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Intercostal nerves

The intercostal nerves are the ventral rami of the thoracic spinal nerves from T1 to T11 that provide mixed motor and sensory innervation to the chest wall, intercostal muscles, parietal pleura, and overlying skin, while the T12 nerve is designated as the subcostal nerve.^[1] These nerves originate from the anterior divisions of the spinal nerves at their respective vertebral levels and enter the intercostal spaces via the costal groove on the inferior aspect of each rib, traveling alongside the intercostal artery and vein in a neurovascular bundle protected by the internal intercostal muscle.^[1] Functionally, they facilitate respiration by innervating the intercostal muscles (external, internal, and innermost), which elevate and depress the ribs during breathing, and supply sensory feedback from the thoracic and upper abdominal dermatomes.^[2] Structurally, the intercostal nerves are classified into typical (T3–T6), atypical (T1–T2 and T7–T11), and the subcostal nerve, with typical nerves remaining confined to their intercostal spaces to innervate local muscles and skin, while atypical ones extend further—T1 contributing to the brachial plexus, T2–T6 providing lateral and anterior cutaneous branches to the trunk, and T7–T11 (thoracoabdominal nerves) piercing the abdominal muscles to supply the anterolateral abdominal wall.^[1] Each nerve gives off key branches, including gray and white rami communicantes for autonomic connections, muscular branches to the intercostals and subcostal muscles, collateral branches for the lower intercostal space, and cutaneous branches (lateral near the midaxillary line and anterior near the sternum) that distribute sensory fibers to the skin of the thorax and upper abdomen, including specialized areas like the nipple-areolar complex.^[2] Blood supply to these nerves derives from the posterior intercostal arteries (branches of the costocervical trunk via the supreme intercostal artery for the upper spaces and from the thoracic aorta for the lower spaces) and anterior intercostal arteries (from the internal thoracic or musculophrenic arteries), with veins draining correspondingly.^[1]^[3] Clinically, the intercostal nerves are significant in procedures such as intercostal nerve blocks for managing thoracic and abdominal pain from conditions like rib fractures, post-surgical thoracotomy, or herpes zoster neuralgia, where blockade can alleviate symptoms but risks complications like pneumothorax or hypotension.^[2] They also play a role in reconstructive surgery, such as neurotization for brachial plexus injuries, where multiple intercostal nerves (e.g., T3–T5) are transferred to restore elbow flexion, shoulder abduction, or upper limb sensation, leveraging their high motor fiber content (approximately 40%) and potential for central adaptation to achieve voluntary control.^[4] Damage to these nerves during chest tube insertion or thoracic surgery can lead to intercostal neuralgia, characterized by sharp, burning pain along the affected dermatome, often requiring pharmacological intervention or targeted blocks.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Origin

The intercostal nerves are mixed peripheral nerves of the somatic nervous system that provide sensory innervation to the skin and parietal pleura of the thoracic wall, motor innervation to the intercostal muscles, and autonomic (sympathetic) modulation to associated structures. They arise from the anterior (ventral) rami of the thoracic spinal nerves T1 through T11, coursing within the intercostal spaces between adjacent ribs to supply the lateral and anterior thoracic regions. The T12 anterior ramus, known as the subcostal nerve, follows a similar path but below the 12th rib and is not classified as a true intercostal nerve.^[1] In terms of spinal levels, the T1 anterior ramus primarily contributes to the brachial plexus, providing limited intercostal innervation only to the first intercostal space, whereas T2 through T11 form the classic intercostal nerves with segmentally organized distributions. The subcostal nerve (T12) extends to the abdominal wall, innervating the lower intercostal and abdominal muscles. This segmental arrangement reflects the metameric organization of the thoracic spine.^[1] Embryologically, the intercostal nerves originate from the ventral rami of thoracic spinal nerves during the differentiation of somites into sclerotome, myotome, and dermatome components, a process that occurs between weeks 4 and 8 of human gestation. In early development, akin to observations in mouse embryos at embryonic days 13–15 (equivalent to human weeks 5–8), these nerves initially exhibit bifurcated ventral branches that later consolidate into the mature single-branch morphology, ensuring patterned innervation of the body wall.^[5] The composition of each intercostal nerve includes sensory (afferent) fibers with cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion, which transmit somatic and visceral sensations via the dorsal root; motor (efferent) fibers arising from alpha and gamma motor neurons in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, innervating skeletal muscles; and preganglionic sympathetic autonomic fibers from the intermediolateral cell column (T1–L2 levels), which exit via the ventral root and connect to the sympathetic chain through white rami communicantes for postganglionic distribution. This mixed fiber profile enables the nerves' multifunctional role in thoracic innervation.^[6]^[1]

General Course and Relations

The intercostal nerves, arising from the anterior rami of the thoracic spinal nerves T1 through T11, emerge from the intervertebral foramina and immediately enter the corresponding intercostal spaces, traveling anteriorly within the paravertebral gutter before crossing the endothoracic fascia and the posterior intercostal membrane to lie external to the parietal pleura.^[1] These nerves then proceed laterally and inferiorly along the inferior border of each rib, entering the costal groove where they are protected by the overhanging edge of the rib above, running between the innermost intercostal muscle inferiorly and the internal intercostal muscle superiorly.^[7] In this neurovascular bundle, the intercostal nerve occupies the inferior position relative to the intercostal vein (superior) and artery (middle), following the mnemonic "VAN" from superior to inferior.^[1] As the nerves advance anteriorly within the costal groove, they traverse the layers of the thoracic wall, passing through the internal intercostal muscle and the external intercostal muscle (or its aponeurosis anteriorly), before emerging near the anterior chest wall.^[7] Near the mid-axillary line, each typical intercostal nerve (primarily T2 through T6) divides into a continuing main trunk and a lateral cutaneous branch, with the latter piercing the intercostal muscles to supply the lateral thoracic skin.^[2] The main trunk then continues as the anterior division, which will give rise to the anterior cutaneous branch near the sternum.^[2] While the course is generally uniform for most intercostal nerves, variations occur at the extremes: the first intercostal nerve (T1) takes a more superior trajectory, with its larger superior ramus contributing to the brachial plexus rather than fully following the intercostal path, and lacking typical lateral cutaneous branches.^[1] In contrast, the twelfth thoracic nerve (T12), known as the subcostal nerve, does not travel in a costal groove but courses inferior to the twelfth rib, entering the abdominal wall posterior to the lateral arcuate ligament.^[7] These differences highlight adaptations for upper limb and abdominal innervation, respectively, while preserving the core intercostal template for T2 through T11.^[1]

Specific Intercostal Nerves

First Thoracic Nerve

The first thoracic nerve (T1) arises from the anterior ramus of the first thoracic spinal nerve and exhibits a partial intercostal role, as its primary contribution integrates into the brachial plexus formed by the anterior rami of C5 through T1, while a smaller branch functions as the first intercostal nerve to supply the first intercostal space.^[1]^[8]^[9] The smaller intercostal branch enters the first intercostal space and runs anteriorly within the costal groove inferior to the first rib, often piercing the serratus anterior muscle; it notably lacks a typical lateral cutaneous branch and typically does not give an anterior cutaneous branch.^[1]^[9]^[8] This atypical course distinguishes it from the more standardized path of subsequent thoracic nerves, which descend inferior to their respective ribs. In terms of innervation, the portion of T1 contributing to the brachial plexus provides sensory fibers to the upper limb and medial arm, while its motor components, via the lower trunk of the brachial plexus, supply the intrinsic hand muscles through the ulnar nerve.^[1]^[9]^[8] This dual role in arm innervation renders T1 less purely intercostal compared to T2 through T11, with clinical implications such as potential involvement in upper limb neuropathies or referred pain from thoracic procedures.^[1]

Upper Thoracic Nerves (2nd–6th)

The upper thoracic intercostal nerves, designated as T2 through T6, represent the typical intercostal nerves that adhere closely to the standard anatomical pattern observed in the thoracic region. These nerves originate from the anterior rami of the respective thoracic spinal nerves and emerge from the intervertebral foramina to enter the corresponding intercostal spaces, positioned between the parietal pleura inferiorly and the posterior intercostal membrane superiorly.^[1] Once in the intercostal space, each nerve courses anteriorly within the subcostal groove of the rib, accompanied by the intercostal vein and artery superiorly in the order of vein, artery, nerve from superior to inferior, and lies between the innermost and internal intercostal muscles.^[9] This configuration allows the nerves to maintain a consistent trajectory through the second to sixth intercostal spaces, providing both motor and sensory innervation to the thoracic wall structures.^[10] The anterior rami of T2–T6 nerves divide into several branches shortly after exiting the spinal column, with the lateral and anterior cutaneous branches serving as the primary terminal divisions responsible for cutaneous innervation. The lateral cutaneous branch arises near the posterior axillary line and pierces the intercostal muscles at the mid-axillary line, subsequently dividing into anterior and posterior branches that supply sensory innervation to the skin of the lateral thoracic wall.^[1] In contrast, the anterior cutaneous branch continues anteriorly as the terminal branch, emerging near the sternum after perforating the internal intercostal muscle and, in some cases, the pectoralis major muscle; it then bifurcates into medial and lateral branches to innervate the skin of the anterior thoracic wall.^[9] Additional branches include muscular twigs that supply the intercostal muscles, levatores costarum, and serratus posterior superior, as well as a collateral branch that parallels the main nerve to innervate the parietal pleura and periosteum of the ribs.^[10] A notable variation occurs with the T2 nerve, where its lateral cutaneous branch forms the intercostobrachial nerve, which extends beyond the typical thoracic distribution to provide sensory innervation to the skin of the upper chest, axilla, and medial aspect of the upper arm, occasionally communicating with the medial brachial cutaneous nerve.^[1] This extension distinguishes T2 from the more uniform pattern of T3–T6, which lack such extracostal branches and instead focus innervation on the intercostal muscles, parietal pleura, and overlying thoracic skin without significant deviations.^[9] The T3–T6 nerves thus exhibit minimal anatomical variability, maintaining a straightforward course that supports their role in segmental thoracic wall innervation.^[10] In terms of spatial relations, the T2–T6 nerves occupy the second through sixth intercostal spaces, with their dermal supply progressively covering the lateral and anterior aspects of the chest wall in a dermatomal fashion, corresponding to increasingly caudal segments of the thoracic skin.^[1] This arrangement ensures comprehensive sensory coverage of the upper thoracic dermatomes, with the lateral cutaneous branches contributing to the lateral chest wall sensation and the anterior branches to the parasternal region, facilitating precise localization of thoracic sensations.^[9]

Lower Thoracic Nerves (7th–11th)

The lower thoracic nerves, specifically the 7th through 11th intercostal nerves (T7–T11), arise from the anterior rami of the corresponding thoracic spinal nerves and play a transitional role in innervating both the lower thoracic wall and the upper abdominal wall. These nerves emerge from the intervertebral foramina at levels T6/T7 to T10/T11 and course anterolaterally within their respective intercostal spaces, running in the costal groove along the inferior border of the ribs alongside the intercostal vessels (in the order of vein, artery, nerve from superior to inferior). Unlike the more superior intercostal nerves, the T7–T11 segments have shorter intercostal portions due to their early divergence toward the abdominal region, with their anterior divisions becoming notably larger to accommodate innervation of the abdominal musculature.^[1]^[9] As these nerves proceed, their anterior divisions pass below the costal margin and continue as thoracoabdominal nerves, penetrating the abdominal wall to supply the external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis muscles with motor innervation, as well as the overlying skin and parietal peritoneum with sensory fibers. The lateral cutaneous branches emerge approximately at the mid-axillary line, providing sensory innervation to the skin over the lower ribs (for T7–T8) and the anterolateral upper abdomen (for T9–T11). The anterior cutaneous branches, meanwhile, travel medially, piercing the posterior rectus sheath and emerging through the anterior rectus sheath near the midline to supply the skin of the anterior abdominal wall, with T7 near the xiphoid process, T10 at the level of the umbilicus, and T11 to the lower abdomen.^[11]^[1] In terms of anatomical relations, the T7–T11 nerves traverse the lower intercostal spaces, lying deep to the internal intercostal muscle and superficial to the innermost intercostal muscle and endothoracic fascia, in close proximity to the diaphragmatic attachments along the lower ribs. They cross the subcostal plane (at the level of the 10th costal cartilage, approximately L2 vertebral level) as they transition into the abdominal wall, running in the neurovascular plane between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles before reaching the linea semilunaris. This positioning facilitates their role in bridging thoracic and abdominal innervation, with the thoracoabdominal extensions of T7–T11 differing from the more purely subcostal path of the T12 nerve by maintaining a partial intercostal trajectory before abdominal entry.^[11]^[9]

Subcostal Nerve (12th Thoracic Nerve)

The subcostal nerve, arising as the anterior ramus of the twelfth thoracic spinal nerve (T12), differs from the typical intercostal nerves in its trajectory, coursing along the inferior border of the twelfth rib in a subcostal position rather than within an intercostal groove.^[12] Emerging from the T12 intervertebral foramen, it travels as part of a neurovascular bundle with the subcostal artery and vein, passing posterior to the lateral arcuate ligament and anterior to the origin of the quadratus lumborum muscle before descending into the abdominal wall.^[13] This path positions it deep to the costal origin of the quadratus lumborum initially, then within the neurovascular plane between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles after perforating the transversus abdominis aponeurosis.^[11] The subcostal nerve features a prominent anterior division that primarily supplies motor innervation to key abdominal wall muscles, including the transversus abdominis, quadratus lumborum, internal oblique, external oblique, rectus abdominis, and pyramidalis. It also gives rise to a lateral cutaneous branch that emerges near the iliac crest, typically at the mid-axillary line or approximately 5 cm posterior to the anterior superior iliac spine, after which it pierces the internal and external oblique muscles to reach the skin. The subcostal nerve also gives rise to an anterior cutaneous branch that pierces the rectus abdominis to supply the skin of the suprapubic region.^[11] Additionally, the nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin overlying the buttock (anterior gluteal region) and lateral thigh, extending toward the greater trochanter, while communicating with the iliohypogastric nerve (from L1) to facilitate shared sensory and motor contributions in the lower abdominal and pelvic regions.^[14]^[12] Anatomical variations in the subcostal nerve include its occasional contribution to the formation of the lumbar plexus through connections with L1 roots, as well as cases where the lateral cutaneous branch may be absent or reduced in some individuals, potentially altering sensory distribution in the gluteal and thigh areas.^[15]^[16]

Branches and Distribution

Lateral Cutaneous Branches

The lateral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves originate from the anterior rami of the thoracic spinal nerves (T2–T12), typically emerging near the midaxillary line as the intercostal nerve travels within the costal groove.^[1] These branches are absent in the first intercostal nerve (T1), which primarily contributes to the brachial plexus without typical cutaneous divisions.^[1] In the second intercostal nerve (T2), the lateral cutaneous branch is notably enlarged and known as the intercostobrachial nerve, which extends to innervate the skin of the axilla and medial upper arm.^[1] For T3–T11, the branches arise consistently from the main intercostal trunk, while the subcostal nerve (T12) may give rise to a lateral cutaneous branch in some individuals, though this is variable and often absent.^[1]^[17] From their origin, these branches course laterally through the intercostal space, piercing the internal and external intercostal muscles before passing through the serratus anterior muscle to reach the subcutaneous tissue of the lateral thoracic and abdominal walls.^[1] This path positions them approximately at the midaxillary line, where they divide into anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal) divisions shortly after emerging from the deep musculature.^[1] The anterior division proceeds forward to supply the skin over the anterolateral aspect of the chest or abdomen, while the posterior division travels backward to innervate the skin along the posterolateral regions.^[1] These divisions maintain a segmental arrangement, with each branch corresponding to the dermatome level of its originating rib, facilitating precise sensory mapping of the lateral body wall.^[17] In terms of distribution, the lateral cutaneous branches of T2–T6 primarily supply the skin of the axilla, lateral chest wall, and lateral aspects of the breast, providing sensory innervation that aligns with the upper thoracic dermatomes.^[1] For T7–T11, these branches extend to the lateral abdominal wall, covering the skin from the lower costal margin to the iliac crest and contributing to the thoracoabdominal dermatomes.^[1] The T12 branch, when present, targets the superolateral gluteal region or upper lateral abdomen, though its variability can lead to overlapping innervation from adjacent nerves.^[1] Overall, these branches ensure comprehensive sensory coverage of the lateral trunk, distinct from the anterior cutaneous branches that handle medial and ventral regions.^[1]

Anterior Cutaneous Branches

The anterior cutaneous branches arise as terminal divisions from the anterior rami of the thoracic spinal nerves (T2–T12), forming smaller medial components of the intercostal nerves that course forward through the intercostal spaces alongside the intercostal vessels.^[1] These branches travel medially within the costal groove, passing deep to the internal intercostal muscle and between the internal intercostal muscle and the innermost intercostal muscle before continuing their trajectory.^[18] In the upper thoracic levels (T2–T6), the anterior cutaneous branches pierce the internal and external intercostal muscles, then perforate the pectoralis major muscle near the sternum (parasternal region) to emerge and supply the skin of the anterior chest wall.^[1] For the lower levels (T7–T11), known as thoracoabdominal nerves, and the subcostal nerve (T12), these branches descend anteroinferiorly between the transversus abdominis and internal oblique muscles, piercing the posterior rectus sheath and linea semilunaris to exit at the costal margin and innervate the anterior abdominal wall skin.^[11] Each branch typically divides into lateral and medial perforating filaments upon emergence, providing sensory innervation to the overlying dermis and subcutaneous tissues.^[1] The distribution of these branches is segmental: T2–T6 supply the parasternal and anterior chest skin up to the level of the xiphoid process, while T7–T12 extend to the abdominal wall, with T10 reaching the umbilical region and T12 providing sensation to the suprapubic skin.^[11] This pattern ensures comprehensive dermatomal coverage of the anterior trunk without overlap from lateral cutaneous contributions.^[18]

Collateral and Muscular Branches

The collateral branches of the intercostal nerves arise from the ventral rami of the thoracic spinal nerves T3 through T11 shortly after their formation, typically near the angles of the ribs. These branches run parallel and inferior to the main intercostal nerve, coursing along the superior border of the rib below within the intercostal space, and they anastomose with the collateral branches of the adjacent intercostal nerves both superiorly and inferiorly.^[1]^[7] These collateral branches primarily provide motor innervation to the intercostal muscles in the inferior portion of the space, including the internal and innermost intercostal muscles, as well as sensory supply to the parietal pleura and periosteum of the rib.^[1] In the typical intercostal nerves (T3 through T6), the collateral branches follow a consistent path deep to the main nerve, contributing to the stabilization of the thoracic wall by innervating these musculature layers.^[7] Separate from the collateral branches, the main intercostal nerves emit multiple muscular branches that directly supply the thoracic wall musculature, including the external intercostal, internal intercostal, innermost intercostal, subcostal, transversus thoracis, and serratus posterior superior muscles.^[7] For the lower thoracic nerves (T7 through T11), these muscular branches extend beyond the thoracic cage into the abdominal wall, innervating the internal oblique, external oblique, and transversus abdominis muscles, while the subcostal nerve (T12) similarly supplies abdominal obliques and other anterolateral abdominal muscles.^[1] The first intercostal nerve (T1) provides limited muscular innervation to the first intercostal space, as the majority of its fibers contribute to the brachial plexus.^[1] Additionally, each intercostal nerve connects to the sympathetic trunk through gray and white rami communicantes, which transmit postganglionic sympathetic fibers (via gray rami) for vasomotor and sudomotor control to the blood vessels and sweat glands in the intercostal muscles and thoracic wall, while white rami carry preganglionic fibers from the spinal cord levels T1 to L2.^[1]

Functions and Innervation

Sensory Functions

The intercostal nerves provide somatic sensory innervation to the skin of the thoracic and upper abdominal walls through their lateral and anterior cutaneous branches, conveying sensations of touch, pain, and temperature via dermatomes corresponding to spinal levels T2 through T12.^[1] These dermatomes form horizontal bands around the trunk, with T2 to T6 aligning nearly horizontally over the chest, while T7 to T12 descend slightly to cover the abdomen; notably, the T10 dermatome reaches the level of the umbilicus, and T12 extends to the suprapubic region.^[11] There is segmental overlap in these dermatomes, such as with cervical levels C3 to T2 in the upper thorax and lumbar level L1 near the lower abdomen, ensuring continuous sensory coverage without distinct gaps.^[9] In addition to somatic functions, the intercostal nerves carry visceral sensory afferents from structures like the parietal pleura and peritoneum, primarily through collateral branches and sympathetic fibers that join the nerves.^[1] For instance, levels T2 to T6 innervate the parietal pleura, while T7 to T11 supply the parietal peritoneum; these pathways transmit pain and other sensations from thoracic and abdominal cavities.^[9] Sympathetic visceral afferents from the foregut, including the stomach and upper gastrointestinal tract, travel via fibers from spinal levels T5 to T9, integrating sensory input for viscerosomatic reflexes.^[19] Proprioceptive feedback from the intercostal muscles is also mediated by sensory fibers within the intercostal nerves, contributing to respiratory monitoring by detecting muscle stretch and position during breathing.^[1] This sensory input helps coordinate thoracic expansion and maintains rhythmic ventilatory control.^[9]

Motor Functions

The intercostal nerves provide motor innervation to the intercostal muscles primarily through their muscular branches, which arise along the course of each nerve within the intercostal spaces. The external intercostal muscles, responsible for elevating the ribs during inspiration, and the internal intercostal muscles, which depress the ribs to aid expiration, receive segmental supply from the intercostal nerves at levels T1 through T11. However, the contribution from the first intercostal nerve (T1) is minimal, as much of its anterior ramus contributes to the brachial plexus rather than the thoracic wall musculature.^[1] The lower intercostal nerves, particularly T7 through T12, extend their motor supply to the muscles of the abdominal wall, enabling trunk flexion and rotation. Specifically, the thoracoabdominal nerves (T7–T11) innervate the external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis, and rectus abdominis muscles, while the subcostal nerve (T12) also contributes to these structures. Additionally, the subcostal nerve (T12) innervates the quadratus lumborum, supporting lateral trunk flexion and posture maintenance.^[1]^[20] In respiration, the intercostal nerves play a secondary role by coordinating the contraction of intercostal and abdominal muscles to expand and contract the rib cage, thereby altering thoracic volume to assist ventilation; the primary diaphragmatic innervation is provided by the phrenic nerve (C3–C5). This motor coordination ensures efficient inspiratory elevation of the ribs via external intercostals and expiratory depression via internal intercostals and abdominal muscles.^[1]^[21]

Clinical Significance

Intercostal Neuralgia and Pain Syndromes

Intercostal neuralgia is a neuropathic pain condition characterized by unilateral, sharp or burning pain that follows the distribution of one or more intercostal nerves, typically affecting the chest wall, ribs, or upper abdomen.^[22] This pain often manifests as a band-like sensation radiating along the affected dermatome, resulting from irritation, inflammation, or compression of the intercostal nerves.^[22] It is commonly associated with post-herpetic neuralgia following varicella-zoster virus reactivation (herpes zoster), where chronic pain persists in 10-20% of cases after the rash resolves, or with traumatic injuries such as rib fractures or surgical procedures like thoracotomy, which can lead to post-thoracotomy pain syndrome in 25-80% of patients.^[22] Common causes include mechanical compression from rib fractures or hypermobility in slipping rib syndrome (primarily involving the 8th to 10th ribs), where displaced costal cartilage impinges on the intercostal nerves, producing localized or radiating pain.^[23] Inflammatory processes, such as intercostal neuritis from infections or herniated thoracic discs (slipped discs) compressing nerve roots, can also trigger the condition, alongside idiopathic cases without identifiable etiology.^[22] Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome, a form of compression at levels T7-T11, further contributes by trapping branches of the intercostal nerves against the abdominal fascia.^[22] Symptoms typically involve sharp, stabbing, or aching pain that wraps around the chest or abdomen in a dermatomal pattern, often intensified by deep breathing, coughing, sneezing, or trunk movements.^[22] Accompanying features may include tenderness over the affected ribs, a popping or clicking sensation in cases of rib hypermobility, and occasional paresthesia or tingling, though complete sensory loss is rare.^[23]^[22] Diagnosis relies on a detailed clinical history and physical examination to identify the dermatomal pain distribution, with maneuvers like Schepelmann’s sign (pain reproduction by hooking fingers under the rib margin and lifting) aiding confirmation.^[22] It is differentiated from cardiac or pulmonary pathologies through exclusion via electrocardiography, chest imaging, or troponin levels when indicated, as the pain's neuropathic quality and lack of systemic symptoms guide the assessment.^[22] Diagnostic intercostal nerve blocks can provide both confirmatory relief and therapeutic benefit.^[22]

Surgical and Procedural Relevance

Intercostal nerve blocks are a common regional anesthesia technique used for perioperative pain management, particularly following thoracic surgeries such as thoracotomy, where local anesthetics are injected near the nerve in the costal groove via a posterior approach to provide targeted analgesia.^[2] This procedure targets the intercostal nerves from T1 to T11, blocking sensory transmission to alleviate acute postoperative pain, with studies demonstrating reduced opioid requirements and improved pain scores in the first 24 hours after thoracic surgery.^[24] The block is performed by advancing a needle superior to the rib margin to avoid the neurovascular bundle, often under ultrasound guidance to enhance precision and minimize complications like pneumothorax.^[25] In surgical contexts, intercostal nerves are vulnerable to iatrogenic injury during procedures involving the thoracic and abdominal walls, leading to chronic neuropathic pain or motor deficits.^[22] Thoracotomy frequently risks damage to these nerves due to retraction or incision through the intercostal spaces, resulting in post-thoracotomy pain syndrome in up to 50% of cases.^[26] Similarly, mastectomy and axillary lymph node dissection pose risks to the intercostobrachial branch and intercostal nerves T2–T6, with injury occurring from dissection in the axilla and contributing to persistent sensory disturbances in 20–30% of patients.^[27] Hernia repair, especially in the upper abdominal region, can compromise lower intercostal nerves through mesh placement or tissue manipulation, potentially causing abdominal wall weakness.^[28] Anatomical landmarks of the intercostal nerves guide needle placement in diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, ensuring safe access to thoracic structures. In pleural taps (thoracentesis), insertion occurs in the 6th to 8th intercostal space along the midaxillary or posterior lines, with the needle directed just superior to the rib to avoid the inferiorly located neurovascular bundle, thereby reducing risks of nerve injury or vascular puncture.^[29] For epidural access, the paravertebral positioning of intercostal nerve roots informs catheter placement in the thoracic epidural space, blocking multiple levels for intraoperative analgesia.^[30] The subcostal nerve (T12) is particularly relevant in lumbar incisions, such as lateral approaches to the spine, where its course along the abdominal wall must be preserved to prevent postoperative flank bulge or hernia from denervation of the transversus abdominis.^[31] Contemporary advancements, including ultrasound imaging, have significantly improved procedural safety by allowing real-time visualization of nerve anatomy during blocks and taps, reducing complication rates compared to landmark-based techniques.^[25]

References

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The seventh through eleventh intercostal (T7-T11) and subcostal (T12) nerves give off lateral cutaneous nerve branches approximately at the mid-axillary line.
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A communicating branch from the T12, also known as the subcostal nerve, often joins the first lumbar nerve–. The L2-L4 ventral rami first bifurcate into an ...
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The subcostal nerve is defined as a nerve that originates from the last thoracic nerve and passes into the abdomen posterior to the arcuate ligament.
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carries postganglionic sympathetic axons to the spinal nerve; spinal nerve will carry those axons peripherally to the skin, blood vessels, etc. none, gray rami ...
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May 1, 2023 · Levels commonly observed in clinical practice include the heart (T1-T5, to the left of the midline), lungs (T1-T6), foregut (T5-T9), midgut (T ...
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Innervation. Quadratus lumborum is innervated by the subcostal nerve (T12) and anterior rami of spinal nerves L1-L4.
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### Summary of Motor Functions of Intercostal Nerves
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[24]
Ultrasound-Guided Intercostal Nerve Block - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
The first, second, and seventh through eleventh intercostal nerves are considered atypical. The first intercostal nerve is derived from the anterior ramus of ...
[25]
Chronic postsurgical pain: still a neglected topic? - PMC
Aasvang and Kehlet estimated the incidence of chronic pain after some surgical procedures: thoracotomy (approximately 50%), breast surgery (30%), ...
[26]
Post-Breast Surgery Pain Syndrome: Shifting a Surgical Paradigm
Jul 22, 2021 · ... intercostal nerves T2-T6. One or more of these branches may be injured during mastectomy or other breast surgery. Another commonly injured ...
[27]
Pain, numbness after breast cancer surgery: course & predictors
Nov 22, 2021 · For example, thoracic surgery (which may damage intercostal nerves) and hernia repair (which may damage ilioinguinal nerves) are ...
[28]
Thoracentesis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oct 6, 2024 · Thoracentesis is a critical medical procedure designed to remove fluid or air from the pleural space, serving diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.Missing: avoidance | Show results with:avoidance
[29]
Regional anesthesia for thoracic surgery: a narrative review of ...
The intercostal nerves (T1-T11) provide innervation to the costal pleura and peripheral diaphragmatic pleura. The mediastinal pleura and the central parietal ...Missing: tap | Show results with:tap
[30]
The Subcostal Nerve During Lateral Approaches to the Lumbar Spine
Knowledge of the innervation and nerve dominance patterns might help decrease postoperative complications such as sensory deficits or abdominal wall hernias ...