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Interacting galaxy

Interacting galaxies are pairs or groups of galaxies undergoing gravitational interactions due to close encounters, which distort their structures through tidal forces without necessarily requiring physical contact between their visible components.^[1] These interactions often produce characteristic features such as long tidal tails, bridges of material connecting the galaxies, and warped disks, while compressing interstellar gas to ignite bursts of star formation that can exceed normal rates by factors of 10 or more.^[2]^[3] Such events are common in the universe, with estimates suggesting that up to 25% of galaxies are actively merging and even more are undergoing gravitational influences from neighbors.^[4] The processes in interacting galaxies range from minor fly-by encounters, where one galaxy passes near another and induces temporary perturbations, to major mergers where two comparable-mass galaxies coalesce over hundreds of millions of years.^[2] In fly-bys, the gravitational pull can strip gas and stars from the outer regions, forming streams like those observed in the Messier 81 group involving M81, NGC 3034, and NGC 3077.^[2] Major mergers, such as the ongoing collision in the Antennae Galaxies (NGC 4038/4039), generate intense starbursts that produce thousands of young massive star clusters and can fuel activity in supermassive black holes at the centers, sometimes manifesting as active galactic nuclei or quasars.^[1]^[5] Observations of interacting galaxies reveal their prevalence across cosmic time, with early universe surveys like the Hubble Ultra Deep Field showing a higher fraction of distorted systems compared to the present day, indicating that interactions were more frequent when the universe was denser. Recent JWST observations, as of 2024, reveal that galaxy mergers in the early universe contribute significantly to the observed mystery emission from the earliest galaxies.^[2]^[6] Notable examples include the Mice Galaxies (NGC 4676), where elongated tidal tails resemble rodent tails due to their mutual gravitational tug, and Arp 87, a pair exhibiting high star formation rates evidenced by bright emission lines and blue starlight colors.^[3] Another striking case is the Cartwheel Galaxy, formed when a smaller companion passed through a larger disk galaxy, creating a propagating density wave that expanded into a ring structure rich in star-forming regions.^[2] These interactions play a pivotal role in galaxy evolution, driving the transformation of spiral galaxies into elliptical ones through repeated mergers and gas depletion, while also contributing to the growth of supermassive black holes via inflows of material.^[4] In the Local Group, the Milky Way is currently interacting with dwarf satellites like the Sagittarius and Canis Major galaxies, leaving detectable stellar streams, and may merge with the Andromeda Galaxy in approximately 4.5 billion years, though recent analyses estimate only about a 50% probability of collision within 10 billion years, potentially forming a single elliptical galaxy.^[2]^[4]^[7] Modern telescopes such as Hubble, Chandra, and the James Webb Space Telescope continue to uncover these dynamics, providing insights into how hierarchical merging built the large galaxies we observe today.^[8]

Overview and Classification

Definition and Characteristics

Interacting galaxies are systems in which two or more galaxies exert significant gravitational influence on one another, resulting in disturbances to their structures and morphologies. This interaction typically occurs when galaxies pass close to each other or collide, causing their mutual gravity to distort shapes, strip material, and form features such as tidal tails and bridges. Unlike isolated galaxies, which evolve primarily under internal dynamics and minimal external perturbations, interacting galaxies experience accelerated evolutionary changes due to these gravitational encounters, often leading to enhanced star formation and structural reconfiguration.^[4]^[9] Key characteristics of interacting galaxies include prominent morphological distortions, such as warped disks, shells, and extended tidal features, which arise from the differential gravitational pull on stellar and gaseous components. These systems often exhibit regions of increased brightness due to triggered bursts of star formation in compressed gas clouds, particularly along bridges or in the central areas. The timescales for these interactions typically span from about 100 million to 1 billion years, during which the galaxies may undergo multiple close passages before potentially merging. Interactions range from minor encounters involving disparate masses to major mergers between comparable galaxies, each producing distinct observational signatures.^[10]^[11] The recognition of interacting galaxies traces back to the 1920s, when Edwin Hubble first systematically classified galaxies beyond the Milky Way, identifying irregular forms like the Magellanic Clouds as distinct from smooth ellipticals and spirals. These observations highlighted how gravitational interactions with companion galaxies, such as the Milky Way's influence on the Magellanic Clouds, could produce irregular morphologies indicative of ongoing perturbations. This early work laid the foundation for understanding how such systems differ from isolated galaxies by emphasizing the role of external gravitational forces in shaping galactic evolution.^[12]^[13]

Types of Interactions

Galaxy interactions are broadly classified into minor interactions, major mergers, and harassment based on the mass ratio of the participating galaxies and the nature of the encounter. Minor interactions typically involve fly-bys between galaxies with significant mass disparities, often resulting in minimal mass exchange but notable tidal distortions.^[14] Major mergers occur between galaxies of comparable mass (mass ratios roughly between 1:4 and 1:1), leading to their eventual coalescence into a single remnant.^[15] Harassment refers to repeated high-speed, minor encounters, particularly in dense environments like galaxy clusters, where galaxies experience cumulative effects without full mergers.^[16] Interactions vary in scale and geometry, influencing their outcomes. Satellite interactions feature a smaller galaxy orbiting a more massive host, often leading to gradual infall and minor merger.^[14] Encounters can be head-on, involving direct central passages with intense disruption, or grazing, where galaxies skim past each other with less overlap and milder effects.^[17] All such types are governed by gravitational dynamics, primarily through tidal forces that perturb stellar and gaseous components.^[18] In the local universe, approximately 2-4% of bright galaxies exhibit signs of ongoing interactions or recent mergers.^[19] This fraction rises in denser environments, with cluster members displaying higher merger rates compared to field galaxies due to increased encounter probabilities.^[20] These interactions play a key role in galaxy evolution, driving morphological transformations from disk-dominated spirals to bulge-dominated ellipticals, particularly through major mergers that redistribute stellar material.

Physical Mechanisms

Gravitational Dynamics

Interacting galaxies experience gravitational perturbations primarily through tidal forces, which arise from the differential gravitational acceleration across the extent of one galaxy due to the mass of its companion. These forces stretch the galaxies along the line connecting their centers and compress them perpendicular to it, leading to the formation of elongated structures such as bridges and tails. The mathematical description of the tidal acceleration difference, Δa, across a distance 2r (the diameter of the perturbed galaxy) at a separation d from a perturber of mass M, approximates as Δa = 2 G M r / d³, where G is the gravitational constant; this Roche limit approximation highlights when tidal stresses exceed self-gravity, potentially disrupting loosely bound material.^[21] The regions where these tidal effects dominate are delineated by the Hill radius (or sphere of influence), which defines the volume around the less massive galaxy (mass m) within which its own gravity prevails over the tidal field of the more massive companion (mass M). For a satellite on an orbit with semi-major axis a, the Hill radius is given by R_H = a (m / 3M)^{1/3}, marking the boundary beyond which material is more likely to be stripped during the encounter. During parabolic or hyperbolic encounters, transient perturbations can excite orbital resonances within the disks, particularly Lindblad resonances, where the epicyclic frequency aligns with the forcing frequency from the companion, amplifying density waves and enhancing spiral arm structures. These resonances occur at locations where the orbital frequency Ω satisfies Ω ± κ/n = Ω_p, with κ the epicyclic frequency and Ω_p the pattern speed of the perturber; inner and outer Lindblad resonances drive radial migrations that temporarily boost spiral arm prominence before dissipation.^[22] Gravitational torques between the interacting galaxies facilitate the redistribution of angular momentum, transferring it from the inner regions to the outer parts or ejecting it into tidal features, thereby altering the rotational profiles and enabling material to flow inward or outward. These torques, arising from non-axisymmetric gravitational potentials, scale with the mass ratio and encounter geometry, often resulting in spin-up of the outer disk or spin-down of the core over the interaction timescale.^[23]

Dynamical Processes

In interacting galaxies, dynamical friction arises as a massive object, such as a satellite galaxy, moves through the stellar and dark matter medium of the host, experiencing a drag force due to gravitational interactions with surrounding particles. This process decelerates the object and causes its orbit to decay, with the drag velocity approximated by the Chandrasekhar formula:

\mathbf{v}_{\rm drag} \approx - \frac{4\pi G^2 m^2 \rho}{v^2} \ln \Lambda \, \hat{\mathbf{v}},

where G is the gravitational constant, m is the mass of the moving object, \rho is the density of the background medium, v is the relative velocity, \hat{\mathbf{v}} is the unit vector in the direction of motion, and \ln \Lambda is the Coulomb logarithm representing the ratio of maximum to minimum impact parameters.^[24] This formula, derived from statistical considerations of many-body encounters, effectively describes the orbital evolution in rigid models of satellite galaxies when the Coulomb logarithm is appropriately calibrated.^[25] Following strong perturbations, such as those initiated by tidal forces during close encounters, the stellar components of interacting galaxies undergo violent relaxation, a process where phase mixing in the perturbed potential leads to a quasi-equilibrium state. Proposed by Lynden-Bell, this mechanism involves the redistribution of stars in phase space, analogous to the maximization of entropy in statistical mechanics, resulting in a smooth density profile without complete ergodicity due to the collisionless nature of stellar systems.^[26] Violent relaxation typically occurs on dynamical timescales, smoothing out initial irregularities and contributing to the formation of relaxed structures post-interaction.^[27] The cumulative effect of dynamical friction drives orbital decay, leading to the inspiral of interacting galaxies on timescales of approximately $10^8 years for Milky Way-sized systems with masses around $10^{12} M_\odot. These estimates, derived from N-body simulations of extended dark matter halos, show that merger times scale with the virial radius and concentration, often shorter than simple analytic predictions due to the evolving density profile during the interaction.^[28] Dark matter plays a crucial role in this process, as the extended halos provide a diffuse but massive medium that amplifies frictional drag compared to baryonic components alone, while also stabilizing galactic cores against excessive heating from encounters.^[28] The halo's cuspy or cored structure further modulates friction efficiency, prolonging inspiral in low-density outskirts but accelerating it in denser inner regions.^[29]

Observational and Theoretical Evidence

Detection Methods

Astronomers detect interacting galaxies primarily through morphological distortions and kinematic anomalies observed across multiple wavelengths, revealing signatures of gravitational perturbations such as tidal tails, bridges, and irregular gas distributions. These features arise from the tidal forces during encounters, which strip material from the galaxies and alter their structures, making them distinguishable from isolated systems. Optical and ultraviolet imaging, radio mapping of neutral hydrogen, X-ray observations of heated gas, infrared imaging from recent telescopes, and spectroscopic measurements of velocity fields each contribute uniquely to identifying these interactions, often in combination for confirmation. In optical and ultraviolet imaging, tidal tails and bridges—elongated streams of stars and gas—are prominent visual indicators of interactions, appearing as faint, extended structures emanating from the galaxies. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) excels at resolving these features due to its high angular resolution, capturing them in broadband filters like F606W (broad V-band, sensitive to starlight from young and intermediate-age stars) and F814W (near-infrared I-band, penetrating dust to reveal older stellar populations). Ultraviolet observations, such as those from the Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) or AstroSat's UVIT, highlight star-forming regions within tails by detecting far-ultraviolet (FUV) and near-ultraviolet (NUV) emission from hot, young stars, which trace recent triggered star formation along these disturbed features. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), operational since 2022, has advanced detection through mid-infrared imaging, revealing dust-obscured star formation and fine tidal structures in interacting galaxies, such as in Arp 142 observed in 2024. JWST's sensitivity to wavelengths beyond 5 microns penetrates dust, uncovering embedded young stars and molecular gas complexes in systems like IC 2163 and NGC 2207.^[30] Radio observations target the 21-cm emission line of neutral hydrogen (HI) to map extended gas envelopes and irregular distributions that extend far beyond the stellar disks, often spanning tens of kiloparsecs and indicating tidal stripping. Arrays like the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) provide high-resolution HI maps, revealing asymmetric, warped, or filamentary structures in interacting systems, such as one-sided tails or bridges connecting companions, which are less affected by dust obscuration compared to optical data. These observations are crucial for detecting gas-rich interactions at low surface brightness levels, complementing imaging by probing the diffuse interstellar medium. X-ray emissions from hot intracluster or intragalactic gas, heated to temperatures of ~10^7 K during mergers, serve as another key diagnostic, particularly for detecting shocks from colliding gas clouds. The Chandra X-ray Observatory resolves extended, diffuse X-ray sources in merging systems, showing clumpy or filamentary hot gas distributions with temperatures indicative of supersonic flows (velocities >1000 km/s), often aligned with optical tails. Spectral analysis reveals line emission from ionized metals, confirming shock heating rather than point-like active galactic nuclei contributions. Spectroscopic techniques confirm interactions by measuring redshifts and velocity dispersions, revealing disturbed kinematics such as multiple velocity components, elevated dispersions (>200 km/s in disks), or decoupled rotation curves indicative of ongoing perturbations. Integral field spectroscopy (IFS) instruments like those on the Very Large Telescope (VLT) or Keck provide spatially resolved velocity fields, identifying counter-rotating components or broad-line profiles from tidal debris, while long-slit spectroscopy measures radial velocities to verify physical proximity (low relative redshifts, Δz < 0.001). These data distinguish true pairs from projections, quantifying the dynamical stage of the interaction.

Simulations and Models

Simulations of interacting galaxies rely on computational methods that model gravitational dynamics to predict the outcomes of encounters. These approaches build on the foundational principles of gravitational interactions, where tidal forces distort galactic disks and eject material. N-body simulations use particle-based techniques to track the orbits of individual stars and dark matter particles under mutual gravity, providing insights into the long-term dynamical evolution during interactions. Pioneering work by Toomre and Toomre (1972) employed numerical simulations within a restricted three-body framework to illustrate how close passages produce characteristic tidal bridges and tails, setting the stage for numerical explorations. Over time, these evolved into full N-body codes capable of handling large particle numbers; for example, the GADGET code, introduced by Springel et al. (2001), facilitates parallel simulations of structure formation and isolated galaxy encounters with high fidelity.^[31] Hydrodynamical simulations extend N-body methods by incorporating the physics of gas dynamics, including pressure, viscosity, cooling, and heating, to capture processes like shock-induced star formation in interacting systems. These models solve the Euler equations coupled with gravity, often using smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) or moving-mesh techniques. In the IllustrisTNG suite of cosmological simulations, hydrodynamical runs achieve mass resolutions of approximately $10^5 \, M_\odot for gas elements, corresponding to spatial resolutions down to sub-kiloparsec scales in dense regions, enabling the study of small-scale features in merger remnants. Key predictions from such simulations include the formation of self-gravitating tidal dwarf galaxies from compressed material in tidal tails, where gas-rich debris condenses into compact, star-forming systems that may survive as independent entities. Major galaxy mergers are also shown to produce central remnants with spheroidal, elliptical-like morphologies due to violent relaxation and orbital mixing, as evidenced in collisionless N-body models of group-scale interactions. Post-2020 advances have integrated machine learning to optimize parameter tuning in hydrodynamical simulations, particularly for subgrid models of feedback and star formation in projects like IllustrisTNG. Techniques such as principal component analysis and neural networks allow efficient exploration of parameter spaces, identifying physical drivers of galaxy properties and calibrating models against observational constraints without exhaustive full-physics runs.^[32] By 2024-2025, machine learning has further been applied to reveal merging histories of nearby galaxies from simulations and predict halo formation times, enhancing interpretations of observational data on interactions.^[33]

Effects on Galaxies

Structural Transformations

Interactions between galaxies induce profound morphological and kinematic alterations, primarily through tidal forces that perturb the gravitational potential and redistribute stellar and gaseous components. In spiral galaxies, one prominent effect is the warping and thickening of disks, where tidal torques cause the outer disk to bend out of the plane, often forming an S-shaped structure. This phenomenon is observed in approximately 45% of interacting spiral galaxies, compared to only 21% in isolated ones, as revealed by analyses of optical images from catalogs like the Flat Galaxy Catalogue Extension. Such warps can lead to the formation of polar rings, rare structures where gas and stars orbit perpendicular to the main disk, typically arising from tidal accretion or minor mergers with a probability of about 1-5% per interaction event. Thickening of the disk occurs as vertical resonances amplify perturbations, resulting in puffed-up structures; in edge-on views, this manifests as boxy or peanut-shaped bulges, present in approximately 45% of edge-on spirals and often linked to internal instabilities triggered by external torques during encounters.^[34]^[35]^[36] Central bar formation represents another key transformation, driven by non-axisymmetric instabilities that grow under the influence of tidal perturbations from a companion. In simulations of galaxy interactions, bars emerge in roughly 80% of cases involving disk galaxies, facilitating the transfer of angular momentum and gas toward the center, which can reshape the inner structure over gigayears. Observationally, interacting systems exhibit a higher bar fraction than isolated spirals, with instabilities converting chaotic orbits into elongated bars that span 20-50% of the disk radius. These bars not only alter the morphology but also drive secular evolution, though their formation is particularly enhanced in prograde encounters where the companion's orbit aligns with the disk rotation.^[37] Kinematic disruptions further characterize these interactions, as tidal forces decouple stellar motions from the ordered rotation of the disk, leading to irregular velocity fields. In merging systems, velocity maps derived from integral field spectroscopy reveal asymmetries, twists, and counter-rotating components, where parts of the disk or infalling material rotate opposite to the main body, disrupting the flat rotation curve typical of undisturbed spirals. Such effects are quantified through kinemetry, showing harmonic distortions in simulated minor mergers, with observable signatures persisting for hundreds of millions of years post-pericenter passage. These changes reflect the loss of dynamical coherence, as dynamical friction briefly referenced here settles material but ultimately randomizes velocities in the core.^[38] In major mergers, where galaxies of comparable mass collide, the cumulative effect often transforms the remnants into elliptical galaxies, erasing disk features through violent relaxation. Simulations and observations indicate that these remnants adopt de Vaucouleurs profiles with Sérsic index n > 4, characteristic of giant ellipticals formed via multiple dissipationless mergers, as opposed to lower-n systems from fewer events. For instance, core ellipticals like NGC 4472 exhibit n \approx 6, with boxy isophotes arising from the orbital mixing of progenitor disks, marking a shift from rotationally supported to pressure-supported structures. This conversion underscores the role of interactions in building the Hubble sequence's early-type end.^[39]

Star Formation and Evolution

Interactions between galaxies profoundly influence star formation by compressing interstellar gas through tidal forces and gravitational instabilities, often leading to triggered starbursts. These events can enhance star formation rates (SFRs) by factors of 2 to 10 compared to isolated galaxies, with major mergers typically showing an average increase of 3–4 times and up to 10% of cases exhibiting extreme bursts exceeding 10 times the baseline.^[40] In ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs), which are frequently associated with advanced merger stages, SFRs surpass 100 M⊙/yr, driven by the concentration of dense molecular gas in circumnuclear regions. Such bursts peak near the first pericenter passage and last approximately 0.5 Gyr, contributing significantly to the stellar mass assembly in the progenitor galaxies.^[40] Gas inflows play a central role in fueling these starbursts, as gravitational torques during interactions drive molecular clouds inward from the corotation radius (typically a few kpc) to the central kiloparsec. This process increases the dense gas fraction by 10–20 times, enhancing cloud collapse and star formation efficiency while also activating active galactic nuclei (AGN) through the influx of material to supermassive black holes.^[41] The resulting shocks and turbulence in the interstellar medium further compress gas, forming dense clumps that collapse into stars, with simulations indicating that up to 50% of merger-induced star formation occurs in these central regions.^[40] In gas-rich mergers, these inflows can boost nuclear gas column densities by factors of 5 or more, sustaining elevated SFRs throughout the interaction sequence. Over longer timescales, interactions shape the evolutionary paths of galaxies by first accelerating star formation and then often leading to quenching. Post-merger phases see SFR enhancements that peak within approximately 500 Myr of coalescence and can persist up to 1 Gyr, primarily due to stellar and AGN feedback that eventually heats or expels residual gas, stabilizing the interstellar medium and halting further star birth.^[42] This quenching contributes to the transition of galaxies to the red sequence, with mergers accounting for 10–20% of stellar mass growth per event before the system evolves into a gas-poor early-type galaxy.^[42] Simultaneously, the influx of gas supports black hole growth, linking merger-driven starbursts to the co-evolution of stellar populations and central engines.^[43] Interactions also drive chemical enrichment by mixing metals from disrupted stellar populations and satellites into the interstellar medium, altering abundance patterns. Merger-induced inflows of low-metallicity gas dilute central metallicities by ~0.05–0.10 dex, flattening initial abundance gradients through radial transport and turbulent mixing.^[44] Galactic outflows, enhanced during starbursts, redistribute enriched material outward, while the infall of pristine gas from disrupted companions further homogenizes compositions.^[44] In gas-rich systems, these processes can enhance central metallicities by 0.1–0.2 dex overall, influencing the chemical evolution toward more uniform distributions observed in post-merger remnants.^[44]

Specific Interaction Types

Satellite Interactions

Satellite interactions occur when a smaller dwarf galaxy orbits a larger host galaxy, such as the Milky Way, leading to gradual mass transfer and structural disruption of the satellite through environmental processes. These interactions are asymmetric, with the host's gravitational field dominating, often resulting in the satellite's partial or complete disruption over cosmic timescales. Unlike major mergers, satellite accretion contributes incrementally to the host's growth, primarily affecting the outer halo regions.^[45] One key mechanism in satellite interactions is ram-pressure stripping, where the satellite's interstellar gas is stripped away as it moves through the hot intracluster or intrahalo medium of the host. This process is described by the ram pressure formula P_{\rm ram} = \rho v^2, where \rho is the density of the surrounding medium and v is the relative velocity of the satellite. Ram-pressure stripping is particularly effective in dense environments like galaxy clusters, removing gas and potentially quenching star formation in the satellite without significantly affecting its stellar component. Tidal stripping complements ram-pressure effects by gravitationally removing outer layers of stars, gas, and dark matter from the satellite due to differential forces across its extent. The survival timescale for dwarf satellites under tidal stripping is typically on the order of $10^9 years, depending on the satellite's mass, orbit, and the host's potential. This process progressively truncates the satellite's halo, depositing material into extended tidal tails that trace its orbital history.^[46] Galactic cannibalism refers to the complete absorption of satellites by the host, where stripped material merges with the host's structure, contributing to its mass buildup. In the case of the Milky Way, simulations suggest that accreted dwarf satellites account for up to 50-80% of the metal-poor stellar component in the halo from a few dominant progenitors, building the stellar halo through multiple minor mergers over billions of years.^[45] A prominent example is the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus merger, which contributed approximately $10^{11} M_\odot and shaped much of the inner stellar halo.^[47] Observational evidence for these interactions includes stellar streams, such as the prominent tidal tails of the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy, which wrap around the Milky Way and reveal ongoing stripping. These streams, detected through photometric and kinematic surveys, provide direct signatures of satellite disruption and constrain models of the host's gravitational potential.^[48]

Galaxy Collisions

Galaxy collisions, also known as major mergers, involve the full-scale interaction and eventual coalescence of two galaxies of comparable mass, typically within a factor of 3:1, leading to significant dynamical restructuring. These events are driven by gravitational interactions, where tidal forces distort the galactic disks during the initial approach. The merger process unfolds in distinct stages: the first passage, during which the galaxies swing past each other at high relative velocity, inducing prominent tidal distortions; followed by radial infall, where dynamical friction causes the galaxies to lose orbital energy and spiral inward; and culminating in final coalescence, when the two systems merge into a single remnant. This sequence typically spans 1-2 billion years, with the early stages dominated by extended tidal features and later phases by violent relaxation in the core.^[49] A hallmark of galaxy collisions is the formation of tidal bridges and tails, which arise from the exchange of material between the interacting galaxies. During the first passage, gravitational torques strip stars, gas, and dark matter from the outer regions, creating elongated bridges connecting the two galaxies and prominent tails trailing behind them. These intergalactic features can extend tens of kiloparsecs and serve as tracers of the interaction's geometry and timing, with bridges forming short-lived connections and tails persisting longer as debris streams. Seminal simulations have demonstrated that such structures are robust signatures of prograde, coplanar encounters in disk galaxies.^[49] In the later stages of coalescence, significant amounts of gas are funneled toward the galactic cores due to angular momentum loss from tidal torques and dynamical friction. This central concentration of gas, often reaching densities high enough to trigger intense starbursts and fuel supermassive black hole activity, shapes the merger remnant into a more spheroidal or elliptical morphology. The influx can increase the central gas reservoir by factors of 10 or more, driving rapid star formation rates exceeding 100 solar masses per year in extreme cases.^[49] The frequency of such major mergers is relatively low in the present-day universe (z ~ 0), with estimates for massive galaxies (log M_* / M_\sun >= 10.3) in low-density field environments ranging from 0.02 to 0.2 per gigayear, or approximately once every 5-50 billion years per galaxy, based on observations and cosmological simulations. This rate reflects the hierarchical structure formation model, where mergers were more common at higher redshifts but contribute substantially to the assembly of massive galaxies over cosmic time.^[50]^[49]

Galaxy Harassment

Galaxy harassment describes the cumulative effects of repeated high-velocity fly-by encounters between galaxies in dense cluster environments, where galaxies orbit at speeds exceeding 1000 km/s relative to one another. These interactions, first proposed as a key driver of morphological evolution in clusters, occur frequently in regions like the Virgo cluster due to the high galactic densities, leading to gradual transformations without the need for major mergers. Unlike isolated or single-passage events, harassment involves multiple, low-mass-ratio perturbations that reshape galaxy structures over extended periods.^[51] A primary outcome of galaxy harassment is the transformation of spiral galaxies into lenticular (S0) galaxies, characterized by the loss of prominent spiral arms and disks while retaining a disk component. In simulations of cluster environments, such as those modeling infalling spirals in Virgo-like clusters, repeated fly-bys truncate the stellar disk and thicken it vertically, mimicking the morphology of observed S0s in dense regions. This process is particularly effective for low-mass spirals entering the cluster core, where encounter rates can reach several per gigayear.^[52] Cumulative gas stripping during these encounters progressively removes the interstellar medium from the galactic disk, as tidal forces and impulsive shocks eject loosely bound gas over successive passes. This depletion quenches star formation, transitioning galaxies from active spirals to passively evolving S0s, with simulations showing up to 90% gas loss in vulnerable systems after multiple interactions. The resulting reduction in fuel for new stars aligns with observations of diminished star formation rates in cluster spirals compared to field galaxies.^[52] Harassment also heats stellar orbits in the galaxy cores through repeated tidal perturbations, a process that scatters stars outward and creates power-law density profiles with cuspy centers, similar to those observed in dwarf early-type galaxies in clusters. This dynamical heating, combined with dynamical friction in repeated orbits, erodes central densities and contributes to the overall structural evolution. The mechanism operates effectively over timescales of about 3 × 10^9 years, affecting a significant fraction of cluster galaxies, particularly those on radial orbits penetrating the core.^[52]

Notable Examples

Andromeda–Milky Way Collision

The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) and the Milky Way are currently separated by approximately 2.5 million light-years, with Andromeda approaching the Milky Way at a radial velocity of about 110 km/s.^[53]^[54] This motion places the two galaxies on a collision course, with the first close passage expected in roughly 4.5 billion years, based on refined measurements of Andromeda's proper motions.^[55] These orbital parameters stem from observations indicating a nearly radial trajectory, though uncertainties in tangential velocities introduce some variability in the exact path.^[56] Simulations of the interaction, using N-body and hydrodynamic models, predict that the merger will ultimately form a single elliptical galaxy often dubbed "Milkomeda," spanning several times the current size of either parent galaxy.^[57] During the encounter, gravitational tides will disrupt satellite galaxies such as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, stripping their stars and gas into extended streams that contribute to the new galaxy's structure.^[57] The process will span billions of years, with multiple passages leading to the dissipation of gas and the quenching of star formation in the remnant.^[58] For the Solar System, models indicate a roughly 50% probability that it will be gravitationally perturbed to a more distant orbit, potentially three times farther from the galactic center than its current position of about 26,000 light-years.^[59] Despite such displacements, the vast interstellar distances ensure no direct stellar collisions, preserving the Solar System's integrity and its position within the habitable zone around the Sun, though the Sun will have evolved into a white dwarf by then, rendering Earth uninhabitable regardless.^[57]^[59] As of 2025, data from the Gaia mission and Hubble Space Telescope have refined measurements of Andromeda's proper motions and those of nearby satellites like M33, incorporating uncertainties from over a decade of observations.^[60] These updates, analyzed through Monte Carlo simulations of 22 orbital variables, suggest only a 50% chance of a merger within the next 10 billion years, challenging earlier assumptions of inevitability but confirming the galaxies' approach.^[7]^[61]

Other Prominent Cases

The Antennae Galaxies, consisting of NGC 4038 and NGC 4039, represent a classic example of an ongoing major merger between two spiral galaxies, characterized by prominent tidal tails extending from their overlapping disks. These tails, visible in optical imaging, result from the gravitational distortion during the interaction and contain streams of stars and gas pulled out from the parent galaxies. The system exhibits an intense starburst, with a star formation rate of approximately 100 M⊙/yr, driven by the compression of interstellar medium in the overlap region. First identified as interacting in the mid-20th century, the Antennae have been extensively studied since the 1940s using multi-wavelength observations, providing key insights into merger dynamics and cluster formation. Recent James Webb Space Telescope observations as of 2023 have revealed detailed infrared views of dust-obscured star formation in the system.^[62] The Mice Galaxies, NGC 4676A and NGC 4676B, showcase a grazing collision between two spiral galaxies, producing exceptionally long tidal tails that give the pair its nickname due to their resemblance to rodent tails. These tails, spanning over 100,000 light-years, are populated by young star clusters formed from tidally stripped material. A notable feature is the tidal bridge connecting the two galaxies, a dense stream of gas and stars facilitating material exchange and serving as a prime example of bridge formation in non-head-on encounters. Observations reveal enhanced star formation along the bridge and tails, highlighting how such interactions redistribute resources across the system.^[63]^[64] The Cartwheel Galaxy exemplifies a ring galaxy formed by a near head-on intrusion of a smaller companion into a larger disk galaxy approximately 200 million years ago, resulting in a distinctive expanding ring structure. The inner hub represents the galactic core, while the prominent outer ring marks the wavefront where the intruder's passage compressed gas, propagating radially outward as shockwaves. These radial shockwaves have triggered widespread star formation, producing billions of young, blue stars along the ring and spokes, with ultraviolet and X-ray emissions revealing active regions of massive star birth. The system's unique morphology makes it a benchmark for understanding collisional ring formation and density wave propagation. James Webb Space Telescope imaging as of 2022 has provided new details on the galaxy's stellar populations and dust lanes.^[65]^[66]^[67] Arp 271, comprising the interacting spiral galaxies NGC 5426 and NGC 5427, displays overlapping spiral arms distorted by their mutual gravitational pull, creating a visually striking pair at approximately 120 million light-years away. The interaction has led to tidal distortions without full merger yet, with arms bridging the galaxies and showing signs of enhanced star formation in the perturbed regions. Recent ALMA observations have mapped the molecular gas distribution, revealing CO emission tracing dense clouds in the overlapping areas and spirals, which indicate ongoing gas inflows fueling future activity. These maps provide detailed views of the interstellar medium's response to the interaction, emphasizing Arp 271's role in studying early-stage encounters.^[68]^[69]

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[PDF] arXiv:0910.5718v2 [astro-ph.CO] 30 Oct 2009
Oct 30, 2009 · By definition, systems with 1/10 < M1/M2 ≤ 1/4 and 1/4 < M1/M2 ≤ 1 are classified, respectively, as minor and major mergers.
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[PDF] Galaxy Harassment and the Evolution of Clusters of Galaxies - arXiv
To distinguish this from other collisional effects such as galaxy mergers and galaxy cannibalism, we refer to these frequent encounters as “galaxy harassment”.
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[PDF] Encounters between spherical galaxies II: systems with dark halo
Jun 1, 2005 · The model numbers reflect the mass ratio and the type of orbit is indicated by a letter, with h for head-on, o for off set and g for grazing ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0305512v2 18 Jun 2003 Interactions and Mergers of ...
from major to minor mergers — and it has been proposed that this param- eter ...
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[0904.4263] The H alpha Galaxy Survey. VIII. Close companions ...
Apr 27, 2009 · The fraction of truly interacting or merging galaxies is very small in the local Universe, at around 2%, and possibly 4% of bright galaxies.Missing: signs | Show results with:signs
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[PDF] Merger fraction in galaxy groups and clusters at z < 0.2 - arXiv
Aug 29, 2025 · Applying this method to a sample of 33,320 galaxies at 0.075 ≤ z < 0.2 taken by the HSC, we identify 12,666 mergers, corresponding to a merger ...
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A general treatment for the tidal field from the wake of dynamical ...
δ a = − 2 G m δ x r 3 . δ a tide = − 2 G m δ x r 3 − − 2 G m δ x ( r − δ y ) 3 ∝ r − 4 . We use δatide in order to denote the contribution of the pair to the ...
[20]
Lindblad Zones: resonant eccentric orbits to aid bar and spiral ...
Eccentric resonance orbits require a strong perturbation to excite them, and may be produced mostly in galaxy interactions or by strong internal disturbances.
[21]
An analytic model of angular momentum transport by gravitational ...
Abstract. We present analytic calculations of angular momentum transport and gas inflow in galaxies, from scales of ∼ kpc to deep inside the potential of a.
[22]
https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/450/2/2217/986086
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https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/415/2/1027/1033432
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https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1943ApJ....97..255C/abstract
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Statistical mechanics of violent relaxation in stellar systems - arXiv
Dec 9, 2002 · Abstract: We discuss the statistical mechanics of violent relaxation in stellar systems following the pioneering work of Lynden-Bell (1967).
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[0707.2960] Dynamical Friction and Galaxy Merging Timescales
Jul 20, 2007 · In this paper, we study the merging timescales of extended dark matter halos using N-body simulations. We compare these results to standard estimates.Missing: Milky Way
[27]
Dark matter halos in galaxy mergers - NASA ADS
In this paper, we investigated the influence of dark matter in galactic halos on the dynamics of galaxies in merger events, using N-body simulations.
[28]
https://arxiv.org/abs/0707.2960
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Multi-epoch machine learning 2: identifying physical drivers of ...
IllustrisTNG effect (Simba effect) gives information about how the value of the parameter changes the feedback models within IllustrisTNG (Simba). For more ...
[30]
[PDF] Statistics of optical warps in spiral disks - arXiv
The simulations of non warped galaxies give an amount of false warps of ≈. 15%, while simulations of warped galaxies suggest that no more than 20% of the warps ...
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Formation of polar ring galaxies - Astronomy & Astrophysics
Polar ring galaxies form via major galaxy mergers or tidal accretion of gas from a donor galaxy. The accretion scenario is the most likely.Missing: transformations boxy
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Bureau & Freeman, Boxy/Peanut-Shaped Bulges - IOP Science
Nevertheless, it seems clear that at least 20-30% of edge-on spirals possess a boxy/peanut-shaped (hereafter B/PS) bulge (see Jarvis 1986; Shaw 1987; de Souza & ...
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Bars and spirals in tidal interactions with an ensemble of galaxy ...
Bar formation is, however, accelerated/induced in four out of five of our models. We close by briefly comparing the morphology of our models to real galaxies, ...
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2D velocity fields of simulated interacting disc galaxies
We investigate distortions in the velocity fields of disc galaxies and their use in revealing the dynamical state of interacting galaxies at.Missing: disruptions | Show results with:disruptions
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STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF ELLIPTICAL ... - IOP Science
We suggest that extra light ellipticals got their low Sérsic indices by forming in relatively few binary mergers, whereas giant ellipticals have n > 4 because ...
[36]
[0909.1812] Star formation and structure formation in galaxy collisions
Sep 9, 2009 · This review is an extended version of the proceedings of the "Galaxy Wars: Stellar Populations and Star Formation in Interacting Galaxies" ...
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star formation triggering in interactions - from mergers to starbursts
The triggering of star formation in merger largely results from tidal inflows driven by the interaction, which fuels a relatively concentrated or nuclear ...
[38]
[2410.06356] Galaxy evolution in the post-merger regime I - arXiv
Oct 8, 2024 · Galaxy mergers can enhance star formation rates throughout the merger sequence, with this effect peaking around the time of coalescence.
[39]
[0910.2554] Interaction-Triggered Star Formation in Distant Galaxies ...
Oct 14, 2009 · These results provide insights to the importance of mergers in the mass assembly history of galaxies and in the evolution of galaxy properties.
[40]
None
Summary of each segment:
[41]
THE EATING HABITS OF MILKY WAY-MASS HALOS - IOP Science
... WAY-MASS HALOS: DESTROYED DWARF SATELLITES AND THE METALLICITY DISTRIBUTION OF ACCRETED STARS ... fraction of accreted stellar mass from destroyed dwarfs ...
[42]
The tidal stripping of satellites - Oxford Academic
The tidal stripping of satellite stars as a function of the stellar orbits. Each panel shows a different time output as the satellite orbits around the host ...Introduction · An Analytic Calculation of the... · Comparison with Numerical...Missing: survival | Show results with:survival
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Tracing Out the Northern Tidal Stream of the Sagittarius Dwarf ...
The main aim of this paper is to report two new detections of tidal debris in the northern stream of the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy located at 45° and 55° from ...
[44]
[PDF] Mergers of galaxies - arXiv
Jun 10, 2025 · The fraction of merging galaxies increases with redshift, potentially out to z ∼ 6. The principal impact of merging is to transform the ...
[45]
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/0004-637X/821/1/5
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Galaxy harassment and the evolution of clusters of galaxies - Nature
Feb 15, 1996 · Here we propose that multiple highspeed encounters between galaxies—'galaxy harassment'— drives the morphological evolution in clusters ...
[47]
Morphological Transformation from Galaxy Harassment - IOPscience
Galaxy morphologies in clusters have undergone a remarkable transition over the past several billion yr. Distant clusters at z ~ 0.4 are filled with small ...
[48]
Hubble Science Timeline: Full Text
The Andromeda galaxy is currently 2.5 million light-years away but is falling toward the Milky Way under the mutual pull of gravity between the two galaxies. ...Missing: parameters separation velocity<|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Line-of-sight mass estimator and the masses of the Milky Way ... - arXiv
Correction of the observed velocity of M 31 for the solar motion in the Galaxy gives the approach velocity equal to −109 km s−1. ... Andromeda Galaxy with V = − ...
[50]
Gaia clocks new speeds for Milky Way-Andromeda collision - ESA
Feb 7, 2019 · This will take place not in 3.9 billion years' time, but in 4.5 billion – some 600 million years later than anticipated. Hubble view of ...Missing: separation | Show results with:separation
[51]
[2012.09204] The proper motion of Andromeda from Gaia eDR3
Dec 16, 2020 · Abstract:We present an analysis of the proper motion of the Andromeda galaxy ... velocity of V_trans = 82.4 +/- 31.2 km/s. These values are ...Missing: approach | Show results with:approach
[52]
collision between the Milky Way and Andromeda - Oxford Academic
We use an N-body/hydrodynamic simulation to forecast the future encounter between the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxies.
[53]
The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda
Aug 6, 2025 · We use a N--body/hydrodynamic simulation to forecast the future encounter between the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxies, given current ...
[54]
What will happen to the solar system when the Milky Way and ...
Feb 10, 2025 · Modeling suggests a 50% probability of the solar system being displaced three times its current distance from the galactic core, and a 12% ...
[55]
Apocalypse When? Hubble Casts Doubt on Certainty of Galactic ...
May 30, 2025 · They found that there is approximately a 50-50 chance of the two galaxies colliding within the next 10 billion years.
[56]
No certainty of a Milky Way–Andromeda collision | Nature Astronomy
Jun 2, 2025 · It is clear that a MW-M31 merger is highly unlikely without dynamical friction. In fact, the finite merger rate without dynamical friction ...
[57]
Hubble and Gaia revisit fate of our galaxy - European Space Agency
Jun 2, 2025 · ... Milky Way galaxy will collide with the Andromeda galaxy in about 4.5 billion years. The astronomers found that, based on the latest ...
[58]
Chandra observations of the Mice - Oxford Academic
It consists of two distinct spiral galaxies (the edge-on NGC 4676A to the north, and the more face-on NGC 4676B to the south) with long tidal tails, and the ...
[59]
The Mice/NGC 4676 (ACS Full Field Image) - ESA/Hubble
In one galaxy a bright blue patch is resolved into a vigorous cascade of clusters and associations of young, hot blue stars, whose formation has been triggered ...
[60]
WFPC2 Imaging of the Cartwheel Ring Galaxy - STScI
... ring galaxies are formed from a head-on collision between a small intruder galaxy and a larger disk system. The ring forms as gas and stars are crowded into ...
[61]
[PDF] Star Formation and U/HLXs in the Cartwheel Galaxy
The wave of new star formation from the head-on collision has produced the ring- like structure seen in the optical image in Figure 1. In Figures 2-6, the ...
[62]
CO Multi-line Imaging of Nearby Galaxies (COMING). IV. Overview ...
The velocity of molecular gas qualitatively changes at the spiral arm in accordance with density wave theory, and the estimated elliptical motion can explain ...
[63]
A Galactic Ballet | ESO
May 18, 2020 · This image shows a pair of interacting galaxies known as Arp 271. Individually, these galaxies are named NGC 5426 and NGC 5427; both are spirals, and both are ...