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Bone tool

A bone tool is a deliberately modified implement crafted from animal bone, typically shaped through techniques such as scraping, cutting, grinding, or percussion to create functional edges or points for use in daily activities by prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies.^[1] These artifacts, often produced alongside stone and other organic materials, served diverse purposes including piercing hides, extracting marrow or insects, weaving baskets, and possibly even musical or symbolic roles in Stone Age economies.^[1] Bone tools have a deep history in human evolution, with the earliest systematic production documented at approximately 1.5 million years ago in East Africa, where hominins shaped large mammal limb bones—primarily from elephants and hippopotamuses—using stone percussors to create elongated, pointed, or notched forms averaging over a dozen flake scars per tool.^[2] This discovery at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, part of the T69 Complex in the Frida Leakey Korongo West Gully, pushes back the timeline for intentional bone tool-making by more than a million years compared to previous finds, bridging the Oldowan and Acheulean technological traditions and highlighting advanced cognitive planning in early hominins.^[2] Evidence of bone tools appears sporadically across South and East African sites over the past two million years, revealing two regionally distinct cultural varieties that reflect local adaptations in manufacturing and use.^[1] Common types include awls for piercing, needles for sewing, beamers for hide processing, and points for hunting or scraping, often selected from durable long bones of large mammals due to their strength and availability at kill sites.^[3] Manufacturing involved both expedient modification—such as battering ends for use as retouchers on stone tools—and more formalized shaping with abrasion or incision, allowing for precise control not always achievable with stone.^[4] Archaeologically, these tools provide critical insights into vanished technologies and behaviors, such as early agriculture, bow-and-arrow use, or ritual practices, as preserved traces of use-wear and residue analysis reveal functions tied to perishable materials like wood or fiber.^[1] Later Iron Age examples in Africa suggest interactions with farming communities, possibly through trade, underscoring bone tools' enduring role in cultural exchange.^[1]

Overview

Definition

Bone tools, also referred to as osseous tools in archaeological terminology, are implements deliberately crafted from hard animal skeletal elements, including bones, antlers, and ivory, through shaping or modification to serve specific practical functions.^[4] These artifacts represent an extension of faunal resource use by prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies, transforming skeletal remains into durable cultural items beyond their primary roles in sustenance or shelter.^[4] A key distinction exists between bone tools and unmodified bones, which may be employed opportunistically without alteration; true bone tools are intentionally modified, often evidenced by traces of working such as cuts, polish, or fractures from fabrication processes.^[4] This deliberate craftsmanship differentiates them from naturally occurring or casually used skeletal fragments in archaeological contexts.^[4] The term "osseous" originates from the Latin osseus, meaning "bony" or "of bone," derived from os ("bone"), and in archaeology broadly encompasses tools made from rigid organic tissues like bone, antler, and ivory to highlight their material commonality.^[5] Common examples include awls for piercing and points for hunting.

Materials and Selection

Bone tools were primarily crafted from the skeletal elements of large mammals, including long bones, ribs, and scapulae sourced from animals such as deer, cattle, elephants, and hippopotamuses.^[2] These elements provided suitable blanks due to their structural integrity and dimensions, often obtained from animals hunted or scavenged for food.^[2] Antlers from cervids like deer were favored for their resilience and branching structure, while ivory from tusks of elephants or marine mammals offered exceptional durability for fine or high-stress applications.^[6] Selection of bone as a raw material hinged on criteria such as density, size, straightness, and local availability, ensuring the material's suitability for tool production with minimal modification.^[7] Denser cortical bone from long bones and ribs provided strength and resistance to wear, while larger specimens from megafauna allowed for elongated tools without excessive waste.^[7] Straight elements like ribs were preferred for their natural morphology, reducing the need for extensive shaping, and availability was tied to faunal assemblages from subsistence activities, with prehistoric artisans strategically choosing rarer, higher-quality bones over more abundant but inferior options.^[7] Compared to stone, bone offered advantages in flexibility to absorb impacts without fracturing and renewability, as it derived from renewable animal resources rather than finite lithic sources.^[8] Regional variations in material use reflected environmental availability and ecological adaptations. In coastal prehistoric sites, bones from marine mammals such as whales were exploited for their large size and density, enabling the creation of robust tools in regions where terrestrial megafauna were scarce.^[9] Inland or avian-rich areas saw the use of bird bones for lightweight implements, valued for their hollow structure that facilitated perforation and reduced weight without sacrificing basic functionality.^[10] In southern African contexts, such as KwaZulu-Natal sites, selection sometimes incorporated cultural preferences for specific species like eland or hartebeest, blending practical and symbolic considerations.^[11]

Historical Development

Earliest Evidence

The earliest confirmed evidence of bone tools dates to approximately 1.5 million years ago, from an assemblage discovered in 2025 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. This collection of 27 bone artifacts, recovered from a single stratigraphic horizon at the T69 Complex within the Frida Leakey Korongo West Gully, represents the oldest known instance of systematic bone tool production by hominins. The tools were primarily fashioned from the long bones of large mammals, including hippopotamuses and elephants, through knapping techniques that produced sharp flakes suitable for cutting tasks.^[2] These bone tools were found in association with Oldowan stone tools and faunal remains indicative of butchery activities, suggesting their use in processing animal carcasses alongside lithic implements. The site's context points to repeated hominin occupation, with the bone artifacts exhibiting intentional modification patterns, such as elongated flakes and retouched edges, that distinguish them from naturally fractured bones. Likely produced by Homo erectus, the dominant hominin in the region at this time, these finds push back the evidence of diverse raw material use in early tool-making by about one million years compared to previous records.^[2]^[12] Potential earlier indications of hominin interaction with bones appear at Dikika, Ethiopia, where fossilized animal bones bearing cut marks dated to around 3.4 million years ago have been interpreted as evidence of tool-assisted butchery. These marks, found on two specimens approximately 200 meters from the discovery site of Australopithecus afarensis fossils, are debated as intentional, with some researchers attributing them to unmodified rocks rather than deliberately shaped tools, and no direct evidence of bone tools exists there. While the oldest undisputed stone tools date to 2.6 million years ago at nearby Gona, Ethiopia, the Dikika finds highlight early hominin engagement with bone resources in butchery contexts, potentially by Australopithecus afarensis or related ancestors.^[13]

Evolution Across Periods

The development of bone tools during the Paleolithic period marked a progression toward greater specialization and regional variation. In the Middle Paleolithic, assemblages from sites like Contrebandiers Cave in Morocco, dated between 120,000 and 90,000 years ago, include specialized implements such as spatulas fashioned from rib bones, likely employed for processing leather and fur, alongside retouchers used in stone knapping.^[14] These tools indicate early Homo sapiens' deliberate selection of osseous materials for distinct tasks, reflecting cognitive advancements in material exploitation.^[15] Similarly, at Qesem Cave in Israel (ca. 420,000–200,000 years ago), bone retouchers demonstrate systematic use of discarded bones for lithic production, underscoring continuity in bone tool adaptation during this era.^[16] The Upper Paleolithic (40,000–10,000 years ago) witnessed marked diversification of bone tools across Europe and Africa, driven by broader technological and subsistence shifts. In Europe, tools expanded to include eyed needles for garment sewing, harpoons for fishing, and awls for hide preparation, often produced with techniques like scraping and polishing tailored to bone.^[17] African Later Stone Age sites parallel this with comparable osseous artifacts, such as bone points and ornaments, highlighting cultural parallels in tool complexity.^[18] Regional examples, like bone needles from China's Xiaogushan site (ca. 20,000 years ago), further illustrate this expansion into East Asia, where such implements supported cold-climate adaptations like tailored clothing.^[19] During the Mesolithic and Neolithic transitions, bone tools adapted to emerging sedentary lifestyles and agriculture, particularly in the Near East around 10,000 BCE. Sedentary communities increasingly incorporated bone implements for farming, as evidenced by bone hoes and sickles at sites like Göytepe in Azerbaijan's Middle Kura Valley, which facilitated soil tilling and crop harvesting in early village settings. This period saw bone tools integrated into composite designs with stone blades and wooden hafts, such as spear points and handles, enhancing durability and versatility for hunting and processing. By the late Neolithic, such innovations supported intensified resource use in proto-agricultural societies.^[20] Following 3000 BCE, the rise of metalworking in Eurasia led to a general decline in bone tool prevalence, as bronze and copper offered superior durability for many functions.^[21] However, bone implements persisted in Bronze Age contexts where metal was limited or for specialized roles, such as fine carving or in resource-scarce environments, maintaining their utility alongside emerging technologies.^[22]

Manufacturing Techniques

Shaping Processes

The shaping of bone into tools begins with primary processes that remove excess material and form the basic structure, primarily through abrasion, percussion, and subsequent grinding or polishing. Abrasion involves scraping the bone surface with lithic tools, such as flint or quartzite scrapers, to gradually reduce and contour the raw material while preserving its fibrous integrity. This method is particularly effective for creating smooth, controlled removals without fracturing the bone, as demonstrated in experimental replications of Paleolithic techniques where stone scrapers produce parallel striations indicative of unidirectional motion. Percussion, akin to lithic knapping, employs direct or indirect strikes with hard hammers or soft antler/bone percussors to detach flakes from denser osseous materials, enabling the production of sharp edges and pointed forms through controlled fracturing. Grinding and polishing follow to refine edges, using abrasive stones like sandstone or waterworn pebbles to achieve a smooth finish that enhances durability and reduces wear during use. The manufacturing sequence typically progresses in three stages: initial cutting to size, rough shaping, and finishing. Initial cutting employs sawing or chopping with stone adzes or burins to segment the bone blank from larger elements like long bones or ribs, minimizing waste and selecting optimal morphology. Rough shaping then integrates abrasion and percussion to approximate the tool's final form, removing irregularities and establishing functional features such as points or bevels. Finishing involves prolonged grinding against abrasive surfaces, often with added water or ochre as lubricants, to polish surfaces and eliminate micro-fractures, resulting in tools with glossy, low-friction edges suitable for piercing or scraping tasks. In some experimental contexts simulating ancient practices, this sequence yields tools with significant reductions in surface roughness. Variations in shaping arise from material properties, with softer bones like those from herbivores often relying on abrasion to avoid splintering, while denser antler is more amenable to percussion knapping due to its conchoidal fracture patterns similar to silcrete stone. Softer long bone cortices, for instance, are preferentially scraped to maintain pliability for flexible tools, whereas antler tines withstand hammer strikes for producing rigid points, as evidenced in comparative experimental studies where antler flake scars exhibit bulb-of-percussion features absent in scraped bone. Ethnographic analogies from Mackenzie Inuit practices illustrate these adaptations, where whale bone—intermediate in density—is initially abraded with ulu knives for rough contouring before polishing with pumice-like stones, optimizing the material for harpoon components. Certain cultures apply heat treatment to modify bone properties, heating blanks over low fires for straightening curved elements or enhancing hardness prior to shaping. This process, observed in experimental archaeology, softens collagen temporarily for reshaping without degrading the matrix, allowing corrections to natural warps in long bones before final abrasion or knapping. Tools for these processes, such as stone scrapers and antler hammers, are essential for precision but vary by stage and material.

Tools and Methods

In the production of bone tools, auxiliary implements played a crucial role in facilitating precise modifications to raw bone material. Stone flakes, often sharp-edged lithic pieces, were commonly employed for initial cutting and incising tasks, allowing artisans to score and shape bone surfaces efficiently.^[23] Abrasives such as sandstone slabs were utilized for grinding and smoothing, reducing bone thickness and refining edges through abrasive friction that minimized material loss compared to cutting alone.^[24] For percussion-based shaping, antler or bone hammers provided controlled impacts, enabling the removal of bone fragments without excessive fracturing, particularly in knapping-like processes.^[25] Advanced methods supplemented these tools to create specialized features on bone implements. Incision followed by snapping, where deep grooves were cut around a bone segment using stone tools before applying pressure to break it cleanly, was a key technique for producing pointed tools like awls or projectiles.^[26] Notching for hafting involved carving indentations or serrations at the base of a bone tool to secure it to a handle, enhancing durability and functionality in composite implements. Experimental archaeology has demonstrated the efficiency of these methods. Cultural variations in these practices are evident in African traditions, where low-heat fire treatment was applied to soften dense bone, such as long bone shafts, making them more pliable for shaping prior to auxiliary tool use.^[27] These methods left distinctive microscopic traces on bone surfaces, including fine striations from scraping with stone flakes, which appear as parallel linear marks under magnification, aiding in the reconstruction of production sequences. Such techniques were adapted to form various tool shapes, from perforators to cutting edges, as explored in subsequent analyses of bone tool typology.

Types of Bone Tools

Perforating Tools

Perforating tools encompass awls and needles, specialized implements crafted from bone to pierce hides, leather, and other organic materials for sewing and assembly tasks. These tools facilitated the production of fitted clothing, bags, and decorative items during the Upper Paleolithic, reflecting technological adaptations to environmental demands. Awls, constructed from splintered long bones of mammals such as reindeer or horses, functioned as robust pointed instruments for punching holes in leather to prepare it for lacing or sewing. At the Upper Paleolithic site of Dolní Věstonice in the Czech Republic, dated to approximately 31,000 calibrated years before present, excavations have uncovered numerous such awls, with use-wear analysis revealing striations and polish consistent with repeated perforation of soft animal hides.^[28] Eyed bone needles, dating from around 25,000 BCE in the Gravettian cultural context, advanced perforating capabilities by incorporating a small eye for threading sinew or plant fibers, enabling more precise stitching of garments and attachments like beads. These needles were frequently made from bird bones, valued for their hollow structure and thin walls that allowed for fine, tapered points suitable for delicate work on thinner materials. Archaeological recoveries from Eurasian sites, including those in Siberia and Eastern Europe, demonstrate their widespread use in tailoring cold-weather attire.^[29] Perforating tools typically measured 5–15 cm in length, featuring sharply tapered tips to minimize tearing during use. Microwear traces, such as glossy polish along the working edges from friction against hides, provide direct evidence of their intensive application in crafting and domestic activities; experimental replications confirm that such polish develops rapidly from perforation motions.^[28] These tools were often refined through scraping with lithic implements to achieve their functional form.^[29]

Projectile and Cutting Tools

Projectile and cutting tools represent a key category of bone implements used primarily for hunting and initial post-hunt processing in prehistoric societies. Spear points and bipoints, often fashioned from antler or long bones, were designed as hafted or unhafted projectiles for thrusting or throwing during big-game hunts. These tools typically measured 10–20 cm in length, with pointed tips sharpened through grinding and polishing techniques to enhance penetration. Archaeological evidence from Siberian sites, such as the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site, reveals examples dating to around 32,000–31,000 years ago, indicating early adoption of such technologies in northern Asia during the Upper Paleolithic. Bipoints, featuring worked ends on both extremities, allowed for versatile use and resharpening, reflecting adaptive manufacturing strategies in resource-scarce environments.^[30] Harpoons and fishhooks extended the utility of bone projectiles to aquatic environments, featuring barbed designs that prevented prey from escaping. Crafted from sturdy bone or antler segments, these tools were prevalent in coastal Mesolithic settlements across Scandinavia around 8000 BCE, as seen in Maglemosian culture assemblages from submerged sites like those in Denmark's Storebælt region. Barbs were meticulously carved and set at angles to hook fish or marine mammals, with evidence of hafting to wooden shafts for effective propulsion. Such implements highlight a specialized adaptation to post-glacial coastal ecosystems, where rising sea levels preserved organic remains in anaerobic conditions.^[31] Beamers, typically made from the beam of antler or split long bones, were used to stretch and flesh hides during processing.^[1] Cutting tools, including knives and scrapers derived from large ribs such as those of deer or bovids, facilitated the dissection of hides and meat following hunts. These flat, elongated implements were shaped by splintering and abrading the bone's natural curvature to create sharp edges suitable for slicing or scraping. Use-wear analysis on Neanderthal-era examples from sites like Combe-Grenal in France shows polish and striations consistent with processing fresh hides and separating meat from bone, often applying pressure akin to rolling to soften animal skins. In Paleolithic contexts, rib-based scrapers were expedient yet effective, minimizing the need for stone alternatives in bone-rich kill sites.^[32]^[33]

Agricultural and Processing Tools

Bone hoes and adzes, characterized by their broad, flat working edges, were essential for soil tilling and land preparation in early farming communities, often manufactured from the scapulae of large mammals to leverage their natural flatness and robustness. In the Neolithic Hemudu culture of eastern China (ca. 7000–5000 BCE), such tools included bone spades crafted from water buffalo scapulae, which were hafted and used to dig and aerate soil for rice cultivation, marking a key adaptation of bone for intensive agricultural labor.^[34] Experimental replications confirm that these scapula-based implements efficiently broke compacted earth without requiring extensive modification, highlighting their practicality in transitioning from foraging to settled agriculture.^[35] These tools were particularly valued in regions with access to sizable herbivores, where bone provided a lightweight yet durable alternative to emerging stone implements. Scrapers and wedges made from bone facilitated the processing of plant fibers, bark, and wood for tasks like basketry, roofing, and tool handles, supporting the broader agricultural economy by enabling efficient material preparation. Evidence from African archaeological sites, including the Middle Stone Age layers at Klasies River Main site in South Africa (ca. 60,000–40,000 years ago), indicates use in processing vegetal resources. Use-wear analysis on similar artifacts from southern African sites reveals polish and striations consistent with longitudinal scraping motions on fibrous plants, underscoring bone's role in handling crops during the shift toward plant domestication and food storage.^[36] Bone mallets, formed from the dense long bones of herbivores, served as heavy-duty pounding tools for breaking grains, softening fibers, and processing hides or nuts, integral to post-harvest activities in early farming villages. At the Neolithic settlement of Çatalhöyük in Anatolia (ca. 7100–6000 BCE), bone pounders fashioned from sheep or goat metapodials exhibit rounded, polished distal ends from percussive use, likely in pulverizing wild or early domesticated cereals like emmer wheat. These implements proliferated during agricultural transitions after 10,000 BCE, as communities intensified plant and animal exploitation, with bone's shock-absorbing properties making it ideal for repetitive, high-impact tasks without fracturing.^[37] Bone tools for agricultural and processing roles were predominantly derived from large mammal bones, offering superior strength for demanding fieldwork.

Specialized and Ornamental Tools

Specialized bone tools encompass a range of niche implements that extend beyond basic utilitarian functions, often incorporating aesthetic or ritual elements. Among these, musical instruments represent some of the earliest evidence of creative expression using bone. Flutes crafted from the wing bones of birds, such as swans or vultures, date back to around 40,000 years ago in the Aurignacian period. These artifacts, featuring precisely drilled finger holes, were excavated from sites like Geissenklösterle Cave in Germany's Swabian Jura, where five such flutes were found, indicating sophisticated acoustic knowledge among early modern humans.^[38]^[39] Whistles and rasps, also fashioned from bone, appear in Paleolithic contexts and likely served ceremonial or signaling purposes in rituals. Bird bone whistles, pierced for airflow, have been identified in Upper Paleolithic assemblages, producing shrill tones when blown across the opening.^[40] Bone rasps, with serrated edges scraped by another implement, generated rhythmic percussion and are documented in European cave sites from the same era, potentially used in communal gatherings.^[41] Ornamental bone tools highlight artistic craftsmanship, frequently adorned with incised patterns for decorative or symbolic value. In the Aurignacian culture (ca. 43,000–26,000 years ago), bone pins served as hair ornaments, carved from antler or long bones with tapered points and sometimes engraved motifs.^[42] These items, found at sites like Riparo Mochi in Italy, measured up to 10 cm in length and were polished to a smooth finish, emphasizing their non-practical role. Beads and pendants, often made from perforated mammal teeth or ivory segments, featured incised geometric designs representing symbolic engravings, as seen in assemblages from Isturitz Cave in France.^[43] Other specialized bone tools include fishing gorges and weaving implements, adapted for precise tasks. Fishing gorges, narrow bipointed bone shafts (typically 2–5 cm long) from fish or mammal bones, were baited transversely on lines to hook prey when swallowed, with examples from Epipaleolithic sites like Jordan River Dureijat in Israel dating to 12,000 years ago.^[44] Weaving tools, such as bone shuttles or needles, facilitated textile production; elongated pins from deer metapodials, smoothed and pointed at one end, were used in prehistoric Southwest U.S. sites to pass threads through looms.^[45] In ethnographic contexts among traditional societies, bone probes exemplify highly specialized extraction tools. These slender, sharpened implements, often from bird or small mammal bones, were employed to extract insects like termites from nests, as observed in African hunter-gatherer groups where probes up to 30 cm long allowed safe retrieval without disturbing colonies.^[1] Such tools underscore bone's versatility in addressing specific environmental challenges.

Uses and Cultural Significance

Practical Applications

Bone tools played a crucial role in prehistoric hunting and butchery, where pointed implements served as spear tips or atlatl foreshafts to facilitate the capture of large game animals.^[46] Scrapers fashioned from long bones or ribs efficiently removed flesh from hides during butchery, with experimental studies demonstrating that single-beveled bone scrapers could endure up to 105 minutes of continuous use on wet hides before requiring resharpening, outperforming blunt alternatives in fleshing efficiency.^[47] These tools complemented stone implements, enabling thorough carcass processing to yield meat, hides, and other resources essential for survival.^[48] In domestic crafts, bone needles and awls were indispensable for sewing clothing and footwear from animal hides, integrating seamlessly into the daily routines of hunter-gatherers by allowing precise piercing and stitching with sinew thread.^[46] Bone hoes, typically made from bison scapulae, supported gardening tasks such as soil tilling and root harvesting, providing a lightweight yet durable option for small-scale agriculture among Indigenous groups.^[49] Awls, as detailed in the types of bone tools, also aided in these activities by perforating materials without causing excessive damage.^[8] For food processing, bone awls facilitated plant harvesting by shredding fibers or husking grains like corn, while scrapers cut vegetables such as squash with minimal wear over extended use.^[8] Experimental residue and use-wear analyses on knapped bone tools reveal multi-use patterns, with traces of animal flesh, plant silica, and hide collagen on the same implements, indicating their versatility in preparing diverse foodstuffs from hunted and gathered resources.^[50] This adaptability enhanced subsistence efficiency in varied environments.^[8]

Symbolic and Ritual Roles

Bone tools have served as ritual objects in prehistoric societies, often appearing as grave goods or talismans imbued with symbolic meaning. In the Sungir site in Russia, dated to approximately 30,000 BCE, burials contained modified bone artifacts such as awls, small tubes, and a femur filled with ochre and placed alongside the deceased, suggesting ceremonial significance and high social status.^[51] These items, including incised vertebrae, indicate ritual practices where bone tools facilitated connections to the afterlife or spiritual realms.^[51] Similarly, engraved animal bones from Paleolithic contexts, such as the deliberate engravings on a cattle bone from the Nesher Ramla site in Israel, exhibit intentional incisions interpreted as symbolic etchings, potentially functioning as talismans for protection or commemoration.^[52] In hierarchical societies, bone tools often denoted status and social roles, transcending their utilitarian purposes. Among the Caddo people of North America, bone tools found in later burials alongside elite grave goods like shell beads and pottery reflect distinctions in social rank within stratified communities.^[53] In complex societies, the selection of specific animal bones for tool manufacture, such as long bones from valued species, further emphasized prestige, as seen in zooarchaeological analyses of higher-status contexts.^[54] Gender associations are evident in burial practices, with textile and sewing tools, including bone needles, more commonly interred with women in Neolithic and later cultures, indicating roles in craft production and domestic activities.^[55] Bone tools also embodied artistic expression through incised motifs that conveyed mythological narratives, particularly in indigenous cultures. In Alaskan Native traditions, bone artifacts carved with animal and spiritual figures served as ceremonial masks or ritual items, representing clan stories and ancestral myths.^[56] Among Inuit groups, whalebone tools and structural elements in dwellings featured symbolic engravings linking to whaling cosmology, where motifs reinforced human-animal relationships and ritual efficacy in ceremonies.^[57] These incised designs persisted as cultural symbols, integrating bone tools into ongoing indigenous practices that honor spiritual and mythological themes.^[57]

Archaeological Analysis

Identification Methods

Identification of bone tools in archaeological contexts relies on a combination of visual, microscopic, and analytical techniques to distinguish anthropogenic modifications from natural alterations. Visual inspection begins with macroscopic examination for manufacturing traces such as incisions, grooves, or polish indicative of shaping processes like scraping or grinding, while microscopic analysis under low- and high-power magnification reveals use-wear patterns, including linear striations, edge rounding, and surface polish resulting from repeated contact with materials like hide, wood, or plants. For instance, polish from perforation activities often appears as a bright, localized sheen on awl tips, whereas striations from cutting may align parallel to the tool's edge. These features are compared against experimental references to infer function, as demonstrated in studies of Middle Stone Age bone tools from South Africa, where striation orientations helped differentiate piercing from scraping uses.^[58]^[59] Microscopic techniques extend to residue analysis, where traces of organic materials adhering to tool surfaces provide direct evidence of use. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy identifies residues such as blood proteins, plant starches, or fibers by analyzing molecular vibrations, enabling non-destructive screening of samples for biomarkers like collagen degradation products or silica from plants.^[60] In archaeological applications, FTIR has been used to detect organic residues on tools, while ancient protein mass spectrometry further speciates residues to link tools to specific activities, such as hide working via preserved animal proteins. Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) extends this by rapidly identifying the species of bone used in tools, aiding in understanding raw material selection and distinguishing bone from antler or ivory.^[61]^[62] Typological classification complements these methods through morphometric studies, which quantify tool shapes using geometric morphometrics to compare outlines and dimensions against standardized typologies. For example, landmark-based analyses of Aurignacian bone points reveal variations in basal morphology that correlate with regional or cultural groups.^[62] Dating bone tools typically involves indirect methods due to the challenges of directly applying radiocarbon to heavily modified or mineralized specimens. Associated stratigraphy provides relative dating by contextualizing tools within sedimentary layers, while radiocarbon dating of co-occurring organic remains, such as collagen from unmodified bones or charcoal, establishes absolute chronologies; for instance, at Olduvai Gorge, bone tools dated to 1.5 million years ago were contextualized via associated faunal remains and stratigraphic correlation. Differentiation from natural bone modifications, such as carnivore gnawing or weathering, relies on diagnostic criteria like the uniform depth and V-shaped cross-sections of anthropogenic cut marks versus the irregular, overlapping grooves of tooth marks, often confirmed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or micro-CT scans that visualize internal fracture patterns absent in natural damage. Experimental replication confirms these distinctions, as seen in analyses of Palaeolithic sites where percussion fractures on knapping tools exhibit step-terminating edges unlike taphonomic breaks.^[2]^[25]^[59]

Preservation and Challenges

Bone tools, like other organic artifacts, are highly susceptible to post-depositional degradation through taphonomic processes that alter their physical and chemical integrity after burial. Soil acidity accelerates bone dissolution by leaching minerals such as calcium phosphate, leading to fragmentation and loss of structural detail, while neutral or alkaline soils promote better mineral retention. Animal scavenging by carnivores and rodents further damages bones through gnawing and dispersal, often obscuring manufacturing traces or rendering tools unrecognizable. In contrast, dry cave environments, with low humidity and minimal microbial activity, facilitate superior preservation by inhibiting hydrolysis and bacterial breakdown, whereas wet sites, including riverine or coastal areas, exacerbate decay through waterlogged conditions that foster fungal growth and oxygenation.^[63]^[64]^[25]^[65]^[66] Archaeological studies of bone tools face significant challenges in interpretation due to these taphonomic biases and analytical complications. Distinguishing intentionally modified tools from food waste or naturally fractured bones is difficult, particularly for minimally processed items that lack clear modification marks, potentially leading to underrepresentation of simple technologies in the record. Preservation favors denser, more durable bone elements like long bones over fragile ones such as ribs or vertebrae, skewing assemblages toward robust materials and biasing reconstructions of tool diversity. Additionally, modern contamination during excavation or handling—such as residues from tools, gloves, or soil additives—can interfere with residue and use-wear analyses, introducing false positives that complicate species identification or functional assessments.^[25]^[67]^[68]^[69] To mitigate these issues, conservators employ techniques such as consolidation with acrylic polymers like Paraloid B-72 to stabilize fragile structures without altering original surfaces, allowing for subsequent non-destructive analyses. Preventive measures include controlled storage in low-humidity environments to prevent further cracking or delamination. Case studies from tropical regions, such as ancient Puerto Rico, highlight substantial lost evidence, where high humidity and acidity result in near-total collagen degradation, underscoring the underrepresentation of perishable technologies in humid equatorial archives.^[70]^[71]^[72]

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Agricultural tools, such as sickles, also were made from shell and bone. Hoes could be made from stone or shell. 321 Bone, Horn, and Shell Technology · 323 ...
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Technical and Typological Approaches to Bronze Age Worked Bone ...
This study aims to enhance understanding of Bronze Age bone tool manufacturing techniques and cultural practices.
[21]
[PDF] Cyprus Before The Bronze Age - Getty Museum
Ceramics, worked bone, and ground-stone tools and vessels, while exhibiting a stylistic evolution, are thoroughly in harmony with earlier insular traditions ...
[22]
Early evidence of stone tool use in bone working activities at Qesem ...
Nov 25, 2016 · The evidence here presented is among the earliest related to tool-assisted bone working intended for non-dietary purposes.
[23]
Was it ground? A closer look at various prehistoric bone grinding ...
This article presents the results of an experimental program, and traceological analyses of bone tools that were ground using various stone materials.Was It Ground? A Closer Look... · 2. Methods · 4. Discussion
[24]
Bone tools, carnivore chewing and heavy percussion - Journals
Jan 3, 2024 · These bone tools were likely used as expedient retouchers to modify stone edges. In addition to these typical retouchers, the study identified ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[25]
[PDF] Analytical Approaches to the Manufacture and Use of Bone Artifacts ...
Archaeological con- text was studied to reveal distributional and associa- tional patterns that might contribute evidence pertaining to the use of bone ...
[26]
Notched implements made of scapulae (Bruszczewo-type tools)—A ...
Sep 13, 2024 · Notched implements made of scapulae (Bruszczewo-type tools)—A problem solved? Discovering cereal- and legume-threshing techniques in Early ...
[27]
Assessing the function of early hominin bone tools - ScienceDirect
They found that while large stones with a mass of over 2 kg are more efficient than bone tools to break the crust of a mound, bone tools are more efficient for ...
[28]
(PDF) Bone Tool Treatment: Experimental Archaeology and ...
Oct 10, 2019 · The second method used includes both low-temperature heating from an indirect source and simmering the bone in a low-boil. This poster presents ...
[29]
Quantitative use-wear analysis of stone tools: Measuring how the ...
Sep 20, 2021 · Experimental tools and associated use-wear traces. A) Tool used for scraping fresh bone, two active zones; B) Tool used for scraping dry ...
[30]
Paleolithic eyed needles and the evolution of dress - Science
Jun 28, 2024 · In terms of Paleolithic technologies, complex clothes are associated with dedicated hide-piercing implements, of which bone awls and eyed ...
[31]
Paleolithic eyed needles and the evolution of dress - PubMed Central
Jun 28, 2024 · Eyed needles are among the most iconic of Paleolithic artifacts, traditionally seen as rare indicators of prehistoric clothing, particularly tailoring.Missing: BCE | Show results with:BCE
[32]
Early Upper Paleolithic Approaches to Bone and Antler Projectile ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Results of a study of Early Upper Paleolithic bone and antler projectile points indicate that different strategies of design, manufacture, ...
[33]
An integrated analysis of Maglemose bone points reframes the Early ...
Oct 14, 2020 · These formed crucial hunting and fishing grounds for the first Maglemosian people living in Southern Scandinavia. Throughout the Early ...
[34]
[PDF] Mousterian Bone Hideworking Tools From Combe-Grenal ... - HAL
Jan 12, 2023 · While use-wear analysis of stone tools most often provides information concerning the initial stages of hide processing, the Combe-Grenal bone ...
[35]
Neanderthals polished hides with tools made of deer ribs - NBC News
Aug 12, 2013 · The researchers surmise that the Neanderthals used the tools a little like a rolling pin, to apply a constant pressure on the animal hide, ...
[36]
Scapulae for shovels: Does raw material choice reflect technological ...
In the early Hemudu culture (7000-6000 BP) in eastern China, bone, particularly wild water buffalo scapulae, was preferred for crafting spades to modify the ...
[37]
Hoes or Adzes? Experimental Reproduction and Uses of Deer ...
Nov 25, 2021 · As already asserted, these specific large bevel-ended artefacts have always been categorized as hoes. Commonly the term 'hoe' refers to an ...
[38]
A FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE NOTCHED BONE ... - jstor
Although we find no evidence to support their use as rasps, the use-wear and ancient starch residues suggest a complicated use history in which several ...
[39]
Pointed bone tool technology in southern Africa: Results of use-trace ...
Aug 7, 2025 · This paper reviews the history and current state of bone tool functional studies in southern Africa. I present the results of use-trace analyses ...
[40]
“For a few awls more”. Bone tools in northeastern Iberia Neolithic ...
The working methodology was based on a study of the full process involved in producing the bone tools, from the acquisition of the raw materials to the use and ...Missing: mallets pounding processing
[41]
Earliest musical instruments in Europe 40000 years ago
May 24, 2012 · The instruments take the form of flutes made from the bird bones and mammoth ivory. They were excavated at a key site in Germany, which is ...
[42]
Earliest music instruments found - BBC News
May 25, 2012 · The flutes, made from bird bone and mammoth ivory, come from a cave ... flutes at Geissenkloesterle Cave in Germany's Swabian Jura.
[43]
Prehistoric Musical Instruments - Crystainks - Crystalinks
Examples of Paleolithic objects which are considered unambiguously musical are bone ... whistles"), objects interpreted as Bullroarers, and rasps. Music can be ...
[44]
The Earliest Aurignacian of Riparo Mochi (Liguria, Italy)
Bone pins, apparently used as hair ornaments, are known for the terminal Upper Paleo-. Frequencies of Raw-Material Classes in the 1938–49. Sample lithic of ...
[45]
Early and Archaic Aurignacian Personal Ornaments from Isturitz Cave
Recent excavations at Isturitz Cave by Christian Normand have yielded a rich assemblage of Aurignacian personal ornaments in chronostratigraphic context.
[46]
Bone combs: curiosities and features - Antica Barbieria Colla Shop
Bone combs, that is, commonly made of horn or animal bone, are among the oldest artifacts made by man for personal care, as evidenced by the finds.
[47]
Fishing with gorges: Testing a functional hypothesis - ScienceDirect
Bone bipoints, thought to be fish gorges, are examined for use-wear and residues to provide insight into their function.
[48]
Bone Tools - Peach State Archaeological Society
Bone tools include needles, fish hooks, sickles, daggers, digging sticks, harpoons, scrapers, shuttles, and shaft wrenches.
[49]
[PDF] Ancient Technology - Montana Historical Society
Ancient people used shaped bone tools to butcher animals and to process hides. Bone was also the material they used to make beads for necklaces. They ...Missing: practical domestic
[50]
[PDF] Hide working and bone tools: experimentation design and applications
This paper examines the methodology and the first results of experiments with hide working. Based on ethnographic, historical, and experimental data, ...Missing: residue multi- food
[51]
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Summary of each segment:
[52]
Centuries-Old Gardening Hoes Made of Bison Bone Found in Canada
Jul 21, 2020 · Indigenous farmers in what is now Manitoba, Canada, once used a pair of bison shoulder blades as gardening hoes, reports CBC News.Missing: prehistoric | Show results with:prehistoric
[53]
Knapped bones used as tools: Experimental approach on different ...
Oct 20, 2025 · Unmodified fragments were used in different tasks: scraping hide and wood, sawing wood, and cutting flesh. Another set of bone blanks were ...
[54]
Diversity and differential disposal of the dead at Sunghir | Antiquity
Feb 9, 2018 · The Sunghir burials become more than just an example of elaborate Palaeolithic burial, and highlight the diversity of early social and mortuary behaviours.
[55]
Prehistoric bone etchings believed to be among oldest evidence of ...
Feb 3, 2021 · Prehistoric bone etchings believed to be among oldest evidence of human use of symbols · Human bones may have been engraved as part of a ...
[56]
Caddo Culture - 64 Parishes
Mar 18, 2020 · The Caddos had a hierarchical social ... However, in later burials, pottery vessels, marine shell bead necklaces, stone arrow points, bone tools ...
[57]
[PDF] Zooarchaeology in Complex Societies: Political Economy, Status ...
Jan 10, 2009 · This study also documents that limb bones may be used for tool manufacture even among higher-status ... In hierarchical societies status is ...
[58]
Grave goods show gendered roles for Neolithic farmers
Apr 14, 2021 · The tools found in female graves were most likely used for the working of animal skins and hide, and tools for the men were associated with ...
[59]
[PDF] Textile Tools, Significant Markers of Gender? The Case ... - HAL-SHS
Aug 25, 2022 · Spindle whorls, for instance, were systematically considered as belonging to the graves of females because the link between textile work and ...
[60]
Alaska Native Arts & Traditions
Masks, used in ceremonies by all Alaska Native cultures, represent animals, people, birds, and fish. Carved in wood and bone, many masks are decorated with ...<|separator|>
[61]
The symbolic dimensions of whale bone use in Thule winter dwellings
Through rituals performed in houses, women sought to influence the outcome of the whale hunt, reiterating the symbolic associations of the domestic house. ...
[62]
Experimental series and use-wear in bone tools - ScienceDirect.com
This paper presents an experimental program and microscopic patterns identified in the analysis of five worked bone morpho-functional groups.
[63]
(PDF) Use-trace analysis of bone tools: A brief overview of four ...
Jul 18, 2015 · ... technique to archaeological bone tools as a. method for investigating ... tool shaping. from the early hominid site of Swartkrans, South Africa.
[64]
Ancient protein analysis in archaeology - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Jan 15, 2021 · This review synthesizes some of the major advances and applications of ancient protein analysis in the field of archaeology.
[65]
An FTIR-based model for the diagenetic alteration of archaeological ...
We provide a method to describe and quantify the changes in the physico-chemical properties of both the organic and inorganic constituents of bones.
[66]
On the shape of things: A geometric morphometrics approach to ...
Applying geometric morphometrics methods to the analysis of Aurignacian osseous projectile points constitutes a real challenge given their simple outline and ...
[67]
Soil pH, Bone Preservation, and Sampling Bias at Mortuary Sites - jstor
Prediction of human skeletal preservation at mortuary sites is important in archaeological research and in cultural resources management.<|control11|><|separator|>
[68]
[PDF] Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors Involved in the Preservation of Non ...
Taphonomic factors can be divided into two types: intrinsic (resistance to bone) and extrinsic. (environmental influences), both of which exert influence on the ...
[69]
Bone Diagenesis and Extremes of Preservation in Forensic Science
Bones on the ground surface are exposed and quickly degraded by a range of taphonomic processes, whereas buried, anoxic and submerged bones see these processes ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Rare Perishable Artifacts – Bluff Shelters of the Arkansas Ozarks
They are rare dry pockets that preserve perishable artifacts in an otherwise wet climate that promotes rot. But why do archeologists care about perishable items ...
[71]
The bone manufacturing continuum - Academia.edu
There has been a great deal of experimental and empirical work done on distinguishing different types of manufacturing wear which can be found on bone tools.
[72]
[PDF] EXTRINSIC FACTORS THAT EFFECT THE PRESERVATION OF ...
This article provides an overview of bone composition and the taphonomic processes that affect the representation of skeletal elements in archaeological ...
[73]
Research and Analysis of Artifacts
Since modern contamination makes analysis more difficult and more time consuming, all specialists would prefer to have non-contaminated bone material.
[74]
Consolidation of Archaeological Bone: A Conservation Perspective
Archaeologists and conservators have separately devised techniques and materials using these polymers to give structural support to deteriorating, fragile bone.
[75]
[PDF] CONSERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL OSSEOUS MATERIALS
Dec 9, 2005 · Bone artifacts often preserve well and require less conservation treatment than metal or ceramic artifacts. Also, especially in the United ...
[76]
Bone collagen preservation in the tropics: A case study from ancient ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Tropical climates are known to affect the preservation of bone and its constituent collagen and bioapatite (Pestle & Colvard, 2012) .