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Ishango bone

The Ishango bone is a prehistoric artifact consisting of a dark brown baboon fibula, approximately 10 cm long, with a sharp quartz fragment embedded at one end and around 168 incisions grouped into three columns along its length, discovered in 1950 during excavations at the Ishango site on the banks of Lake Edward in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[1] Dated to between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago through radiocarbon analysis of associated mollusk shells, it represents one of the earliest known examples of systematic notching on bone, potentially indicating rudimentary mathematical or calendrical knowledge among Upper Paleolithic peoples.^[2]^[3] Unearthed by Belgian geologist and archaeologist Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt as part of broader digs that began in the late 1940s, the bone was found amid a rich assemblage of tools, human remains, and harpoon points from a fishing settlement, highlighting advanced technological adaptations in a high-altitude equatorial environment.^[1]^[4] Now preserved at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels, the artifact's incisions—such as groups of 9, 11, 19, and 21 in one column, and apparent pairings like 3-6, 4-8, and 5-10 in others—have sparked scholarly debate over their purpose.^[5]^[1] Interpretations range from a simple tally for counting or lunar phases, as proposed by independent scholar Alexander Marshack based on the bone's 60-notched central column aligning with approximately two lunar months, to evidence of base-10 arithmetic or multiplication by doubling, given patterns like 10+1, 10-1, 20+1, and 20-1.^[5]^[6] However, these remain conjectural, as no direct contextual evidence confirms intentional mathematical use, and some researchers view the markings as decorative or functional tallies without deeper symbolism. The Ishango bone's significance lies in its potential to illuminate cognitive development in early modern humans, underscoring Africa's role in prehistoric innovation.^[4]

Physical Description

Material and Dimensions

The Ishango bone is fashioned from the fibula of a baboon (Papio sp.), presenting a slightly curved form. Measuring approximately 10 cm in length, the artifact displays a dark brown coloration, indicative of its age and the natural patina developed over millennia. One end features a sharp fragment of quartz embedded in the bone, possibly intended as an engraving tool.^[7] The bone's surface bears evidence of careful preparation, having been scraped and polished to facilitate the creation of incisions, with the engravings themselves produced using a precise sharp implement, such as a stone blade. The artifact is preserved at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in Brussels, where it remains a key exhibit in their collections.^[1]

Notch Patterns and Structure

The Ishango bone exhibits three parallel columns of notches extending along its length, comprising 168 incisions in total. These incisions are organized into distinct groups, separated by wider gaps.^[8]^[9] The left column consists of four groups with 11, 13, 17, and 19 notches, respectively (totaling 60). The right column consists of four groups with 9, 11, 19, and 21 notches (totaling 60). The central column consists of eight groups totaling 48 notches: 3, 6, 4, 8, 10, 5, 5, and 7.^[7]^[9] The individual notches exhibit differences in angle, with some carved diagonally or obliquely, reflecting intentional variation in technique. Furthermore, certain notches show horizontal alignments across columns, suggesting structured rows in select areas.^[9]

Discovery and Context

Archaeological Site

The Ishango bone was found at the Ishango 11 archaeological site, situated at the junction of the northern shore of Lake Edward and the Semliki River in the Virunga National Park, North Kivu Province, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (then Belgian Congo).^[10] This location formed part of a Late Stone Age fisher-hunter-gatherer settlement, reflecting semi-sedentary seasonal occupations by a lakeside community reliant on fishing and hunting in a tropical savanna environment adjacent to the Western Rift Valley.^[10] Artifacts such as unbarbed bone points, interpreted as fish gorges or hooks, underscore the emphasis on aquatic resource exploitation alongside terrestrial hunting.^[10] The bone was recovered from the Principal Fossiliferous Level of the Ishango Gravels Formation, a stratum incorporating fluvial and deltaic deposits with volcanic ash admixture and abundant organic remains, including shells and faunal bones; these layers are associated with the Ishango culture and artifacts of the Early Late Stone Age, corresponding to the Upper Paleolithic in broader chronological terms.^[10] Fluctuations in Lake Edward's water levels, including post-glacial rises, have partially submerged portions of the site over time, contributing to its preservation challenges and stratigraphic complexity.^[11]

Excavation and Initial Documentation

The Ishango bone was discovered in 1950 by Belgian geologist Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt during a joint geological and archaeological expedition in the Upper Semliki Valley region of what was then the Belgian Congo, organized under the auspices of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences and the Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge.^[1]^[12] The expedition aimed to investigate the tectonic and stratigraphic features of the area, including the shores of Lake Edward (now Lake Rutanzige), while also documenting prehistoric human activity. Heinzelin led the fieldwork, which involved systematic trenching to uncover stratified deposits associated with ancient human occupation.^[13] The bone was unearthed from the Principal Fossiliferous Level (N.F.Pr.) within a shell midden deposit, indicative of a Late Stone Age fisherman's settlement. This context included abundant remains of freshwater shells, fish bones, and stone tools, suggesting intensive exploitation of lacustrine resources. Initial on-site processing involved careful cleaning to remove adhering sediments and encrustations, followed by photographic documentation to record the artifact's position and features before removal. No advanced analytical techniques were applied at this stage, prioritizing preservation of the fragile organic material.^[12]^[13] Following excavation, the bone was transported to Brussels for long-term conservation at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. The first formal published description appeared in 1957 as part of Heinzelin's comprehensive report "Les fouilles d'Ishango" in the multi-volume series Exploration du Parc National Albert: Mission J. de Heinzelin de Braucourt (1950), issued by the Institut des Parcs Nationaux du Congo Belge. In this account, Heinzelin detailed the site's stratigraphy and artifacts, interpreting the bone's grouped notches as a potential tally or counting device based on preliminary observations of their patterned arrangement. This initial documentation established the bone's archaeological significance without speculative analysis beyond its contextual associations.^[14]^[15]

Dating and Chronology

Methods of Analysis

The analysis of the Ishango bone and its associated archaeological context has relied on a range of scientific dating and imaging techniques to establish its chronology and structural details without causing damage to the artifact. Initial efforts in the mid-20th century focused on radiocarbon (C-14) dating applied to organic materials from the site, including charcoal and bone fragments, providing the first absolute age estimates for the Fishermen's Level where the bone was found.^[16] These early measurements, conducted in the 1950s and 1960s, were limited by the technology available at the time, which required larger sample sizes and offered lower precision compared to later refinements.^[17] Subsequent studies in the late 1980s refined these results using improved radiocarbon protocols on associated charcoal and bone collagen, alongside amino acid racemization analysis of bone proteins to assess degradation rates and corroborate relative ages.^[18] Amino acid racemization measures the ratio of D- to L-isomers in proteins, offering a complementary method for dating in the 10,000–50,000-year range when calibrated against known temperatures.^[17] In the 1990s, accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) enhanced radiocarbon precision by requiring minimal sample material (milligrams of collagen), allowing direct dating of small bone fragments from the site and nearby sediments while minimizing contamination risks.^[19] Non-destructive imaging techniques have enabled detailed examination of the bone's notches and structure. High-resolution computed tomography (CT) scans, performed in the 2010s using micro-CT, allowed visualization of notch depths, orientations, and internal features at micrometer resolution without physical alteration.^[20] More recently, in 2025, digital 3D modeling integrated photogrammetry and structured light scanning to analyze pattern symmetry and irregularities in the engravings, facilitating quantitative assessments of potential mathematical groupings.^[21]

Age Determinations and Debates

The initial age estimate for the Ishango bone, based on stratigraphic analysis following its discovery in 1950, placed it between 8,000 and 10,000 years before present (BP), reflecting a mid-Holocene context.^[22] This assessment was revised in the late 1950s through early radiocarbon (C-14) dating on associated mollusk shells, yielding ages of 19,540 to 24,145 BP and shifting the chronology to the Upper Pleistocene.^[2] In the 1990s, accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating on charcoal and bone from the Ishango site provided more precise results, estimating the principal fossiliferous level at approximately 22,500 ± 4,000 BP, with some layers reaching up to 25,000 BP.^[23] Subsequent studies in the 2000s, including additional radiocarbon analyses on shells, confirmed a range of 20,000 to 25,000 BP for the bone's context, aligning it with the early Late Stone Age during the Last Glacial Maximum.^[13] However, debates persist regarding potential contamination from lake sediments at the former lakeshore site, which may introduce old carbon via the hard water effect, thereby skewing radiocarbon dates toward older ages.^[13] Scholarly controversies continue over the minimum age, with some researchers advocating for at least 18,000 BP based on associated fauna and human remains exhibiting morphological traits consistent with that timeframe.^[19] Others propose an upper limit of around 30,000 BP through regional correlations with nearby sites like Katanda, emphasizing continuity in bone tool technologies across the Upper Semliki Valley.^[24] These disputes underscore the challenges of dating in lacustrine environments and the need for integrated multi-proxy approaches.

Interpretations

Mathematical Analyses

One prominent interpretation posits that the central column of the Ishango bone records the prime numbers between 10 and 20, with notches corresponding to 11, 13, 17, and 19.^[5] This hypothesis suggests an early recognition of primality, as these values align sequentially without composites in that range.^[5] The left column complements this by grouping notches into sums that evoke base-10 operations, such as 9 + 10 = 19 (matching a prime) and 21 - 10 = 11 (another prime), indicating possible arithmetic manipulation beyond simple counting. These patterns imply the bone served as a tool for exploring numerical relationships, though some researchers caution that such attributions may overstate prehistoric capabilities given the rudimentary markings.^[9] Another analysis highlights a potential doubling sequence in the right column, interpreted as a progression of multiplication by 2, akin to later Egyptian duplication methods for arithmetic.^[5] Notches here, such as pairs suggesting 3 to 6, 4 to 8, and extensions to 16 or 32 via repeated doubling (e.g., 4 × 2 = 8, 8 × 2 = 16, 16 × 2 = 32), point to an understanding of exponential growth or binary-like counting.^[25] This structure could represent a practical tally for tracking quantities through successive halvings or doublings, providing evidence of proto-multiplicative techniques over 20,000 years ago.^[5] A 2025 analysis by Jenny Baur examines 16 principal notches across the bone's columns, revealing repeating sums where the left and central columns each total 60, with subgroups pairing to 30.^[21] Dualistic pairings emerge through odd-even contrasts and prime groupings (e.g., 11 and 19 as doubled pairs), while cross-column symmetry appears when adjusting for apparent misalignments, such as swapping 11 and 21 to mirror patterns.^[21] Baur proposes this forms a reference system for calculations, potentially using movable stones to simulate operations within a sexagesimal framework, underscoring the bone's role in systematic arithmetic.^[21] Overall, the notches function as a tally system with embedded arithmetic structure, where row sums factoring 60 (e.g., primes 11 + 13 + 17 + 19 = 60) suggest a modular or divisive counting method tied to practical needs like resource allocation.^[5] This interpretation aligns the bone with early numeral systems, emphasizing addition and factorization over abstract theory.^[26]

Astronomical Theories

One prominent astronomical interpretation of the Ishango bone posits it as a rudimentary lunar calendar, with the total of approximately 168 notches corresponding to the days in six lunar months, which typically span 177 to 180 days based on the synodic month of about 29.5 days.^[4] This hypothesis suggests the notches were used to track lunar phases over half a year, potentially aiding in seasonal timing for early human activities near Lake Edward.^[6] Proponents like Alexander Marshack argued that the bone's groupings reflect observations of the moon's cycles, with the central column's markings—such as sequences that could represent half-month tallies averaging around 15 days (e.g., from groupings like 11, 13, 17, and 19)—indicating fortnightly intervals. The left column, with clusters like 9, 19, 21, and 11, has been interpreted as adjustments for intercalary days to reconcile lunar and solar discrepancies, ensuring alignment over longer periods.^[27] Marshack's microscopic analysis further linked notch depths and spacings to varying lunar illumination phases, proposing the tool as a visual record of celestial changes.^[28] In Marshack's early 1962 explorations, later detailed in his 1972 work, the markings were seen as multiples tied to moon phases, with rows totaling around 60 notches possibly denoting bimonthly lunar counts to facilitate extended tracking.^[5] For instance, pairings such as 19 and 11 summing to 30 approximate a full lunar month, suggesting practical encoding of 29-30 day cycles.^[25] Recent 2025 analysis highlights the bone's symmetrical patterns, such as dualistic pairings and cross-column sums, but critiques direct astronomical applications as speculative due to minor deviations from precise cycles (e.g., 28-day lunar approximations versus exact 29.5 days) and lack of confirmed stellar alignments.^[25] Instead, it proposes a hybrid tool blending mathematical structure with cosmological awareness, potentially serving as a mnemonic for both numeracy and sky-based narratives without exclusive calendrical intent.^[25] No evidence supports purely stellar observations, emphasizing the interpretation's tentative nature amid ongoing debates.^[29]

Other Hypotheses

One alternative interpretation posits the Ishango bone as a simple tally stick used for practical counting purposes, such as tracking days, animals, or trade items, with the grouped notches representing batches like fish catches rather than any complex system.^[4] Another hypothesis suggests the notches served symbolic or ritual functions, potentially acting as a mnemonic device for recording myths, kinship relations, or cultural narratives, with recent analysis identifying dualistic patterns in the groupings that may reflect binary oppositions akin to those in African cosmological frameworks.^[25] Skeptical perspectives argue that the markings could be random scratches resulting from everyday tool use or decorative embellishments, citing irregularities in some notches as evidence against an intentional structured system.^[25] The bone may also have functioned as a multi-purpose tool, such as an awl handle with incidental markings accumulated during use, similar to other Paleolithic artifacts like the Lebombo bone, which features comparable notches potentially for practical rather than abstract purposes.^[5]

Significance

Role in History of Mathematics

The Ishango bone, dated to approximately 20,000–25,000 years ago, represents one of the early known instances of systematic counting and numerical patterning in sub-Saharan Africa, following the even older Lebombo bone from southern Africa (~35,000 years ago).^[30] Its grouped notches suggest deliberate organization, though interpretations remain debated.^[21] While some Eurasian Paleolithic tally systems, such as those from European Aurignacian sites around 30,000–35,000 years ago, are chronologically earlier, the Ishango bone provides significant evidence of advanced symbolic notation in an African context.^[5] As such, it contributes to challenging Eurocentric narratives that attribute the origins of mathematics primarily to Eurasian civilizations, highlighting the deep roots of numeracy in prehistoric African societies.^[21] The bone has significantly influenced the historiography of mathematics, inspiring key studies on Paleolithic cognition and symbolic thought. In the 1970s, Alexander Marshack's microscopic analysis in The Roots of Civilization interpreted the notches as a potential lunar calendar, linking them to early human cognitive processes and expanding the timeline of mathematical awareness into the Upper Paleolithic era.^[31] More recently, Jenny Baur's 2025 analysis reframes the artifact as "prehistoric mathematical art," identifying structural patterns that resolve numerical irregularities into a consistent reference system, possibly for instruction or cosmic tracking, and urging interdisciplinary reevaluations of early numeracy.^[21] In education, the Ishango bone features prominently in curricula exploring African contributions to mathematics, serving as a cornerstone for teaching about indigenous numerical systems and countering underrepresentation of non-Western histories.^[32] It sparks debates among scholars and educators on whether the markings indicate basic tallying or more complex operations like addition, subtraction, base-10 structuring, or even prime number awareness around 20,000–25,000 years ago.^[5] Comparatively, it connects to later African mathematical traditions, such as organized counting methods in West African societies, underscoring a continuum of innovation from prehistoric tools to historical devices like numerical boards.^[32]

Cultural and Archaeological Impact

The Ishango site, located on the northern shore of Lake Edward in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, represents a key Late Stone Age locality in Central Africa, providing evidence of hunter-fisher-gatherer adaptations during the Last Glacial Maximum around 20,000–25,000 years ago.^[2] The site's preservation under layers of volcanic ash from nearby Mount Nyiragongo has yielded a rich assemblage of artifacts, including bone harpoons, lithic tools, and human remains, illustrating a specialized fishing economy without pottery and with diverse lithic traditions across multiple occupational layers spanning thousands of years.^[24] This context highlights early human resilience in a tropical rift valley environment and contributes to reconstructions of phenotypic diversity among Central African populations, with the site's human fossils representing the oldest such remains in the region.^[2] Archaeologically, Ishango challenges simplistic models of Paleolithic subsistence by demonstrating complex aquatic resource exploitation and cultural continuity in an area previously underrepresented in African prehistory.^[33] The Ishango bone itself, a baboon fibula modified with a quartzite tip and three columns of notches discovered in 1950 by Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt, forms part of this assemblage and exemplifies advanced bone tool technology.^[21] Its integration into the site's toolkit underscores symbolic and functional behaviors, such as tallying or measurement, amid evidence of communal activities like fishing and plant processing.^[5] The artifact's analysis has informed broader debates on Upper Paleolithic innovation, linking it to the emergence of systematic notching techniques across Africa and influencing typologies of osseous tools in equatorial contexts. Culturally, the Ishango bone has profoundly shaped narratives of prehistoric cognition and African contributions to human intellectual history, often cited as evidence of early numerical or calendrical systems comparable to Eurasian finds.^[32] Housed at the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, it serves as a centerpiece in exhibitions and educational programs emphasizing sub-Saharan Africa's role in the origins of mathematics, countering Eurocentric biases in the history of science.^[5] Its interpretations have inspired interdisciplinary research into symbolic culture, fostering recognition of indigenous African ingenuity in global academic discourse and popular media.^[21]

References

[1]
The Ishango Bone | Institute of Natural Sciences
In 1950 Jean de Heinzelin, a geologist from the Institute, led excavations on the Congolese bank of Lake Edward, near Ishango. In the ground he discovered this ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[2]
Late Stone Age human remains from Ishango (Democratic Republic ...
The bones are heavily mineralized. A series of five radiocarbon dates on N.F.Pr. mollusk shells all fall between 19,540 and 24,145 BP (de Heinzelin, 1957 ...
[3]
https://www.naturalsciences.be/file/cc73d96153bbd5448a56f19d925d05b1379c7f21/369895724a871d793f603e27d8e31fae74fdbf13/inst-202403-brochure-ishango-en-fv.pdf
[4]
[PDF] The Ishango Bone - IOCD.org
In 1935, while conducting a scientific research trip, the zoologist Hubert. Damas from Liège University,. Belgium, discovered the remains of ancient human ...
[5]
Ishango bone - Department of Mathematics
The most interesting, of a large number of tools discovered in 1960 at Ishango, is a bone tool handle called the Ishango Bone (now located on the 19th floor ...
[6]
The Ishango Bone, Possibly One of the Oldest Calendars
It may be simply a talley stick. Alexander Marschak Offsite Link , an independent scholar, argued that it represents a six-month lunar calendar.
[7]
The Ishango Bone, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Physical description The 'Ishango bone' is a slightly curved fibula of a baboon, about 10 cm long and dark brown in colour, which was discovered on the terrace ...Missing: material | Show results with:material
[8]
en-ishango-20
Discovered in 1950, the Ishango bone is the stick with notches that has been most talked about. It is a true star of African archaeology!
[9]
[PDF] DOES THE ISHANGO BONE INDICATE A KNOWLEDGE OF ... - arXiv
Dating of the bone is somehow difficult and most likely indicate an age of 20 000 years (although other indications point toward an age of. 90 000 years) ...Missing: radiocarbon | Show results with:radiocarbon
[10]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.04.003
[11]
Late Quaternary Sedimentation and Climate in the Lakes Edward ...
Lake levels began to rise around 4.5 ka BP, uniting the two lakes and creating modern Lake George some time before 3.6 ka BP. The transgression caused drowning ...
[12]
First Early Hominin from Central Africa (Ishango, Democratic ...
Twiesselmann F (1958) Exploration du Parc National Albert. Mission J. de Heinzelin de Braucourt (1950). Les ossements humains du gîte mésolithique d'Ishango.
[13]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248416300057
[14]
LES FOUILLES D'ISHANGO. By J. de Heinzelin de Braucourt. 1957 ...
LES FOUILLES D'ISHANGO. By J. de Heinzelin de Braucourt. 1957. Exploration du Parc National Albert, Mission J. de Heinzelin de Braucourt (1950). Pub. Inst. Des ...
[15]
(PDF) First Early Hominin from Central Africa (Ishango, Democratic ...
... Heinzelin J (1957) Les fouilles d'Ishango. Bruxelles: Institut des Parcs. nationaux du Congo belge. 128 p. 32. de Heinzelin J (1955) Le fosse´ tectonique ...
[16]
https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-1225
[17]
en-ishango-11
Radiocarbon dating (Carbon-14) is the best known method. It was used at ... In Ishango, both stratigraphy and laboratory methods were used for dating.
[18]
Ishango revisited: new age determinations and cultural interpretations
New evidence from Ishango implies that this adaptation may have developed in the late Pleistocene and that its technology subsequently diffused to other regions ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
The Late Stone Age human remains from Ishango (Democratic ...
Oct 26, 2025 · A revised chronology based on 26 accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dates on ostrich eggshells indicates an age range of 23,576–22,887 y ...
[20]
Middle Stone Age (MSA) in the Atlantic rainforests of Central Africa ...
Feb 1, 2025 · Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) and radiocarbon (14C) dating place the occupation phases within these sedimentary units between over ...
[21]
14. Ishango rod. The left 3D model was acquired with a µCT many ...
It allows the visualization of insects including their tiniest features, the positioning of landmarks, and the extraction of 3D coordinates for measuring linear ...
[22]
Decoding the Ishango Bone: Unveiling Prehistoric Mathematical Art
Apr 8, 2025 · The Ishango Bone, discovered in 1950 near the Semliki River in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo and dated to over 24,000 years ago, ...
[23]
ANCIENT AFRICANS KNEW ARITHMETIC; 8,000-Year Old Ishango ...
The remains of a sophisticated prehistoric civilization called the Ishango people have been unearthed here. They lie on the northern shore of Lake Edward.Missing: archaeological threatened level
[24]
Dating and Context of Three Middle Stone Age Sites with ... - jstor
Early archaeological work (4, 6) focused primarily on the lake-shore site of Ishango, with its small barbed bone and ivory points, fish and mammal bones, ...
[25]
Ishango Revisited: New Age Determinations and Cultural ... - jstor
... radiocarbon age of ... Radiocarbon dates for Harpoon Hill, Lothagam, Lowasera and East Turkana (Tab. 2) suggest an early Holocene date for the earliest bone ...
[26]
[PDF] Decoding the Ishango Bone: Unveiling Prehistoric Mathematical Art
This approximately 10-centimeter-long bone tool features a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end and is engraved with a series of notches organized into ...
[27]
(PDF) An interpretation of the Ishango rods - ResearchGate
The Ishango bone has notches that seem to form patterns. They make it the first tool showing with logic reasoning.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[28]
[PDF] The fables of Ishango, or the irresistible temptation of mathematical ...
Figure 4: Full view of the first Ishango bone, with its three columns (“left”, ... In the left column, Heinzelin sees a list of prime numbers. If this is the ...
[29]
Marking Time | Daniel Rosenberg - Cabinet Magazine
It seemed that there was no set of markings from which Marshack, applying his own schematic notational apparatus, could not extract a lunar cycle. A photograph ...Missing: Marschak | Show results with:Marschak
[30]
The Ishango artefact: the missing base 12 link - ResearchGate
J. de Heinzelin discovered a bone at Ishango, a Congolese village at the sources of the Nile. The artefact has patterned notches, making it the first tool ...
[31]
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Mar 17, 2021 · The roots of civilization; the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol, and notation. by: Marshack, Alexander. Publication date: 1971.
[32]
Mathematics and Science | African Studies Center - Boston University
“Perhaps the oldest mathematical artifact in existence, the Ishango Bone (above), was unearthed in 1950 in the then Belgian colony of the Congo (now the ...
[33]
Ishango revisited: new age determinations and cultural interpretations
The lakeshore site of Ishango in Za~re has been interpreted as an early locus of a generalized fishing adaptation or 'aquatic civilization' which spread ...