monacanthus tuckeri) to rapidly alter both coloration and skin texture—often within 1–3 seconds—to mimic surrounding environments like coral reefs or seagrasses, thereby evading predators in tropical and subtropical marine habitats.^[105] ^[106] The denticles also contribute to passive defense by increasing tactile resistance against potential attackers.^[107] File shells, members of the bivalve family Limidae (also known as file clams), feature equivalved, compressed shells with prominent radial ribs that impart a file-like ridged appearance, enhancing structural durability in varied marine settings from shallow coastal zones to deeper waters.^[108] ^[109] These mollusks employ ciliary-mucus feeding via gills to filter microscopic plankton and organic detritus from seawater, with some species capable of swimming short distances by clapping valves together, similar to scallops.^[110] The ribbed morphology supports byssal attachment in juveniles or free-living adults, adapting to substrates like rocks or sediments in global oceans.^[111]

Mathematical and recreational uses

In chess, a file denotes one of the eight vertical columns of squares on the standard 8x8 chessboard, labeled alphabetically from a (White's left) to h (White's right).^[112] This terminology facilitates algebraic notation for recording moves and positions, where squares are identified by file letter followed by rank number (e.g., e4).^[113] Files play a central role in strategic play, particularly for rooks, which move vertically along them; controlling an open file—one devoid of pawns from either side—enables long-range attacks and pressure on the opponent's position, often prioritized in middlegame plans.^[114] Historical openings like the Ruy Lopez, analyzed by Spanish priest Ruy López de Segura in his 1561 treatise Libro de Ajedrez, emphasize early development that can lead to file dominance, though the opening itself focuses on kingside piece activity and e5-pawn tension rather than immediate file-specific control.^[115] Beyond competitive analysis, files inform recreational chess variants and puzzles, where linear sequencing along files tests pattern recognition, such as in rook-placement problems or endgame studies involving file-based zugzwang.^[116] In recreational marching band formations, a file refers to a vertical column of performers aligned one behind the other, synonymous with a "column" in drill terminology, used to maintain spacing and execute synchronized movements like dressing lines or wheel turns.^[117] This usage supports precise choreography in non-military contexts, such as high school or community band routines, where files ensure visual symmetry during parades or field shows without implying combat organization.^[118]

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A brief history of preservation: microfiche and microfilm
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The History of Microfilm: 1839 To The Present
The first practical use of commercial microfilm was developed by a New York City banker, George McCarthy, in the 1920's. He was issued a patent in 1925 for his ...
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What Is Optical Character Recognition (OCR)? - IBM
OCR technology became popular in the early 1990s while digitizing historical newspapers. Since then, the technology has undergone several improvements.
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Implementation of the Government Paperwork Elimination Act
The Act specifically states that electronic records and their related electronic signatures are not to be denied legal effect, validity, or enforceability ...
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[PDF] Introduction Unix Family Tree (Simplified) Design Features ...
Ritchie and Thompson writing in CACM, July 74, identified the following (new) ... ∗ a file is an unstructured sequence of bytes. ∗ (not really true for ...
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I think you should say: A file is a named sequence of bytes managed by the file system. A file is a sequence of bytes which may be ...
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File systems use permissions and attributes to regulate the level of interaction that system processes can have with files and directories.
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[PDF] An Empirical Study of File-System Fragmentation in Mobile Storage ...
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ext4 is a scalable extension of ext3, using extents for improved performance, and supports larger file sizes and file systems.
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When soldiers stand shoulder to shoulder facing the front, they are formed in a rank or a line; when they stand one behind the other they constitute a file.
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At 11.35 a.m. the great battle opened, and Napoleon directed his first attack against Hougoumont, for this post would enfilade his attacks on the English centre ...
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May 7, 2024 · Colour Sentries – two corporals or privates (later to form the right single file of the Escort to the Colour). FORMING-UP ON PARADE. The ...
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[PDF] FM 3-21.5, C1 - DoD
While marching, the pallbearers merge into single file in order to form one rank, 45 degrees off the foot of the casket. The firing party commander is ...
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Adaptive body patterning, three-dimensional skin morphology and ...
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The Seagrass Filefish, Acreichthys tomentosus (Linnaeus), a master ...
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Limidae, or file shells, are elongate bivalves with radial ribbing, found worldwide, some in NSW, and filter microscopic particles.<|separator|>
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Limidae, also known as flame scallops and file clams, are marine, filter-feeding bivalves with shells that are equivalve, compressed, and have radial ribs. ...
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Natural History: File Shells are suspension feeders that filter plankton and fine detritus from the surrounding water. File Shells can swim, like scallops, by ...
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A single adductor muscle scar. Pallial line without a sinus. The Limidae are either attached by a byssus or are free-living animals depending on the species.
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Files. Files are the names of each vertical row (or column) on the board. Each file has an alphabetical assignment (a through h).
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Ranks are rows (numbered from bottom up), and files are columns (labeled left to right). The file-first method uses file then rank to name squares, like h1.
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The columns on a chessboard are called files, and the rows on a chessboard are called ranks. There are eight columns on a chessboard, meaning there are eight ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Marching Fundamental Handbook - Scottsboro Band
Column: Two or more people standing behind one another (Same as File.) Company Front: A formation where the entire band or corps is in one large line, marching ...
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Marching Band Terms - Kennett
Two or more people standing behind one another (Same as File.) Company Front: A formation where the entire band or corps is in one large line, marching side by ...