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Ixodes scapularis

Ixodes scapularis, commonly known as the black-legged tick or deer tick, is a small hard-bodied tick species belonging to the family Ixodidae within the order Ixodida.^[1] Adult females measure approximately 3 mm in length when unfed, with a reddish-brown body, black legs, and a dark brown scutum covering the dorsal surface, while males are slightly smaller and mostly black; nymphs are rice-grain sized and translucent gray-brown, and larvae are pinhead-sized.^[1] This three-host tick completes a two-year life cycle consisting of egg, larval, nymphal, and adult stages, with each active stage requiring a blood meal from a vertebrate host—typically small mammals or birds for immatures and larger mammals like white-tailed deer for adults—to molt and reproduce.^[2] Eggs are laid in clusters of 2,000–3,000 in spring, hatching into larvae that quest in summer, followed by nymphs active in spring and adults in fall and winter.^[2] Native to North America, I. scapularis is primarily distributed across the eastern and north-central United States and extending into southeastern Canada.^[3] Its preferred habitats include deciduous and mixed forests, woodland edges, tall grasses, and leaf litter, where it exhibits questing behavior by climbing vegetation to attach to passing hosts.^[1] The species' range has expanded northward and westward in recent decades and continues to do so as of 2025, driven by factors such as climate change, reforestation, and increasing white-tailed deer populations, which serve as key reproductive hosts for adults.^[3]^[4] Immature stages feed on a broad array of hosts including rodents, birds, and lizards, facilitating pathogen acquisition and maintenance in wildlife reservoirs.^[3] As a major vector of zoonotic pathogens, I. scapularis transmits several diseases to humans and animals, most notably Lyme disease caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, which it spreads primarily through nymphal bites in late spring and early summer.^[5] It also vectors anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum), babesiosis (Babesia microti), Powassan virus disease, and hard tick relapsing fever (Borrelia miyamotoi), with adults capable of transmitting some pathogens as well.^[5] These transmissions occur when infected ticks attach and feed for 24–48 hours or longer, underscoring the tick's role as the primary vector for tick-borne diseases in the eastern U.S., contributing to thousands of annual cases.^[3]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Classification

_Ixodes scapularis belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Arthropoda, subphylum Chelicerata, class Arachnida, subclass Acari, order Ixodida (hard ticks), family Ixodidae, subfamily Ixodinae, genus Ixodes, and species scapularis.^[6]^[7] This species is part of the Ixodes ricinus species complex, a group of morphologically similar hard ticks that share ecological and vectorial roles in transmitting pathogens.^[8] Its closest relatives include Ixodes ricinus, the European castor bean tick, and Ixodes pacificus, the western black-legged tick, with phylogenetic analyses placing I. scapularis in a clade adapted to temperate environments through traits like questing behavior and host-seeking strategies suited to seasonal climates.^[8]^[9]^[10] Members of the family Ixodidae are distinguished as hard-bodied ticks, featuring a sclerotized scutum that covers the entire dorsal surface in males but only the anterior portion in females and nymphs, enabling engorgement without excessive rigidity.^[11]^[1]

Nomenclature

The binomial name of this tick species is Ixodes scapularis Say, 1821. The genus name Ixodes originates from the Ancient Greek term ixōdēs, meaning "sticky" or "bird-lime-like," in reference to the adhesive ventral surface of the nymphal stage that facilitates attachment to hosts. The specific epithet scapularis derives from Latin scapularis, meaning "pertaining to the shoulder," alluding to the shape of the scutum, the dorsal shield that covers the anterior portion of the body like a shoulder plate.^[12] A historical synonym is Ixodes dammini Spielman, Clifford, Piesman & Corwin, 1979, which was proposed for northeastern U.S. populations based on perceived morphological differences from southern forms. This name was widely used in early Lyme disease research but was later synonymized with I. scapularis following morphological reexaminations and genetic analyses, including allozyme and ribosomal DNA studies, that demonstrated conspecificity across populations with no significant genetic divergence. The species was described by Thomas Say, though the original publication did not explicitly designate a type locality or host, noting only that it was "rather common in forests, and is found on dogs and other animals."^[13]

Description and Morphology

Adult Form

Adult Ixodes scapularis ticks exhibit sexual dimorphism in size, coloration, and certain anatomical features, with both sexes possessing eight legs and lacking eyes or festoons on the idiosoma.^[14]^[15] The body is inornate, without colorful patterns or ornamentation on the scutum or exoskeleton.^[14] A distinctive U-shaped anal groove lies anterior to the anus on the ventral surface, a characteristic trait of the genus Ixodes.^[14]^[15] Female adults are typically 3-5 mm long when unfed, with a reddish-brown to orange-red body surrounding a dark brown to black scutum that covers approximately two-thirds of the dorsal idiosoma.^[16]^[1]^[17] They have black legs and longer, more rectangular palps relative to the basis capituli, aiding in host detection and feeding.^[18]^[19] The hypostome is prominent with multiple rows of recurved teeth for anchoring during blood meals. During feeding, females can engorge significantly, expanding to over 1 cm in length as they imbibe blood over several days.^[20]^[21] Male adults measure 2-3 mm in length and are darker overall, appearing uniformly black or dark brown, with the scutum covering the entire dorsal idiosoma.^[16]^[15] Their palps are shorter and less prominent than those of females, and the hypostome is smaller, reflecting limited feeding behavior.^[19]^[22] Males do not engorge substantially, as they primarily seek mates rather than blood meals after maturation.^[23]

Immature Stages

The larval stage of Ixodes scapularis measures approximately 0.7–0.8 mm when unfed and possesses six legs, distinguishing it from the later stages.^[24] The body is small and translucent with initially transparent legs and mouthparts that darken over time, featuring a dark scutum that covers the dorsal anterior third to half of the body, and it has smaller mouthparts relative to the nymph and adult forms.^[24]^[25] Larvae feed for 3–5 days on small to medium-sized hosts before dropping off.^[1] The nymphal stage is larger, measuring 1.3–1.7 mm when unfed, and has eight legs like the adults.^[24] Nymphs are translucent to slightly gray or brown with a more circular body shape, resembling a small female adult but with a scutum that uniformly covers the dorsal anterior third to half of the body, allowing for expansion during feeding.^[24]^[16] This stage develops the questing posture, where the tick climbs vegetation and extends its front legs to seek hosts.^[26] Nymphs feed for 3–7 days on small to medium-sized hosts.^[24] Molting from larva to nymph and from nymph to adult occurs off the host in leaf litter, where the engorged immature ticks digest their blood meal and undergo ecdysis over several weeks.^[27]^[28]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Ixodes scapularis, commonly known as the blacklegged tick, has a native geographic range spanning the eastern and central United States, extending from Texas in the south to Maine in the north, with highest concentrations in the Northeast and Upper Midwest regions.^[5] Established populations are also present in parts of southern Canada, particularly in Ontario, where the first resident populations were detected during the 1970s, and in Quebec.^[29] This distribution reflects the tick's adaptation to temperate climates across these areas, though densities vary regionally. Historically, Ixodes scapularis was first described in the early 19th century, with initial records from the Northeast United States dating back to that period, though systematic collections began in the 1920s near Cape Cod, Massachusetts.^[13] By the mid-20th century, established populations were documented in coastal areas of New York and Massachusetts, as well as northwestern Wisconsin.^[30] CDC surveillance indicates that the tick's range has more than doubled since the 1990s, with reported presence expanding from approximately 400 counties in the late 1990s to over 800 by 2021, with ongoing expansion as of 2024.^[31] Recent expansion trends show a northward shift attributed to climate warming, with increased densities observed in Midwestern states since the 1970s, including rapid establishment in areas like Minnesota and Wisconsin.^[32] In 2025, the first detections of Ixodes scapularis occurred in Montana, with three individuals identified in eastern counties through active surveillance, marking a westward incursion.^[33] Modeling efforts predict further spread into southern Canada and the northern Midwest by 2050, with significant increases in suitable habitat under moderate climate scenarios based on ensemble species distribution models incorporating temperature, precipitation, and land use variables.^[4]

Preferred Habitats

Ixodes scapularis thrives in temperate deciduous forests characterized by dry to mesic conditions, where leaf litter and understory vegetation provide essential cover.^[34] These ticks favor environments with high relative humidity, typically above 85-90%, as lower levels lead to rapid desiccation and mortality.^[35] Moderate temperatures between 10°C and 25°C support optimal questing activity, with peak host-seeking behavior occurring around 25°C; exposure to temperatures above 30°C or below 10°C reduces activity and survival.^[36] Direct sunlight is avoided, as it exacerbates desiccation in these humidity-dependent arthropods.^[37] In microhabitats, I. scapularis nymphs and adults quest from low vegetation, typically at heights of 0.5 to 1 meter, positioning themselves on grasses, shrubs, or woodland edges to intercept passing hosts.^[38] Densities are highest in forested zones adjacent to open areas, such as lawn edges with accumulated leaf litter or dense understory, which maintain moist refugia.^[39] During winter, unfed nymphs and larvae overwinter in the protective soil duff and leaf litter layers, where insulated microclimates enhance survival against freezing temperatures.^[40] This species has adapted to urban-adjacent green spaces, including parks and suburban woodlands, where fragmented habitats still offer suitable moisture and cover, thereby elevating human exposure risks.^[41] Abiotic factors significantly influence I. scapularis persistence, with soil moisture critical for off-host survival and molting success; well-drained yet humid soils promote higher populations.^[42] Neutral to slightly acidic soils (pH 5-7), such as alfisols with sandy or loam textures, correlate with tick presence, while acidic, low-fertility clay soils limit abundance.^[34] Climate change is expanding habitat suitability by warming temperatures and altering precipitation patterns, potentially increasing tick survival and range in previously marginal areas.^[43]

Life Cycle

Developmental Stages

Ixodes scapularis exhibits a typical three-host life cycle spanning approximately two years, progressing through four developmental stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult. Each post-egg stage requires attachment to a host for blood feeding to fuel growth and molting to the next stage, with environmental conditions like temperature and humidity influencing timing and survival.^[2]^[1] In the egg stage, engorged adult females deposit a single clutch of 1,000 to 3,000 eggs in clusters on the forest floor litter during late spring, typically May. These eggs, which are whitish and ellipsoidal, hatch into larvae after 3 to 6 weeks under suitable conditions (temperatures above 50°F or 10°C), usually in summer months such as June or July.^[1]^[44] The larval stage features six-legged, seed-like ticks measuring about 1 mm in length, which quest for hosts shortly after hatching. Larvae primarily target small mammals like white-footed mice or birds, attaching via their mouthparts and feeding for 3 to 5 days until engorged. Following detachment, they undergo a premolt period involving blood meal digestion and development, molting into nymphs after approximately 4 weeks under laboratory conditions without diapause, though in natural environments this process often extends due to overwintering diapause.^[25]^[1] Nymphs are eight-legged, larger (about 2 mm unfed), and tan to reddish-brown, becoming active in spring after molting from overwintered larvae. They feed on a wider range of hosts, including small to medium-sized mammals, birds, and occasionally humans, attaching for 3 to 5 days during peak activity from May to July. This stage is particularly significant for human exposure, as nymphs' small size allows them to go unnoticed, facilitating bites during outdoor activities in wooded or grassy areas.^[1]^[45]^[46] Adults emerge from nymphs in late summer or fall, with females measuring 3 to 5 mm unfed and males slightly smaller; both have eight legs and a characteristic black scutum. Adults quest primarily in fall (October to December) on larger hosts like white-tailed deer, with females feeding for 5 to 7 days to engorge with blood, while males feed minimally or not at all before mating. Engorged females drop off, overwinter in leaf litter, and oviposit their egg clutch the following spring before dying.^[1]^[47]

Reproduction and Overwintering

Mating in Ixodes scapularis primarily occurs on the host, where adult males locate and inseminate multiple females during the feeding period.^[27] Males transfer spermatophores via insertion of their hypostome and chelicerae into the female's genital opening, enabling copulation with several females sequentially.^[48] Successful insemination triggers accelerated engorgement in females, while unmated females feed more slowly and may remain attached longer.^[48] Parthenogenesis is rare in this species, with reproduction predominantly sexual.^[49] Following detachment from the host, engorged females seek sheltered sites in the leaf litter to oviposit, typically abstaining from questing behavior for about two weeks.^[48] Each female deposits a single large mass of 1,000 to 3,000 eggs, coated in a waxy secretion from the capitulum to prevent desiccation, with embryonation occurring over approximately 35 days under suitable conditions.^[48] Oviposition begins in late spring or early summer, and females die shortly after egg-laying is complete, marking the end of their reproductive phase.^[46] Overwintering in I. scapularis involves diapause across all post-egg stages, allowing survival of cold temperatures in temperate regions and contributing to the typical two-year life cycle. Eggs hatch in summer without overwintering, but engorged larvae enter diapause in the leaf litter after feeding, molting to nymphs the following spring.^[48] Nymphs and adults exhibit the highest resilience to winter conditions, with nymphs questing in late spring after overwintering and adults active in fall or spring, utilizing leaf litter and soil for insulation against low temperatures and desiccation.^[40] Survival rates remain high through winter diapause, though energy reserves deplete gradually, supporting emergence when conditions improve.

Behavior and Ecology

Host Interactions

Ixodes scapularis exhibits a three-host life cycle, in which each parasitic stage—larva, nymph, and adult—feeds on a different host before detaching to molt or lay eggs. Larvae and nymphs primarily target small mammals such as white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus), as well as birds including ground-foraging species like the ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla) and veery (Catharus fuscescens). Adults, particularly females, show a strong preference for larger hosts, with white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) serving as the principal host due to their abundance in endemic areas; however, they opportunistically feed on other medium to large mammals, including humans and domestic pets like dogs.^[1]^[16]^[50]^[51] To locate hosts, I. scapularis employs questing behavior, positioning itself on low-lying vegetation such as grasses or leaf litter with its forelegs extended upward in an ambush posture. Detection relies heavily on Haller's organ, a specialized chemosensory structure on the first pair of legs that senses host-emitted cues including carbon dioxide gradients, heat, and volatile compounds like ammonia. Upon contact, the tick uses its chelicerae—paired, blade-like mouthparts—to pierce the host's skin, injecting saliva that forms a cement-like anchor to secure attachment and prevent dislodgement.^[52]^[53]^[22] Feeding duration varies by life stage: larvae engorge over 3–5 days, nymphs over 3–4 days, and adult females over 5–7 days, during which they gradually expand in size by imbibing blood while remaining firmly attached via the salivary cement. This prolonged attachment allows for significant physiological changes, including the production of anti-hemostatic, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive salivary proteins that facilitate uninterrupted feeding. Male adults, which may attach briefly to mate on the host, feed minimally or not at all.^[1]^[54]^[22] In terms of reservoir dynamics, the white-footed mouse (P. leucopus) plays a pivotal role in maintaining tick-borne pathogens within the enzootic cycle, serving as a competent reservoir for agents like Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative bacterium of Lyme disease, due to its high infection prevalence and frequent infestation by immature ticks. This rodent's behavior and ecology amplify pathogen circulation, as it supports horizontal transmission from infected ticks to uninfected ones across multiple generations.^[55]^[56]

Seasonal Activity

Ixodes scapularis exhibits distinct seasonal activity patterns influenced by life stage, with adults displaying a bimodal distribution of host-seeking behavior. Adult ticks are primarily active from October to December in the fall and from March to April in the spring, with peak activity occurring in these periods following periods of quiescence. Nymphs show activity from April to July, peaking in May and June, while larvae are most active during the summer months, with peak host-seeking typically in late summer around August.^[57]^[58]^[1] Environmental factors such as temperature and humidity serve as key triggers for questing activity across stages. Ticks generally initiate activity when ambient temperatures exceed 4°C, with questing activity observed at temperatures as low as 0°C or below in some conditions, and they resume post-frost conditions in spring after overwintering survival in immature stages. High relative humidity, ideally above 85-90%, is essential for sustained activity, as lower levels lead to desiccation; extreme heat or drought conditions reduce questing, particularly in summer.^[59]^[36]^[60] Regional variations affect these patterns, with earlier activity peaks in the southern United States due to milder winters and extended warm periods compared to northern ranges. Climate change is prolonging these seasons, as evidenced by studies showing increased winter survival and extended activity into late fall or early spring.^[61]^[60]

Role as Disease Vector

Transmitted Pathogens

Ixodes scapularis, commonly known as the blacklegged tick, serves as a vector for several significant human pathogens, primarily in North America. These include bacteria causing Lyme disease and anaplasmosis, protozoa responsible for babesiosis, and viruses linked to encephalitis. Infection rates vary by region, tick life stage, and pathogen, with nymphs and adults acting as the primary vectors due to their questing behavior on hosts; larvae are rarely infected, though transovarial transmission has been demonstrated for some agents like Borrelia miyamotoi and, as of 2024, Powassan virus, but not for most such as Borrelia burgdorferi.^[31] Co-infections occur in 10-30% of infected ticks, increasing the risk of multiple diseases from a single bite.^[62]

Bacterial Pathogens

The most prominent bacterial pathogen transmitted by I. scapularis is Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the causative agent of Lyme disease, with infection rates ranging from 20-50% in endemic areas such as the northeastern and upper midwestern United States.^[63] Nymphal prevalence reaches up to 24% in the Northeast, while adults can exceed 50%.^[63] Another spirochete, Borrelia miyamotoi, causes a relapsing fever-like illness and is detected in 1-7% of ticks, with higher rates (up to 3%) in adults from the Upper Midwest.^[62] Anaplasma phagocytophilum, responsible for human granulocytic anaplasmosis, infects 2-11% of ticks, predominantly in the Northeast and Upper Midwest, where adult prevalence can reach 10.9%.^[63]

Protozoan Pathogens

Babesia microti, a protozoan parasite causing babesiosis, is transmitted efficiently by I. scapularis nymphs and is prevalent in 1-5% of ticks from endemic regions like the Northeast, with adult rates up to 5.4%.^[63] This apicomplexan infects red blood cells, leading to hemolytic anemia, particularly in immunocompromised individuals.^[64]

Viral Pathogens

I. scapularis transmits Powassan virus (POWV), including lineage I (classic POWV) and lineage II (deer tick virus), which cause severe neurological disease such as encephalitis, with fatality rates up to 10-15%. Prevalence is low at 0.9-3% in adults, rarely in nymphs, and concentrated in the Northeast and Great Lakes regions.^[65] In a New Jersey study, overall tick infection rates reached approximately 47%, with 10.6% of ticks harboring co-infections across multiple pathogens. POWV was detected in 0.9% of adults, with co-infections in 0.5% involving B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum. A 2024 study provided direct evidence of transovarial transmission of POWV in I. scapularis, which may contribute to its persistence.^[66]^[65]

Transmission Dynamics

Ixodes scapularis primarily acquires pathogens through horizontal transmission during blood meals from infected vertebrate hosts, with larval ticks obtaining infections most commonly from rodent reservoirs such as the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus).^[67] These pathogens are then maintained via transstadial transmission, persisting from larvae to nymphs and adults without significant loss across molts, enabling the tick to carry infections through its multi-year life cycle.^[68] Transovarial transmission, where pathogens pass from female ticks to their eggs, is rare for most key pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi, though it occurs more efficiently in certain spirochetes such as Borrelia miyamotoi.^[69] Transmission to new hosts occurs during subsequent blood feeding, where infected ticks inject pathogens alongside saliva that contains bioactive molecules facilitating immune evasion and anti-hemostatic effects.^[70] For Borrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease, transmission is delayed, requiring typically 24-48 hours of tick attachment to achieve significant risk, as spirochetes migrate from the tick midgut to the salivary glands over this period.^[71] In contrast, Powassan virus can be transmitted rapidly, with nymphal ticks capable of infecting hosts within as little as 15 minutes of attachment due to its presence in salivary secretions.^[72] Tick saliva modulates host immune responses by suppressing cytokine production and inhibiting inflammation, thereby enhancing pathogen establishment at the bite site.^[73] Co-infections arise when a single tick harbors multiple pathogens, acquired sequentially from reservoir hosts, increasing the potential for simultaneous transmission and more severe disease outcomes in humans.^[68] Nymphal Ixodes scapularis pose the highest transmission risk to humans due to their small size—comparable to a poppy seed—which makes them harder to detect and remove promptly, combined with their peak activity during spring and summer when human outdoor exposure is high.^[74]

Control and Prevention

Personal Measures

To prevent bites from Ixodes scapularis, the blacklegged tick, individuals should adopt protective clothing measures, such as wearing long-sleeved shirts, long pants tucked into socks, and light-colored fabrics that make ticks more visible for early detection.^[75] Avoiding wooded, brushy, or grassy areas—where these ticks are prevalent—and sticking to the center of trails further reduces exposure risk.^[75] Repellents play a key role in bite prevention; apply products containing 20-30% DEET or picaridin to exposed skin, following label instructions, as these are effective against I. scapularis and safe when used as directed, including for pregnant and breastfeeding individuals.^[75] For added protection, treat clothing, shoes, and gear with 0.5% permethrin, which kills or repels ticks upon contact and retains efficacy through multiple washes.^[75] After potential exposure, conduct thorough daily tick checks on the body—focusing on areas like armpits, groin, scalp, behind ears, and waistband—and shower within two hours of returning indoors to wash off unattached ticks.^[75] If a tick is found attached, remove it promptly using fine-tipped tweezers by grasping close to the skin and pulling steadily without twisting, as I. scapularis typically requires more than 24 hours of attachment to transmit pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi, making removal within this window highly effective for prevention.^[74] In post-exposure scenarios, prophylactic antibiotics may be warranted for high-risk bites from I. scapularis, defined by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines as occurring in highly endemic areas, with the tick identified as Ixodes species and engorged (indicating ≥36 hours attachment), provided treatment is initiated within 72 hours of removal.^[76] The recommended regimen is a single oral dose of doxycycline: 200 mg for adults and 4.4 mg/kg (up to 200 mg) for children ≥8 years old, which significantly reduces the risk of Lyme disease without routine need for follow-up testing unless symptoms develop.^[76] As of 2025, no Lyme disease vaccine is commercially available, but VLA15, an investigational multivalent vaccine targeting Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface protein A, remains in Phase 3 clinical trials (VALOR study) with promising immunogenicity data from pediatric and adult cohorts, potentially offering future prevention against I. scapularis-transmitted infection.^[77]

Environmental Strategies

Habitat management represents a foundational environmental strategy for reducing populations of Ixodes scapularis at the landscape level by altering conditions that favor tick survival and host availability. Regular mowing of lawns to less than 3 inches in height decreases humidity and vegetation density, limiting suitable microhabitats for questing ticks, while clearing leaf litter, brush, and overgrown vegetation eliminates protective cover and breeding sites for ticks and their rodent hosts. Creating physical barriers, such as 3-foot-wide strips of gravel, mulch, or wood chips between wooded edges and lawns, impedes tick dispersal from high-risk forested areas to residential yards, as I. scapularis prefers shaded, humid environments with leaf litter.^[78]^[79] To further suppress tick numbers, excluding key reproductive hosts like white-tailed deer through fencing is highly effective; electric or solid fencing around properties of at least 15 acres can reduce I. scapularis larvae by 100%, nymphs by 85%, and adults by 74% within the enclosed area by preventing deer from depositing egg-laying females.^[78] These non-chemical modifications not only target tick habitats but also integrate with community efforts to maintain "tick-safe zones" by increasing sunlight exposure through tree pruning and promoting open, manicured landscapes.^[80] Chemical controls, particularly targeted acaricide applications, provide area-wide suppression of I. scapularis when used judiciously under EPA guidelines to minimize environmental impact. Springtime broadcast applications of EPA-approved pyrethroids like bifenthrin to vegetation in residential yards achieve 70–100% mortality of host-seeking nymphs for up to 8 weeks, significantly lowering encounter risk during peak activity periods. Rodent bait boxes containing acaricides such as fipronil allow small mammals like white-footed mice—primary hosts for larval and nymphal ticks—to self-apply treatments, reducing tick burdens on reservoirs by up to 77% and interrupting transmission cycles without broad-spectrum spraying.^[81]^[82]^[83] Biological and integrated pest management (IPM) approaches offer sustainable alternatives or complements to chemical methods, focusing on natural enemies and combined tactics to achieve long-term population control. Entomopathogenic fungi, such as Metarhizium anisopliae (applied as formulations like Met52), infect and kill I. scapularis nymphs in field settings, with efficacy comparable to synthetic acaricides in residential trials by penetrating the tick's cuticle and causing mortality within days.^[84] Entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema and Heterorhabditis spp.) target developmental stages in soil and leaf litter, providing localized control with up to 90% lethality to engorged females in laboratory assays, though field persistence requires repeated applications.^[85] Host-targeted biological interventions, including oral ivermectin baits for rodents, have shown promising results in recent efficacy studies, achieving 70–90% reductions in larval tick attachment and overall I. scapularis abundance by killing feeding ticks systemically. IPM integrates these elements—habitat modification, selective acaricide use, and biological agents—for synergistic effects; for instance, combining deer exclusion with fungal applications and rodent baits can suppress tick populations by over 80% in community-scale programs, promoting ecological balance while reducing reliance on chemicals.^[86]^[83]

Genomics and Research

Genome Sequencing

The genome sequencing project for Ixodes scapularis began in 2008 through a collaborative effort by the Broad Institute and the J. Craig Venter Institute, funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), to produce the first comprehensive nuclear genome sequence for a tick species. Targeting the Wikel strain, the project generated approximately 3.8× coverage using whole-genome shotgun Sanger sequencing, yielding an estimated total nuclear genome size of 2.1 Gbp for this diploid arthropod, which has a 2n chromosome complement of 28 (14 pairs, including 13 autosomal pairs and one sex chromosome pair; NCBI taxon ID: 6945).^[87] This initiative marked a foundational step in tick genomics, addressing the species' role as a vector for pathogens like Borrelia burgdorferi.^[88]^[87] The primary reference assembly, designated GCA_000208615.1 (also known as JCVI_ISG_i3_1.0), was published in 2016 and assembles to 1.8 Gbp across 369,495 scaffolds (N50 = 51.6 kb), representing ~86% of the estimated genome.^[87] Annotation efforts identified 20,486 high-confidence protein-coding genes within the assembled scaffolds, reflecting the genome's complexity driven by extensive repetitive sequences. Repetitive DNA constitutes roughly 70% of the I. scapularis genome, including transposable elements (~30%), such as non-LTR retrotransposons that account for about 6.5% and show evidence of recent activity through sequence conservation and copy number variation.^[87] This high repetitiveness, combined with tandem repeat expansions, hindered efforts to produce a fully closed, chromosome-level assembly in the initial draft despite the diploid structure. A major improvement came in 2023 with a chromosome-scale assembly using PacBio HiFi long-reads and Hi-C scaffolding, producing 2.2 Gbp across 648 scaffolds (N50 = 132.1 Mb) organized into 15 pseudochromosomes (13 autosomes + X and Y sex chromosomes), enhancing resolution of repetitive regions and gene models.^[89]^[90] Functional annotations of the genome emphasize gene families critical to the tick's parasitic lifestyle, including expansions in salivary protein genes (e.g., those encoding cement-like attachment factors and antihemostatic agents), immune evasion factors (such as serpins and complement inhibitors that modulate host responses), and digestive enzymes (like cathepsins for blood meal processing). These features, identified through comparative genomics and transcriptomic integration, underscore adaptations for prolonged host attachment and pathogen acquisition, though fragmentation in earlier assemblies limited complete gene model resolution.^[87]

Recent Genetic Studies

Recent genetic studies on Ixodes scapularis have focused on population-level diversity, revealing regional variations that inform the tick's ongoing range expansion. Whole-genome sequencing of populations has identified clade-specific genetic variation, including differences in epidemiologically relevant gene families between southern and northern clades.^[91] A 2025 analysis of blacklegged ticks during Midwestern range expansion highlighted genetic and landscape connectivity patterns, with evidence of low diversity in expanding northern populations suggestive of recent colonization.^[32] These findings indicate genetic structure linked to post-glacial recolonization and adaptation during range shifts.^[4] Advancements in microbiome research have elucidated the role of bacterial symbionts in tick physiology and pathogen transmission. A 2025 study employing 16S rRNA gene sequencing and mass spectrometry-based proteomics on I. scapularis ticks from New York identified dominant bacterial communities, including the endosymbiont Rickettsia buchneri, which provides essential B vitamins for tick reproduction and survival.^[92] This symbiosis was shown to exclude pathogenic Rickettsia species through competitive mechanisms and antimicrobial production, potentially reducing the tick's vector competence for certain diseases.^[93] Regional proteomic variations further suggest that microbiome composition influences host-seeking behavior and pathogen acquisition across populations.^[92] Applied genetic approaches have progressed toward vector control and improved genomic resources. A 2024 preprint reviewed and optimized ReMOT (Recombination-Mediated Ovary Transduction) and CRISPR-Cas9 systems for targeted edits in arthropod embryos, including prior applications in I. scapularis to disrupt genes involved in blood meal digestion, impairing reproduction and pathogen transmission.^[94] These build on earlier 2022 validations of CRISPR-Cas9 embryo injection for genome editing in I. scapularis.^[95] Concurrently, the 2023 genome assembly update incorporated long-read sequencing, enhancing annotation of repetitive regions and identifying clade-specific variants for better functional genomics.^[89]^[91]

References

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EENY-143/IN300: Blacklegged Tick or Deer Tick, Ixodes scapularis ...
The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, is an important vector of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, as well as the agents of human babesiosis, ...Life Cycle · Surveillance · Management
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Tick Lifecycles - CDC
Oct 11, 2024 · The lifecycle of Ixodes scapularis ticks generally lasts two years. During this time, they go through four life stages: egg, larva, nymph, and adult.
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Jul 30, 2025 · Thousands of ticks may be found at a time in grass or shrubs or on an animal. Blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis). View LargerDownload. Closeup ...Blacklegged Tick Surveillance · Tick Data · American Dog Tick Surveillance<|control11|><|separator|>
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Ixodes scapularis, also known as the black-legged tick, is also called deer tick or shoulder tick. Its common name is black-legged tick.
[6]
An overview of systematics and evolution of ticks - PubMed
Jan 1, 2009 · The Ixodidae were formed by the basal Prostriata group (genus Ixodes subfamily Ixodinae) and the Metastriata group (all others genera).
[7]
Diapause in ticks of the medically important Ixodes ricinus species ...
Four members of the Ixodes ricinus species complex, Ixodes pacificus, Ixodes persulcatus, Ixodes ricinus and Ixodes scapularis, have, between them, a ...
[8]
Projected effects of climate change on tick phenology and fitness of ...
Ixodes scapularis is the tick vector of a number of zoonoses, including Lyme borreliosis, the most frequent vector-borne disease of humans in the temperate zone ...
[9]
Possible Effects of Climate Change on Ixodid Ticks and the ...
Oct 28, 2020 · In some regions a warming climate may increase tick survival, shorten life-cycles and lengthen the duration of tick activity seasons.
[10]
Ixodidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Ixodidae, or hard ticks, have a hard dorsal scutum, expand during feeding (especially females), and have visible capitulum dorsally.
[11]
Ixodes - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Translingual. Ixodes ricinus (castor bean tick). Etymology. New Latin, from Ancient Greek ἰξώδης (ixṓdēs, “like bird-lime, sticky, clammy”). Proper noun. Ixodes ...
[12]
Changes in the geographic distribution of the blacklegged tick ...
Population genetic structure of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis at an apparent spatial expansion front ... Ixodes dammini: a junior synonym for Ixodes ...
[13]
DPDx - Ticks - CDC
scapularis and I. pacificus. Adults are characterized by having mouthparts longer than the basis capituli, a lack of festoons, an inornate dorsal shield ...
[14]
Ixodes scapularis (black legged tick) - Animal Diversity Web
Ixodes scapularis ; Kingdom, Animalia animals ; Class, Arachnida ; Order, Ixodida ; Family, Ixodidae ; Genus, Ixodes.
[15]
Blacklegged (Deer) Tick, Ixodes scapularis - Ohioline
Feb 29, 2024 · The nymphal stage is translucent to slightly gray or brown. The adult female has a red-orange body surrounding the dark brown shield. After they ...
[16]
Focus Stacking Images of Morphological Character States for ...
Apr 17, 2021 · (F) Ixodes scapularis adult female, ventral podosoma view, noting presence of short, curved spur extending from coxa I, and the position of the ...
[17]
Detailed description of the Ixodes scapularis, or black-legged tick or ...
Morphological characteristics · 1- Basis capituli rectangular · 2- Long palps (palps are longer than the basis capituli) · 3- Partial shield, oval, dark and ...Missing: adult | Show results with:adult
[18]
[PDF] Common Ticks of North Carolina: An Identification Guide
Apr 14, 2023 · Ticks have a shield or scutum on their back. It is small in females and covers most of the body in males. The rear edge of ticks may be ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
Ixodes - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Ixodes refers to a genus of hard ticks that act as vectors for Lyme borreliosis, with specific species such as Ixodes scapularis in the eastern United ...
[20]
Anatomy of a Female Deer Tick - TickCheck
Anal Groove. Used to identify species of tick. Deer ticks (Ixodes scapularis) will have an anal groove that extends above the anus while other species of tick ...Missing: color | Show results with:color
[21]
Ticks of Public Health - Extension Entomology - Purdue University
Ixodes scapularis: The black-legged tick occurs throughout the eastern U.S., and can be locally abundant in moist woodlands with thick leaf litter. Adults are ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
Blacklegged (Deer) Tick - The University of Rhode Island
Unfed female blacklegged ticks are easily distinguished from other ticks by the orange-red body surrounding the black scutum. Males do not engorge and ...
[23]
[PDF] Tick Management Handbook - CT.gov
A distinct semicircular anal groove curves around the front of the anal opening in Ixodes ticks. In all other ticks, the anal groove is behind the anus or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Insights into the development of Ixodes scapularis: a resource for ...
Nov 14, 2015 · Nymphs feed for 4–6 days, after which they drop off the host and molt to the adult (male or female) stage, a process that requires 4–5 weeks.
[25]
Different Populations of Blacklegged Tick Nymphs Exhibit ...
May 21, 2015 · We studied the questing (= host-seeking) behavior of blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) nymphs, which are the primary vectors of Lyme disease ...
[26]
Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus
Jul 1, 2015 · Ixodes scapularis and I. pacificus are 'three-host' ticks, which means that each feeding stage (larva, nymph, and adult) will molt off the host ...
[27]
Environmental Factors Affecting Survival of Immature Ixodes ...
Jan 11, 2017 · Recent reports suggest that host-seeking nymphs in southern populations of Ixodes scapularis remain below the leaf litter surface, ...
[28]
Passive and Active Surveillance for Ixodes scapularis (Acari
Oct 16, 2019 · The first resident population of I. scapularis in Canada was discovered at Long Point in southern Ontario during the 1970s (Watson and Anderson ...Missing: native | Show results with:native
[29]
Changes in the geographic distribution of the blacklegged tick ...
Ixodes scapularis (the blacklegged tick) was considered a species of no medical concern until the mid-1970s. By that time, the tick's geographic distribution ...
[30]
[PDF] Surveillance for Ixodes scapularis and pathogens found in this tick ...
detect and differentiate human pathogens infecting Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae). Ticks. Tick Borne Dis. 9: 390-403. Hahn, M. B. ...
[31]
Genetic and Landscape Connectivity of Blacklegged Ticks During ...
Oct 22, 2025 · Since the 1970s, the Midwestern USA has experienced an expansion of blacklegged ticks ( Ixodes scapularis ), the primary vector of Lyme disease ...
[32]
Blacklegged Ticks Now Identified in Two Montana Counties - dphhs
May 21, 2025 · Three blacklegged ticks were identified in the state for the first time through active surveillance conducted by researchers and public health officials.
[33]
Predicting the Risk of Lyme Disease: Habitat Suitability for Ixodes ...
Tick absence was associated with grasslands, conifer forests, wet to wet/mesic forests, acidic soils of low fertility and a clay soil texture, and Precambrian ...
[34]
Climate change and Ixodes tick-borne diseases of humans - PMC
Ixodes scapularis is highly susceptible to desiccation when relative humidity drops below approximately 90% [38]. Even a few hours at low humidity can be lethal ...Missing: optimal | Show results with:optimal
[35]
Linkages of Weather and Climate With Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes ...
The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say,. is the primary vector to humans of a wide range of pathogens in the eastern United States and southeastern Canada.<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
The impacts of climate and land use change on tick-related risks
Nov 23, 2022 · Ixodes ticks are more sensitive to environmental variability and prefer higher moisture areas, such as under leaf litter or forest canopy.11 ...
[37]
A comparative evaluation of northern and southern Ixodes ...
If all southern I. scapularis nymphs are questing at lower heights, this might make them less likely to come into contact with humans and this may be ...
[38]
Ixodidae) nymphs on residential properties in Connecticut, USA
Feb 20, 2024 · We determined that nymphal I. scapularis densities were greatest in forested areas closest to lawn edges with leaf litter or understory vegetation present.
[39]
Overwintering Survival of Nymphal Ixodes scapularis (Acari
We present the results of a study of the overwintering survival of I. scapularis nymphs in their natural environment from October through May in two locations ...Abstract · Materials and Methods · Results · DiscussionMissing: questing height
[40]
Lawn mowing frequency in suburban areas has no detectable effect ...
Apr 3, 2019 · Promoting frequent mowing (i.e., shorter lawns) and the removal of grass clippings could have minimal impacts on tick microhabitats, but is ...
[41]
Environmental Factors Affecting Survival of Immature Ixodes ...
Recent reports suggest that host-seeking nymphs in southern populations of Ixodes scapularis remain below the leaf litter surface, while northern nymphs seek ...
[42]
Evaluation of the association between climate warming and the ...
Nov 27, 2023 · In this review, we summarize the evidence for the observed spread and proliferation of I. scapularis being driven by climate warming.
[43]
Common Ticks of Oklahoma and Tick-Borne Diseases
The larval and nymphal stages have been known to survive two years or longer without feeding. Under suitable conditions, the life cycle from egg to adult may ...Common Ticks Of Oklahoma And... · Soft Ticks · Hard Ticks
[44]
Rearing Ixodes scapularis, the Black-legged Tick: Feeding Immature ...
May 8, 2017 · Larval ticks attach to their host for 3 - 5 days for feeding and drop off the host when fully engorged. ... Figure 1: Feeding Ixodes scapularis ...
[45]
The Blacklegged Tick | Freehold Township, NJ
After feeding for 3 to 4 days, the nymphs will leave the host, digest the blood, and molt to adults in the fall of the same year. If the nymph was infected by ...
[46]
Ixodes scapularis Life cycle
Ixodes scapularis, commonly known as the blacklegged or deer tick has four life stages; egg, larva, nymph, and adult (male and female).Missing: Ixodinae | Show results with:Ixodinae
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5607899/
[48]
Lack of host‐associated differentiation in Ixodes scapularis using ...
Dec 10, 2024 · The ticks used in the final genetic analyses originated from six hosts. The first being cotton mice (P. gossypinus), which were trapped using ...Missing: synonym | Show results with:synonym
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Blacklegged Tick | Department of Entomology
Ixodes scapularis is commonly known as the blacklegged tick, because of its black legs. Sometimes, it is also occasionally referred to as the deer tick.
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Tickborne Disease - Arkansas Department of Health
scapularis larvae and nymphs feed on small mammals and birds, while adults feed on larger mammals and will bite humans on occasion. It is important to note ...Facts And Information · Tick Species · Blacklegged Tick
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Genomic insights into the Ixodes scapularis tick vector of Lyme ... - NIH
Feb 9, 2016 · We describe the 2.1 Gbp nuclear genome of the tick, Ixodes scapularis (Say), which vectors pathogens that cause Lyme disease, human granulocytic ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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Questing by Tick Larvae (Acari: Ixodidae) - PubMed Central - NIH
The larvae of Ixodes scapularis (Say) are more resistant to low temperatures than nymphs, with 50% of the mortality (LT50) occurring at 12.3°C compared with the ...
[53]
How ticks get under your skin: insertion mechanics of the feeding ...
The tick Ixodes ricinus uses its mouthparts to penetrate the skin of its host and to remain attached for about a week.
[54]
Mammal Diversity and Infection Prevalence in the Maintenance of ...
Peromyscus leucopus Rafinesque, the white-footed mouse, is the primary reservoir for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, the etiologic agent of Lyme disease ...
[55]
[PDF] Experimental Demonstration of Reservoir Competence of the White ...
The white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus (Rafinesque), is a reservoir for the Lyme disease spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto in the eastern half ...
[56]
Seasonal activity patterns of Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus ...
Jan 6, 2025 · I. scapularis adults have a bimodal seasonal pattern, with activity peaks in fall (October to November) and spring (April to May).
[57]
Seasonal activity patterns of host-seeking Ixodes scapularis (Acari
Nymphs were most active from May through August, with continuing low-level activity in October, and peak activity most commonly observed in June. The observed ...
[58]
Ambient air temperature as a predictor of activity of adult Ixodes ...
Based on winter flagging experiments on Long Island, NY, adult Ixodes scapularis Say have an apparent threshold of questing activity at 4 degrees C. This ...
[59]
Climate Change Indicators: Lyme Disease | US EPA
Evidence suggests that expanding ranges of ticks in certain northern states may be more related to a warming climate than expanding ranges in southern states., ...
[60]
Evidence for geographic variation in life-cycle processes affecting ...
Jul 7, 2018 · The seasonal activity pattern of immature Ixodes scapularis Say (Acari: Ixodidae) varies geographically in the United States, ...
[61]
A summer in the tick trenches | Penn Today
Sep 23, 2025 · ... seasonal activity patterns on populations of human pathogens carried by black-legged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, also known as deer ticks.
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Ixodes scapularis: Vector to an Increasing Diversity of Human ...
The black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis (I scapularis), is now recognized as the deadliest tick vector in the United States.
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Prevalence of five human pathogens in host-seeking Ixodes ...
The majority of vector-borne disease cases reported in the United States (U.S.) are caused by pathogens spread by the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis.
[64]
Human pathogens associated with the blacklegged tick Ixodes ...
Blacklegged ticks harbored 91 distinct taxa, 16 of these are tick-transmitted human pathogens, including species of Anaplasma, Babesia, Bartonella, Borrelia, ...
[65]
Detection of multiple tick-borne pathogens in Ixodes scapularis from ...
Over 2 years, 25.4% of nymphs and 58.4% of adults were found infected with at least one pathogen, with 10.6% of all ticks infected with more than one pathogen.Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
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An Experimental Murine Model to Study Acquisition Dynamics ... - NIH
Ixodes scapularis ticks acquire several pathogens from reservoir animals and transmit them to humans. Development of an animal model to study acquisition ...
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Coinfections Acquired from Ixodes Ticks - PMC - PubMed Central
... eggs), or from one tick to another during cofeeding in close proximity on ... Notably, approximately 20% of patients with LD do not develop a rash (195, 200), and ...
[68]
Vertical transmission rates of Borrelia miyamotoi in Ixodes ...
Feb 26, 2019 · In contrast to Lyme borreliae, B. miyamotoi can be transmitted vertically from infected female ticks to their progeny.
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The Essential Role of Tick Salivary Glands and Saliva in Tick ...
Immunity against Ixodes scapularis salivary proteins expressed within 24 hours of attachment thwarts tick feeding and impairs Borrelia transmission. PLoS ...
[70]
Pathogen transmission in relation to duration of attachment by ... - NIH
The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, is the primary vector to humans in the eastern United States of a suite of seven pathogenic microorganisms: the deer ...
[71]
duration of tick attachment required for transmission of powassan ...
Nymphal deer ticks efficiently transmitted POW virus to naive mice after as few as 15 minutes of attachment.
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Ixodes scapularis saliva mitigates inflammatory cytokine secretion ...
Oct 10, 2012 · Ixodes scapularis saliva enables the transmission of infectious agents to the mammalian host due to its immunomodulatory, anesthetic and ...
[73]
How Lyme Disease Spreads - CDC
Sep 24, 2024 · Lyme disease bacteria causing human infection in the United States are spread to people by blacklegged (Ixodes) ticks.
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Preventing Tick Bites - CDC
Aug 28, 2024 · Before you go outdoors · Know where to expect ticks. · Treat clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin. · Avoid contact with ticks ...Missing: Ixodes | Show results with:Ixodes
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[PDF] Guidelines Summary for the Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment ...
Nov 30, 2020 · Who should receive antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent. Lyme disease following presentation with a tick bite? Level. Recommendation. Strong.
[76]
Lyme Disease - VLA15 - Valneva
In September 2025, following a further positive data from a third booster vaccination of VLA15 in children and adults given one year after receiving the second ...
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None
### Habitat Management Strategies for Reducing Ixodes scapularis Populations
[78]
IPM Action Plan for Ticks - School Integrated Pest Management
Reduce deer habitat or erect deer-exclusion fencing. Rake leaf litter and use wood chips or plant shade-tolerant grass under shade trees to reduce tick ...
[79]
[PDF] The Deer Tick (Ixodes scapularis) - Maine.gov
Management practices include: a) personal protective measures (such as wearing appropriate clothing, avoiding habitats associated with ticks, and judicious use ...
[80]
Early Season Applications of Bifenthrin Suppress Host-seeking ...
May 4, 2020 · Ixodes scapularis nymphs and A. americanum nymphs and adults were effectively suppressed after each application, with at or near 100% ...
[81]
[PDF] Tick-Borne Disease Integrated Pest Management White Paper
EPA receives its authority and responsibility to register pesticides for specified uses under the. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA).<|separator|>
[82]
Efficacy of a low dose fipronil bait against blacklegged tick (Ixodes ...
Jul 31, 2020 · We provide early indication that low dose fipronil bait, orally presented to white-footed mice, can effectively control blacklegged tick larvae.
[83]
The tick biocontrol agent Metarhizium brunneum (= M. anisopliae ...
Previous studies have found that Met52®, which contains the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium brunneum, is effective in reducing the abundance of Ixodes ...
[84]
Entomopathogenic Nematodes as Control Agents of Developmental ...
Entomopathogenic nematodes may be useful as an alternative management method for I. scapularis populations, and may be more acceptable than acaricidal chemicals ...
[85]
(PDF) In vitro and in vivo acaricidal properties of orally delivered ...
Oct 23, 2025 · Ivermectin-treated corn has also been shown to be effective against adult ticks feeding on deer. The goal of this study was to assess acaricidal ...
[86]
Ixodes Scapularis Genome Project | J. Craig Venter Institute
On December 3rd, 2008, the NIAID Microbial Sequencing Centers announced annotation Release 1.0 of the Ixodes scapularis genome sequence (GenBank accession ...
[87]
Genomic insights into the Ixodes scapularis tick vector of Lyme ...
Feb 9, 2016 · We describe the 2.1 Gbp nuclear genome of the tick, Ixodes scapularis (Say), which vectors pathogens that cause Lyme disease, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, ...Missing: parthenogenesis | Show results with:parthenogenesis
[88]
Genome-wide insights into genetic diversity of endemic and non ...
Oct 1, 2025 · The sequencing and assembly of the first tick genome, Ixodes scapularis enabled studies on the mechanisms underlying tick‒host‒pathogen ...
[89]
Whole-Genome Resequencing-Based Assessment of Genomic ...
May 30, 2025 · Understanding the fundamental genomic data and genetic diversity of ticks will provide new opportunities and establish a theoretical basis for ...
[90]
Genomic and Proteomic Analyses of Bacterial Communities of ...
Jan 24, 2025 · We analyzed bacterial communities in I. scapularis ticks collected from Broome County, New York, using 16S rRNA gene sequencing (18 ticks) as well as mass ...
[91]
Genomic and Proteomic Analyses of Bacterial Communities ... - MDPI
Rickettsia buchneri is a key endosymbiont in the biology of Ixodes scapularis, providing essential nutrients such as B vitamins, which are crucial for the ...
[92]
(PDF) Genomic and Proteomic Analyses of Bacterial Communities of ...
Jan 14, 2025 · The microbial communities of Ixodes scapularis, the primary vector of Lyme disease in North America, exhibit regional variations that may affect ...
[93]
[PDF] advances and strategy optimization of ReMOT-mediated genetic ...
Dec 24, 2024 · ReMOT simplifies delivery, target site selection, and cost for gene editing in insects, enabling efficient germline editing. It uses a guiding ...<|separator|>
[94]
Validation of heat-inducible Ixodes scapularis HSP70 and tick ...
Jul 7, 2024 · Heat-inducible promoters are useful in controlling gene expression with applications including transgenesis and genome editing by allowing ...
[95]
Whole Genome Sequencing Reveals Clade‐Specific Genetic ...
Feb 11, 2025 · Our study provides further evidence of genetic divergence in epidemiologically relevant gene families among blacklegged tick clades. This report ...2 Methods · 2.3 Variant Analysis · 3.2 Variant Analysis