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Jabal al Akhdar

Jabal al-Akhdar (Arabic: الجبل الأخضر, "the Green Mountain") is a limestone plateau in northeastern Libya, forming a fertile upland area that rises to maximum elevations of about 900 meters above sea level.^[1] This region, part of the broader Cyrenaica province, experiences a moderate Mediterranean climate with Libya's highest annual rainfall, reaching up to 600 mm, which supports dense forests of cypress and Aleppo pine alongside intensive agriculture focused on fruits, potatoes, and cereals.^[2]^[3]^[4] Contrasting sharply with the surrounding arid deserts and sub-desert steppes, Jabal al-Akhdar provides a rare pocket of vegetation and arable land in an otherwise hyper-arid country, historically sustaining settled populations and serving as a vital ecological and agricultural hub.^[1] The plateau's dissected terrain, featuring valleys, wadis, and karst features like dolines and caves, further enhances its biodiversity and water retention, though periodic droughts remain a challenge.^[5] Administratively, it corresponds to the Al Jabal al Akhdar District, encompassing approximately 11,429 square kilometers and a population of over 200,000 centered around cities like Bayda.^[6]

Geography

Location and Topography

Jabal al-Akhdar, known as the Green Mountains or Jebel Akhdar, occupies northeastern Libya in the Cyrenaica region, forming a crescent-shaped upland ridge that extends roughly eastward from near Benghazi toward Tobruk along the Mediterranean coastal zone. This plateau lies between the coastal plain to the north and the arid interior deserts to the south, spanning approximately 300 kilometers in length and up to 60 kilometers in width.^[4]^[7]^[8] Topographically, the region features a dissected limestone plateau with elevations exceeding 800 meters, reaching maximum heights of around 900 meters above sea level. It is characterized by steep northern escarpments dropping to the coastal lowlands, irregular southern slopes descending toward the Libyan Desert, and a network of deep wadis and valleys that incise the plateau surface. These landforms result from tectonic uplift and erosion acting on the underlying sedimentary rocks.^[7]^[4] Geologically, Jabal al-Akhdar represents an anticlinorium structure within a vast sedimentary basin originating from late Triassic continental rifting on the African platform. The dominant lithology consists of Mesozoic limestone formations, shaped by multiple tectonic events that have influenced surface morphology, including faulting and folding that contribute to its rugged terrain.^[7]^[9]^[10]

Climate and Hydrology

The climate of Jabal al-Akhdar features a Mediterranean regime moderated by elevation, resulting in cooler conditions and greater precipitation relative to Libya's coastal lowlands and deserts. Annual rainfall varies from 250 to 500 mm, concentrated mainly from October to April, making it Libya's wettest region.^[11] Temperatures average 18–24°C annually, with winter lows reaching 6°C or below at higher altitudes, where frost occurs periodically, and summer highs moderated to around 28°C.^[12] ^[13] This climatic distinctiveness, including occasional mists, supports the area's vegetation that earns it the "Green Mountain" epithet, contrasting sharply with the arid surroundings.^[14] Hydrologically, the region relies on aquifers recharged through direct rainfall infiltration and seepage from wadi beds, with the Al Jabal al Akhdar aquifer being relatively shallow and responsive to precipitation.^[15] ^[16] Wadis channel seasonal runoff, serving as surface water conduits that enable localized moisture retention essential for upland ecosystems and agriculture.^[8] Karstic springs emerging from Eocene formations, such as those in central areas, provide consistent outflows, while the system's vulnerability to intense winter storms leads to flash flooding in valleys.^[17] ^[18] These water dynamics underscore the plateau's hydrological isolation from Libya's predominant fossil groundwater dependence elsewhere.^[19]

History

Early Settlement and Traditional Use

The Jebel Akhdar plateau in Cyrenaica exhibits evidence of human habitation extending into the Paleolithic era, with the nearby Haua Fteah cave demonstrating continuous occupation from approximately 200,000 years ago through Neolithic phases, characterized by ground stone tools and early agricultural adaptations suited to the region's Mediterranean-influenced uplands.^[20] Neolithic sites across the Jebel Akhdar further indicate settled communities engaging in rudimentary farming and pastoralism, leveraging the plateau's fertile soils and seasonal rainfall for cereal cultivation and livestock rearing amid a landscape transitioning from coastal lowlands to arid interiors.^[21] Prior to Greek colonization in the 7th century BCE, indigenous Libyan (proto-Berber) populations maintained settlements on the plateau, as evidenced by pre-colonial artifacts at sites like Cyrene, where local habitation predated external influences and centered on exploiting natural resources such as wild grains, game, and silphium—a resinous plant endemic to Cyrenaica used medicinally and exported via coastal trade routes.^[22] Greek settlers from Thera established Cyrene in 631 BCE on a ridge within the Jebel Akhdar, transforming parts of the interior into organized agricultural zones producing grain, wine, livestock, and silphium for Mediterranean markets, while integrating with or displacing native groups through fortified hilltop communities that capitalized on the terrain's escarpments for defense.^[23] These early economies relied on terrace-like farming precursors and herding, with the plateau serving as a refuge from lowland raids due to its steep wadis and elevated isolation.^[24] From Roman through Ottoman periods, Berber-Arab tribal confederations dominated traditional land use, practicing semi-nomadic pastoralism with sheep and goats alongside olive and fruit orchards in higher elevations, under loose suzerainty that preserved communal resource management and resistance to distant central authorities.^[25] Families like the Mrayyid wielded influence in the 19th century, leading intertribal contests over grazing lands and water sources while sustaining trade links to coastal ports like Apollonia, emphasizing self-reliant subsistence over large-scale commercialization.^[25] This pattern underscored the region's role as a cultural and economic buffer between desert nomads and maritime influences, with tribal autonomy fostering resilient, kin-based systems of tenure and conflict resolution.

Jebel Akhdar War (1954–1959)

The Jebel Akhdar War arose from longstanding tensions between the Sultanate of Muscat and the autonomous Imamate of Oman in the interior, exacerbated by the Sultan's efforts to centralize authority and exploit oil resources. In December 1952, Imam Muhammad bin Abdullah al-Hinai ceded power to his brother Ghalib bin Ali al-Hinai following the Sultan's forces' eviction of Saudi garrisons from the Buraimi Oasis, but Ghalib's subsequent moves to assert Imamate independence clashed with Sultan Said bin Taimur's ambitions.^[26] The immediate trigger occurred on October 10, 1954, when the Sultan authorized the British-majority-owned Iraq Petroleum Company to prospect near Fahud in Imamate territory, prompting rebels under Imam Ghalib to seize control of interior strongholds including Nizwa and the Jebel Akhdar plateau to defend tribal autonomy against perceived coastal encroachment.^[27] Saudi Arabia provided financial and material support to the Imamate rebels, aiming to expand influence through frontier revisionism, while Egyptian backing under Gamal Abdel Nasser further sustained the insurgency via an alliance with conservative Saudi interests.^[28] Some British expatriates and politicians, including Conservative MP Julian Amery, initially advocated for Imamate self-determination in parliamentary debates, reflecting divided external views on Omani unification.^[29] Rebel forces, numbering around 400 fighters equipped with smuggled arms, entrenched on the 10,000-foot Jebel Akhdar escarpment, leveraging its steep cliffs and terraced villages for defense against Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF) assaults. Early engagements included the SAF's recapture of Nizwa in 1955, but rebels repelled ground advances through ambushes and terrain advantages, inflicting casualties while sustaining supply lines from Saudi border routes.^[27] By 1957, renewed rebel offensives targeted oil operations and coastal garrisons, prompting intensified British advisory support to the Sultan, including RAF air strikes with Shackleton bombers dropping over 1,500 tons of munitions in 429 sorties to soften rebel positions without decisive effect due to the plateau's elevation.^[28] Conventional assaults failed repeatedly; for instance, a 1958 SAF push from the northern face stalled amid heavy rebel fire, highlighting the limitations of artillery and Venom fighter-bombers against dispersed, cave-sheltered defenders.^[26] The war's turning point came in January 1959 with a clandestine SAS operation, as British authorities authorized direct intervention to avert broader regional instability. On the night of January 26, two troops from 22 SAS—totaling about 140 men under Lieutenant Colonel Anthony Deane-Drummond—scaled the near-vertical southern escarpment using ropes and minimal equipment, evading detection to seize the Saiq Plateau by dawn on January 27 after overcoming rebel outposts in hand-to-hand fighting.^[30] Supported by diversionary feints, RAF airstrikes, and SAF reinforcements via donkey trails, the SAS advanced to capture key villages like Bani Habib and Sharaijah by January 30, collapsing rebel command structures.^[27] Imam Ghalib and leading sheikhs fled to Saudi Arabia, ending organized resistance as surviving fighters dispersed into the mountains.^[31] Casualties totaled hundreds among rebels, with estimates of 176 interior Omanis killed in the final month's operations alone, while government losses remained limited: three SAS fatalities in the assault and around 13 combined British and SAF deaths in the decisive phase, underscoring the asymmetry of the SAS's tactical innovation against numerically superior but logistically strained insurgents.^[26] The victory consolidated the Sultan's control over the interior, neutralizing Saudi-backed separatism and enabling oil exploration, though it exposed Oman's tribal fractures and reliance on British military expertise.^[32]

Post-War Integration and Modernization

Following the defeat of the Imamate rebellion in 1959, Jabal al-Akhdar transitioned from a center of separatist activity to a strategically secured region under the Sultanate's control, with military presence ensuring stability amid ongoing tribal tensions. Sultan Qaboos bin Said's bloodless coup on July 23, 1970, which deposed his father Sultan Said bin Taimur, initiated a national modernization drive that extended to the highlands, leveraging oil revenues to fund infrastructure and reduce isolation. This centralization supplanted fragmented tribal authority with unified state administration, fostering economic integration without reliance on external interventions beyond initial British advisory support during the war.^[33] Access to Jabal al-Akhdar remained restricted primarily to Omani nationals and permit-holding foreigners until the 1990s, a measure rooted in post-rebellion security concerns to prevent resurgence of insurgent networks. By the late 20th century, as national stability solidified under Qaboos's reforms, these controls eased, enabling civilian repurposing of former military outposts and initial road improvements that connected the plateau to coastal centers like Nizwa. Oil-funded investments post-1970 prioritized basic infrastructure, such as water systems and terraced farm enhancements, which elevated local living standards from subsistence levels—marked by limited electricity and healthcare access under prior isolated governance—to those aligned with broader Omani development metrics, including higher literacy and life expectancy by the 2000s.^[34]^[35]^[36] This integration contributed to Oman's overall political cohesion, as Jabal al-Akhdar's incorporation demonstrated the efficacy of centralized authority in quelling peripheral unrest and promoting equitable resource distribution, evidenced by the region's shift toward sustainable agriculture and reduced emigration rates. Narratives portraying perpetual tribal oppression overlook empirical gains, such as the expansion of state services that by 2010 had integrated highland communities into national welfare frameworks, yielding measurable improvements in household incomes and infrastructure density compared to pre-1970 fragmentation.^[37]^[38]

Administration and Demographics

Governance Structure

The Wilayat of Al Jabal al-Akhdar constitutes a distinct administrative division within the Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate, one of the Sultanate of Oman's 11 governorates, each subdivided into wilayats overseen by appointed walīs under the Ministry of Interior.^[39]^[40] The wilayat's wali, currently Sheikh Sultan bin Mansour Al Ghafili, manages local affairs including coordination with national entities for development projects and citizen services.^[40]^[41] The Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate, headed by Governor Sheikh Hilal bin Saeed Al Hajri, facilitates integration of wilayat-level initiatives with broader national policies, emphasizing economic and social advancement aligned with Omani Vision 2040.^[40] Local administration operates through the governorate's office, which safeguards community interests and implements programs in partnership with federal ministries.^[40] Sultan Qaboos bin Said's accession on July 23, 1970, marked a pivotal centralization of authority, dissolving residual Imamate autonomy from Oman's interior following the Jebel Akhdar War's resolution in 1959 and enabling direct national oversight.^[39] This shift streamlined resource allocation from centralized ministries, enhancing provision of public services such as education and healthcare to previously isolated highland areas.^[42] Traditional tribal sheikhs retain informal influence in mediating village-level disputes, operating within the formalized structure of appointed walīs and governorate councils.^[43]

Population and Settlements

The population of the Jabal al Akhdar district, encompassing the elevated plateau and its rural settlements, stood at 206,180 according to the 2006 census, with projections estimating growth to around 250,000 by 2020; this yields an average density of approximately 18 persons per square kilometer across the district's 11,429 square kilometers, though remote highland areas exhibit much lower densities due to steep topography and limited arable land.^[44] Residents are predominantly ethnic Arabs descended from Bedouin tribes such as the Sa'adi and 'Abaidat, who trace origins to historical migrations into Cyrenaica and maintain patrilineal clan structures centered on extended family loyalties and customary dispute resolution.^[45] ^[46] Berber elements persist in some lineages, but Arab cultural dominance prevails in language, Sunni Islamic practices, and social organization, reflecting centuries of assimilation following the 7th-century Arab conquests.^[47] Settlements cluster in dispersed villages along terraced slopes and wadis, including key locales like Al Bayda (the district capital), Slonta, and areas near Labraq, where communities adapt to the karstic landscape with compact clusters rather than dense urban forms; household sizes average near 7 persons, supporting extended kin-based units typical of semi-sedentary pastoralists transitioning to agriculture.^[44] Traditional dwellings historically employed local limestone and mortar for durability against seasonal rains, evolving in recent decades to incorporate concrete reinforcements for stability, while preserving flat roofs and inward-facing courtyards for privacy and microclimate control.^[48] Low settlement density—often under 5 persons per square kilometer in upland interiors—stems from terrain constraints, fostering isolated hamlets reliant on kinship networks for mutual aid rather than centralized markets.^[49] Post-1970s state investments in rural infrastructure and education elevated local indicators, aligning with national literacy rates surpassing 80% by 2003 and life expectancy exceeding 75 years, a marked shift from pre-1951 isolation under Ottoman and Italian rule when access was limited and basic services scarce; these gains preserved tribal continuity by enabling youth retention in villages through improved schooling and health access, countering urban migration pressures.^[50] ^[51] Despite modernization, core social fabrics—such as endogamous marriages within clans and reliance on oral histories—endure, underscoring resilience in a region historically marginalized from coastal centers.^[48]

Economy and Agriculture

Traditional Terraced Farming and Irrigation

Traditional terraced farming in Jabal al Akhdar involved constructing dry-stone walls to form level platforms on steep limestone slopes, thereby retaining topsoil eroded by winter rains and expanding cultivable area in a topography dominated by escarpments and plateaus. These labor-intensive structures, often spanning elevations from 300 to 900 meters, captured runoff and minimized gullying, enabling sustained dryland agriculture in an otherwise marginal Mediterranean semi-arid environment where flat land is scarce.^[46] Supplementary irrigation drew from the region's karst springs and wadis via open, gravity-fed channels that channeled water downslope to terraces, supplementing rainfall averaging 300-600 mm annually concentrated in cooler months. This system, reliant on surface flow rather than deep aquifers, distributed limited volumes equitably across fields, with minimal evaporation losses due to shaded paths and short conveyance distances.^[52]^[53] These methods emphasized polyculture and rotation to exploit microclimates varying by slope aspect and altitude, preserving soil nutrients through organic matter incorporation and fallowing, which supported long-term productivity without synthetic inputs. Tribal collectives coordinated terrace repairs and channel dredging, embedding resilience against drought via communal labor and adaptive land allocation, sustaining populations through pre-modern eras despite surrounding aridity.^[46]^[49]

Key Crops: Roses, Pomegranates, and Fruits

The Jabal al Akhdar region's elevated terrain and Mediterranean-influenced climate enable cultivation of temperate fruits not viable in Libya's hotter lowlands, including pomegranates and stone fruits such as sweet cherries. Pomegranate trees (Punica granatum) are among the common fruit species documented in the area, supporting local production through traditional terraced systems adapted to the plateau's slopes. ^[54] These crops benefit from the region's relatively higher rainfall and cooler temperatures, fostering varieties with natural pest resistance compared to coastal plains. ^[55] Pomegranates contribute to regional fruit output, though exact yields remain underreported amid Libya's broader agricultural challenges; they are harvested for local markets and limited regional trade, often alongside olives and cereals as high-value produce. ^[56] Stone fruits like sweet cherry (Prunus avium) thrive at altitudes supporting sweeter, firmer varieties suited to the escarpment's microclimates, with cultivation focused on small-scale orchards for domestic consumption. ^[54] Apples, while pome fruits, complement these as key temperate exports from the district, with cultivars such as 'Red Delicious' and 'Golden Delicious' studied for storage techniques to extend market viability. ^[57] These crops play a vital role in sustaining rural economies in settlements like those near Al Bayda, providing seasonal income despite infrastructural constraints; post-harvest losses from inadequate packaging affect up to 90% of fruit acreage in eastern Libya's fertile zones. ^[58] Efforts to modernize fruit farming, including green economy projects in villages like Belagraa, aim to enhance output through sustainable practices, though data on GDP contribution is sparse given the sector's reliance on rain-fed systems. ^[59]

Economic Modernization and Challenges

In the 21st century, economic modernization in Jabal al Akhdar has focused on integrating traditional farming with contemporary techniques to enhance productivity amid Libya's broader agricultural decline. Government subsidies cover key inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and machinery, supporting smallholder operations that produce approximately half of the country's crops in the region. ^[60] ^[61] Recent initiatives, including a 2025 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) project launched on May 6, aim to assist 57,000 smallholder farmers through improved water management and irrigation upgrades, potentially increasing yields via efficient systems like drip technology. ^[62] ^[56] These efforts seek to reduce import dependency, which currently dominates Libya's food supply, by bolstering local commercialization and market linkages. ^[63] Despite these advancements, persistent challenges undermine sustainability. Water scarcity, intensified by climate change-induced erratic rainfall, droughts, and rising temperatures, limits aquifer recharge in Jabal al Akhdar's coastal system, prompting calls for stalled water and agriculture projects. ^[64] ^[65] ^[66] Youth migration from rural areas to urban centers, driven by environmental degradation and economic insecurity, exacerbates labor shortages and erodes community-based farming networks. ^[67] ^[64] Competition from subsidized imports further pressures local producers, as political instability hampers consistent investment and supply chain development. ^[63] ^[68] While modernization promises higher farmer incomes and rural employment through yield improvements of up to 20-30% via targeted irrigation, it risks overexploitation of finite groundwater resources without integrated conservation. ^[56] ^[68] The sector's minimal GDP contribution—hovering at 0.7-1.1% from 2000-2018—highlights the need for balanced reforms prioritizing resilience over short-term commercialization. ^[69]

Tourism and Infrastructure

Historical Access Restrictions and Road Development

The rugged terrain of Jabal al Akhdar, with elevations reaching nearly 3,300 feet (1,000 m), historically restricted access to footpaths and local tracks, rendering the region relatively isolated from broader Libyan infrastructure.^[70] During the Italian colonial period, limited road systems were constructed in the area amid military campaigns to suppress resistance, connecting coastal points like Benghazi to Derna but primarily serving repressive operations rather than civilian mobility.^[71] Post-independence, the plateau's inaccessibility persisted due to sparse development and security dynamics in Cyrenaica, where the region had served as a rebel stronghold, with deportations and frontier controls implemented to curb support for insurgents. Access remained challenging, often limited to hiking trails suitable for pedestrians, preserving the area's underdeveloped, "virgin" character into recent decades.^[72]^[73] Modernization efforts have included infrastructure projects such as 50 km of rural roads, along with associated networks for water storage and services, enhancing vehicular connectivity and enabling economic integration.^[74] These developments, part of broader post-2000 initiatives in eastern Libya, have reduced isolation but coincided with accelerated deforestation and environmental pressures in the plateau.^[75]

Major Attractions and Eco-Tourism

Jabal al Akhdar features scenic viewpoints like Ras El Hilal near Al Bayda, providing panoramic vistas of the plateau's terraced landscapes and distant Mediterranean coastline, drawing visitors for low-impact observation of the region's unique topography.^[76] Hiking trails traverse the Green Mountain's olive groves and ancient terraced fields, allowing exploration of rural paths that highlight traditional agriculture without modern development.^[77] Some trails pass near depopulated villages, remnants of migration patterns exacerbated by regional instability, offering glimpses into vernacular architecture amid forested hills.^[78] Birdwatching opportunities focus on montane species, including the range-restricted Libyan Blue Tit (Cyanistes cyprinus), a subspecies endemic to the Cyrenaican highlands, alongside raptors such as golden eagles observed in protected pockets.^[79] These activities emphasize quiet, seasonal observation to minimize disturbance to habitats supporting over 40 resident bird species.^[80] Eco-tourism initiatives prioritize guided, low-volume tours to preserve fragile soil paths and vegetation, with proposals for capping visitor numbers to prevent erosion in terraced zones, as outlined in regional conservation workshops.^[81] Local employment through guiding and homestay operations provides economic incentives, supporting about 10-15% of rural livelihoods in select communities while aligning with feasibility studies for protected area status.^[82] Such measures counterbalance tourism's potential for habitat degradation, evidenced by GIS analyses showing green cover loss from unchecked visitation pressures since the 2010s.^[83]

Recent Developments and Projects

In February 2024, Oman announced the Omani Mountain Destination (OMD), a $2.4 billion mixed-use development perched at 2,400 meters on Jabal al Akhdar, masterplanned by AtkinsRéalis in collaboration with Omani authorities.^[84]^[85] The project encompasses three villages with 2,527 residences, 2,000 hotel rooms, retail spaces, and a dedicated health and wellness facility known as The Vessel, designed to integrate with the terrain for high-altitude eco-stays emphasizing adventure and sustainability.^[86]^[87] Expected to house 8,000 residents and draw international visitors, OMD prioritizes job creation in construction, hospitality, and services, alongside revenue streams projected to alleviate rural poverty through diversified economic activity beyond traditional agriculture.^[85]^[88] Complementing this, tourism enhancements in Saiq village since 2023 have emphasized service improvements, including better access roads and recreational facilities, to accommodate rising visitor numbers—over 200,000 in 2023—while adhering to limits on new builds to preserve the plateau's carrying capacity.^[89] These upgrades, part of broader infrastructure investments exceeding OMR 4.5 million by mid-2025, support controlled expansion without compromising ecological integrity. The initiatives align with Oman Vision 2040's framework for balanced growth, where development's economic benefits—such as employment for local communities and foreign investment—outweigh risks like habitat disruption, provided regulations enforce environmental safeguards including zoned construction and biodiversity offsets.^[85] In June 2025, tenders were opened for Al Jabal Al Aali (OMD's rebranded phase), signaling accelerated implementation toward a self-sustaining mountain hub.^[90]

Ecology and Biodiversity

Unique Flora and Fauna

Jabal al Akhdar, known as the Green Mountain, supports a disproportionate share of Libya's vascular plant diversity, harboring approximately 75-80% of the country's flora despite comprising only about 1% of its land area.^[91] This region serves as one of Libya's four primary centers of plant endemism, containing roughly 50% of the nation's approximately 80-81 endemic vascular plant species, including at least 43 documented endemics adapted to its karstic limestone plateaus and altitudinal gradients ranging from 200 to 900 meters.^[92]^[93]^[94] These species thrive in Mediterranean maquis shrublands, oak woodlands (Quercus coccifera subsp. calliprinos), and juniper (Juniperus phoenicea) stands, reflecting relict populations from wetter Pleistocene climates preserved in north-facing wadis and plateaus.^[92]^[94] Notable endemic flora include Arum cyrenaicum, a wild tuberous perennial restricted to northeast Libya's wadis and used locally despite toxicity; Thymbra linearifolia, a Lamiaceae shrub exclusive to the Green Mountain's herbaceous communities; and Cyclamen rohlfsianum, alongside other geophytes like Micromeria conferta and Stachys rosea.^[95]^[96]^[93] Vegetation surveys along elevation gradients reveal 119 species in sampled transects, with six endemics such as Silene cyrenaica and Allium curtisi, favoring cooler, moister microhabitats that contrast with surrounding arid lowlands.^[97] These assemblages, dominated by families like Fabaceae and Asteraceae, exhibit phytogeographic links to Mediterranean refugia, with pollen records indicating historical woodland expansion during humid phases.^[98]^[94] Fauna in Jabal al Akhdar is characterized by small mammals, reptiles, and invertebrates adapted to forested and scrub habitats, with no resident large predators due to historical overhunting and habitat fragmentation.^[99] Species include the Libyan striped weasel (Pteronura libyca) and various rodents tied to oak-juniper understories, alongside reptiles like the Libyan agama (Pseudotrapelus blanchardi) in rocky outcrops.^[100] Avifauna features migratory passerines and raptors utilizing the region's corridors, with resident endemics scarce but including subspecies like the Cyrenaican nuthatch (Sitta neumayer cypriaca) in woodlands; arthropod diversity encompasses endemic insects in karst caves and leaf litter.^[101] Overall, animal endemism remains low compared to plants, with assemblages reflecting broader North African Mediterranean patterns rather than high regional uniqueness.^[93]

Environmental Pressures and Conservation

Rising temperatures and declining rainfall in Jabal al Akhdar, driven by broader climate change trends in Libya, pose risks to vegetation cover and agricultural productivity, with projected national crop yield declines of up to 30% under 1.5-2°C warming scenarios.^[102]^[75] These pressures compound deforestation, which accelerated after 2011, resulting in over 14,000 hectares of forest loss between 2005 and 2019 amid political instability and land-use shifts toward urbanization and intensified farming.^[75]^[103] Soil quality indicators, including organic matter and nutrient levels, have shown degradation linked to these land-cover changes, potentially exacerbating erosion on the region's slopes.^[104]^[105] Conservation initiatives emphasize reforestation and protected area designation to mitigate these threats. The New Libya Association, established in 2013, has led efforts to restore degraded forests, including a 301-hectare project funded by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).^[106] Civil society campaigns since 2018 have further promoted tree planting in Al-Jabal al-Akhdar to counter habitat loss.^[107] The Wadi El-Naqa Reserve, established in April 2023, represents a recent governmental step toward safeguarding biodiversity hotspots in the eastern plateau.^[108] Proposals for additional protected areas in regions like El-Abyar highlight the area's high conservation priority, given its role as a wildlife refuge amid Libya's arid surroundings.^[109] Despite ongoing pressures, empirical assessments indicate resilience in the region's ecosystems, with Al-Jabal al-Akhdar harboring 50-75% of Libya's biodiversity across just 1% of the country's land area, underscoring the value of targeted management over blanket restrictions.^[75] These efforts support sustainable resource use, balancing ecological preservation with local economic needs in a landscape that remains distinctly forested relative to Libya's predominant desertification challenges.^[110]^[106]

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The Mrayyid family was the major power in that region, leading the beduin in "interminable battles" with the Warfallah tribe to the east and the settled ...
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The Jebel Akhdar War Oman 1954-1959 - GlobalSecurity.org
Twenty Marine officers and 63 non--commissioned officers would serve in Oman during the Jebel Akhdar revolt. Marine casualties were two killed and three wounded ...
[27]
The Jebel Akhdar War, Oman - British Modern Military History Society
In 1954, Sultan Bin Taimur authorized the mainly British owned Iraq Petroleum Company to prospect for oil near the settlement of Fahud in the Omani interior. On ...
[28]
[PDF] The Jebel Akhdar War - Royal Air Force
The Jebel Akhdar War is now little remembered, but it remains an impressive and instructive example of what joint operations can achieve with modest resources ...
[29]
DAVID SMILEY IN OMAN by Major JR Fitzgerald The Blues and ...
1000 years earlier, the Persians had won a bloody battle on Jebel Akhdar by carving steps in to the rock, and up these same steps the SAS began their assault.Missing: key | Show results with:key<|separator|>
[30]
The Forgotten War - Key Military
Dec 27, 2018 · It was thrashed out between Colonel Smiley and 22 SAS' Commanding Officer, Lieutenant Colonel Anthony Deane-Drummond, that the SAS would assault ...
[31]
lgarey - The Jebel Akhdar War - Google Sites
The SAS would lead the assault and push on to Bani Habib, Saiq, and Sharaijah. Other units would open up the track from Kamah for donkey columns to bring up ...
[32]
The Oman Djebel War, 1957–59 - The Strategy Bridge
Dec 1, 2014 · The Djebel War was a tribal uprising led by separatist sheikhs in Oman's interior, against the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, Said bin Taimur.Missing: 1954– | Show results with:1954–
[33]
[PDF] NATION AND STATE IN OMAN: THE INITIAL IMPACT OF 1970 J. E. ...
From his accession, Sultan Qaboos was enormously popular in the north (Oman) since he embodied change and progress. Additionally, he was regarded by the people ...
[34]
Al Jabal al Akhdar: A cool oasis amidst Oman's majestic mountains
Sep 10, 2023 · Until the 1990s, this spectacular destination was restricted to locals and foreigners with special permits. However, Jabal Akhdar's ...
[35]
This week, the post about Jebel Akhdar received the most likes.
Jul 26, 2025 · Until around the turn of the millennium, this region was a restricted military area. Since 2005, a paved road has led up the mountain, but due ...
[36]
[PDF] Oman: The Present in the Context of a Fractured Past - DTIC
Aug 5, 2011 · There is a fine but important point here; Sultan. Qaboos' accession in 1970 marks the beginning of Omani development, but the peace, stability, ...
[37]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004697010/BP000018.pdf
[38]
[PDF] Oman: The Present in the Context of a Fractured Past - NET
Aug 5, 2011 · The Dhofar insurgency is the best known but, in reality, the struggle between the Imamate of Oman and the Sultanate during the 1950s probably ...
[39]
Oman government structure - MEED
Oman consists of 11 governorates subdivided into smaller wilayats, administrative districts run by local governors, under the guidance of the Interior Ministry.
[40]
AD Dakhiliyah ‍Governorate - Gov.om
Our Management ; H.E Sheikh Hilal bin Saeed Al Hajri. Governor of Al Dakhiliyah ; H.E Sheikh Saleh bin Dhiyab Al Rubaie. Wali of Nizwa ; H.E Sheikh Sultan bin Ali ...Missing: governance | Show results with:governance
[41]
A'Dakhiliyah Governorate Prepares to Inaugurate Al Jabal Al Akhdar ...
Jul 20, 2025 · Future plans include additional initiatives to attract qualitative investments in eco-tourism, smart agriculture, and community services, ...Missing: living standards central governance
[42]
[PDF] The emergence and consolidation of the Omani state after 1970 can ...
The melding of Oman with the. Sultanate is a recent phenomenon and in some ways is the consequence of the accession of Sultan Qaboos. Twentieth-Century Nation- ...
[43]
Immunizing Against Sectarian “Sickness”: The Case of Oman
Nov 12, 2015 · [7] This included the religious and tribal sheikhs from the Sunni, Ibadhi, and Shi'a communities. They were effectively co-opted under the ...
[44]
Libya: Districts, Major Cities & Urban Settlements - City Population
Al-Jabal al-Akhdar, JA, الجبل الاخضر, Al-Bayḍā', 11,429, 206,180, 250,020, 1142900 ... The census population of all Libyan cities and urban settlements with a ...
[45]
Tribes and Territories | The Rangelands of Libya - CABI Digital Library
Feb 9, 2025 · At war, early Berber tribes used mostly javelins but also maces, boomerangs, slings, bows and poisoned arrows kept in leather quivers.Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[46]
http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9679/1/9679_6472.PDF
[47]
https://www.britannica.com/place/Libya/People
[48]
Libyan Bedouin - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
The Libyan Bedouin are especially associated with the desert's northern steppe plateau, the highland area of Libya's Jabal al-Akhdar, and the semiarid ...
[49]
[PDF] Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal ...
The population density is about 1 inhabitant per km2 in the southern ... agricultural areas in north El-Jabal El-Akhadar, but in some areas of El ...Missing: rural | Show results with:rural
[50]
Libya (10/07) - State.gov
)--3.47 deaths/1,000 population. Ethnic groups: Berber and Arab 97%; Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, and Tunisians. Religion: ...
[51]
Libya Literacy Rate | Historical Chart & Data - Macrotrends
Libya literacy rate for 1994 was 76.50%, a 16.5% increase from 1984. · Libya literacy rate for 1984 was 60.00%, a 60% increase from . · Libya literacy rate for ...
[52]
Status of Water Resources of Al Jabal Al Akhdar Region, North East ...
Feb 4, 2020 · Water resources in Al Jabal Al Akhdar area, like other areas of world and Libya, have not been adequately managed and neglected and experience ...Missing: Jebel | Show results with:Jebel
[53]
[PDF] Geology and Mineral Resources of Libya- A Reconnaissance
The northern face of the Jabal al Akhdar is cut by several wadis flowing ... Libya they crop out in Jabal Ben Ghenema, Dor el. Goussa, Jabal Eghei, and ...<|separator|>
[54]
Top 20 Most Common Trees in Al Jabal al Akhdar - PictureThis
Sweet cherry is a well-known species to fruit lovers worldwide. This stone fruit varies in flavor from sweet to tart, depending on the specific cultivar. Sweet ...
[55]
Akhḍar Mountains | Libya, Saharan, Plateau - Britannica
It has a comparatively high rainfall (15–20 inches [375–500 mm] annually) and high humidity, but periodic drought does occur. Arabic: Al-jabal Al-akhḍar.Missing: climate | Show results with:climate
[56]
Revitalizing Agriculture In Libya: Challenges And Opportunities
Nov 15, 2024 · Libya's fertile regions, especially in the Jabal Akhdar area, are ideal for cultivating high-value crops like olives, dates, and citrus fruits.
[57]
EFFECT OF PACKAGING, WAXING AND CALCIUM CHLORIDE ...
Fruits from two apple cultivars ('Red Delicious' and 'Golden Delicious') grown in Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region, Libya were used. The aim of this study was to ...
[58]
Libya in the aftermath of Storm Daniel: "40% loss of vegetable ...
Apr 7, 2025 · The region is home to important agricultural production, including vegetables, fruits, cereals, and animal feed. Al Mahdy says, "We're talking ...
[59]
FRUIT FARMS IN THE BELAGRAA VILLAGE OF AL JABAL AL ...
Dec 15, 2021 · This study aims to design a theoretical framework and a practical approach to establish a green agricultural economy project of fruit farms in the Belagraa ...Missing: grown | Show results with:grown
[60]
[PDF] LIBYA: COUNTRY REPORT TO THE FAO INTERNATIONAL ...
The main crops produced in the country are wheat, barley, maize and millet as cereal crops; potatoes as root and tubers; dry beans, broad bean, peas, chickpeas ...
[61]
[PDF] The assessment and improvement of the value chains and added ...
Approximately half of all crops are grown in Jabal al Akhdar, with the other ... Economic challenges in Libya have further complicated supply and demand.
[62]
IFAD and Libya launch their first-ever project to help farmers combat ...
May 6, 2025 · IFAD and UNOPS have launched a new investment project in cooperation with the Government of Libya that will help 57000 smallholder farmers ...
[63]
Challenges Remain for Agricultural Sector in Libya: Ways Forward
Sep 2, 2022 · Libya's neglected agricultural sector has been shrinking through the years, impacted by both climate change and political instability, and has become more ...
[64]
[PDF] CLIMATE CHANGE, FOOD SECURITY, AND MIGRATION
Aug 18, 2025 · Climate change in Libya has further destabilized food security, with rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, recurrent droughts, and floods ...Missing: modernization | Show results with:modernization
[65]
The Agricultural Police Agency calls for the completion of water and ...
Sep 14, 2025 · The Agricultural Police Agency calls for the completion of water and agriculture projects in the Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar region. Sunday, September ...
[66]
[PDF] REQUEST FOR PROJECT/PROGRAMME FUNDING FROM THE ...
Libya has five major aquifers, namely. Al Hamada, Al Jefara, Al Jabal Al Akhdar, Murzuq and Al Sarir-Kufra. The coastal aquifer Al Jefara in the north- west ...Missing: subsidies | Show results with:subsidies
[67]
[PDF] Migration, Environment and Climate Change in Libya - IOM MENA
The key drivers for migration to Libya include financial issues, security threats, and environmental factors like drought and water scarcity, prompting ...
[68]
Revitalizing Libya's Agriculture Sector: Challenges and ...
Sep 2, 2025 · Barley and sorghum, for instance, have long been grown in Libyan oases and could be promoted for food and animal feed. Similarly, date palms ...<|separator|>
[69]
(PDF) The Role of the Libyan Agricultural Sector in the Development
Aug 19, 2023 · PDF | The Libyan agriculture sector shared only (0.7 – 1.1%) of the total Libyan GDP during the period of 2000 - 2018.Missing: modernization | Show results with:modernization
[70]
Jabal al-Akhdar, Libya - Encyclopedia.com
An area of Libya in the hinterland of the eastern city of Benghazi, with mountains of nearly 3,300 feet (1,000 m). It is one of the few parts of Libya with ...
[71]
The Life Cycle of the Libyan Coastal Highway: Italian Colonialism ...
The motorway came to complete the road system constructed in the years of the military repression of the area of Jebel Akhdar, connecting Benghazi to Derna and ...
[72]
Frontier Wire (Libya) - Wikipedia
^ Soon after the frontier wire system was built, the colonial administration deported the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny the rebels local support. More ...
[73]
Jebel Akhdar (2025) - All You Need to Know BEFORE You Go (with ...
Rating 4.7 (21) The Green Mountain "Jebel Akdar" is a fantastic and historical place to be visit in Libya, it is virgin area, the area has not been developed, difficult to find ...
[74]
Hike Jebel Akhdar, Libya Backpacking Travel Guide 2025
Rating 4.8 (32) Sep 9, 2025 · Hiking Jebel Akhdar is a fantastic experience, but timing is key. The best months to hit the trails are generally from October to April. During ...
[75]
JEBEL AKHDAR Development, Libya – CEGMAN
The project included 50 km rural roads and main services zone with elevated tanks 2000 m3 capacity and all infrastructure networks. Project: JEBEL AKHDAR ...
[76]
Climate Vulnerability in Libya: Building Resilience Through Local ...
Jun 6, 2024 · Libya is acutely exposed to the deleterious effects of climate change. These problems include soaring temperatures, declining rainfall, rising sea levels, ...
[77]
A general road map of Ras Al Hilal area with relevant photos and ...
This paper introduces the importance of geotourism in the area between Susa and Darnah, Al Jabal al Akhdar, Northeast Libya, where a variety of geosites are ...
[78]
Discover Al Bayda' with TripTap | Custom Libya Itineraries
The Green Mountain region of Jabal al Akhdar is renowned for its natural beauty and diverse landscapes, perfect for hiking and nature trails. This area ...
[79]
Heritage, Democracy and Development in Libya - Brookings Institution
Nov 8, 2011 · Libya's natural heritage is also arresting. The Al Jabal Al Akhdar (Green Mountain) plateau in the northeast, including the Wadi Al-Kouf ...
[80]
ليبيا | Libya | Libye - African Bird Club
ليبيا | Libya | Libye ; BIRDING SITES ; Jebel Akhdar for Libyan Blue Tit and other montane species ; Zallaf and Ghat Oases for desert species.
[81]
Bird List - Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya - eBird
Native and Naturalized (49) ; Whinchat Saxicola rubetra ; House Sparrow Passer domesticus ; Laughing Dove Spilopelia senegalensis ; Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba.Missing: endemics | Show results with:endemics
[82]
[PDF] Proceedings of the Workshop on Sustainable Tourism - IUCN
The Al-Bayda Sustainable Tourism Workshop This plan focused on tourism management in marine coastal areas and archaeological sites. strategy in Libya.
[83]
Development for Green Mountain | Libya – URBANICS
As part of their CSR work, Challenger Limited in Libya is working on promoting Green Mountain (Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar) in Libya as a tourism destination ...
[84]
(PDF) Study the Elimination of the Green Areas in Al-Jabal Al- Akhdar
Nov 19, 2021 · Subsequently, the importance of the green areas in developing the tourism sector was the main reason behind this study. The technology of the ...
[85]
Oman announces plans for mixed-use district in Jabal al Akhdar ...
Feb 28, 2024 · The Omani Mountain Destination project is a stunning blend of modern architecture and natural beauty. AtkinsRéalis beautifully integrates ...
[86]
Al Jabal Al Aali – AtkinsRéalis
The Al Jabal Al Aali vision and masterplan are the result of a collective effort across the visionary Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning (Oman), ...Missing: standards | Show results with:standards
[87]
revealing design of omani mountain destination at 2,400m on jabal ...
Mar 7, 2024 · Oman reveals the design of the new $2.4bn Omani Mountain Destination sited on Jabal al Akhdar. Masterplanned by AtkinsRéalis in consultation ...
[88]
Unveiling Oman's New Mountain Destination: Jabal al Akhdar Mixed ...
Feb 29, 2024 · Oman has just announced plans for a $2.4 billion mixed-use project, the new Omani Mountain Destination on Jabal al Akhdar.
[89]
Sultanate reveals plans for $2.4bn mountain hub - Gulf Construction
Apr 1, 2024 · A new community, perched on the famous Jabal Al Akhdar mountain range about 153 km from Omani capital Muscat, will come up at an estimated cost of $2.4 billion.<|separator|>
[90]
Jabal Al Akhdar receives over 200000 visitors in 2023
Mar 16, 2024 · Muscat - The number of visitors to the Wilayat of Al Jabal Al Akhdar in Al Dakhiliyah Governorate dropped from 208,423 visitors in 2022 to 205, ...Missing: upgrades Saiq<|separator|>
[91]
Oman invites bids for major mountain resort - ZAWYA
Jun 15, 2025 · Oman has invited bids for a landmark mountain resort in Jabal Al-Akhdar, the country's highest summit, at a cost of around 1.2 billion Omani rials ($3 billion).
[92]
Important Plant Areas of Libya - Plantlife
... Jabal Al Akhdar holding 75 – 80% of the Libyan flora and a significant proportion of Libya's endemic plant species, despite only covering 1% of the Libyan ...Missing: fauna Jebel
[93]
[PDF] vegetation and species altitudinal distribution in al-jabal al-akhdar ...
Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar is one of the four major centers of endemism which holds about. 50% of the total endemic species in Libya (Boulos, 1997;. Davis et al., 1994) ...
[94]
[PDF] Biodiversity in Libya: Selected Countries in Africa
Dec 28, 2018 · The total endemic plant species in Libya about 80–81 species, distributed in four centers of endemism in Libya: (i) Jabal Akhdar with 44 species ...Missing: birdwatching | Show results with:birdwatching
[95]
Pollen–vegetation–rainfall relationships in the Gebel al-Akhdar ...
... flora and invertebrate fauna. The vegetation of the Gebel al-Akhdar contains at least 43 endemic species (El-Barasi and Saaed, 2013) and more than three ...
[96]
Ethnobotany and Relative Importance of Some Endemic Plant ...
Arum cyrenaicum ( commonly known as Renish) is identified and classified as a wild species that is only concentrated in Al Aljabal Al-Akhdar region, northeast ...Missing: fauna Jebel
[97]
Phytochemical and biological activity profiles of <i>Thymbra ...
Thymbra linearifolia, a Green Mountain endemic Libyan plant species belonging to the family Lamiaceae, was investigated as the plant's first documented ...
[98]
Vegetation along an elevation gradient in Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar, Libya
Aug 5, 2025 · The area is characterized by diverse habitats, from coastal plains to mountain tops, supporting 119 plant species, including six endemic species.<|separator|>
[99]
[PDF] Costal Region of Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar area as model - Prime Scholars
The results showed that 104 plant species belonging to 37 families were found. On the family level, both Fabaceae and Asteraceae were the major plant families ...
[100]
From Beinn Eighe to Benghazi - NatureScot
Sep 17, 2021 · The mountain is a refuge for animals such as hyenas and rare insects, and includes a vast diversity of plants. The isolation of the Green ...Missing: endemic | Show results with:endemic
[101]
Mediterranean Woodlands and Forests | One Earth
... Jabal Al Akhdar (the Green Mountain) in Libya hosts over 100 locally endemic species. Barbary macaque. Image credit: Matěj Baťha, Creative Commons. Many ...
[102]
Al Jabal al Akhdar, LY - iNaturalist
Al Jabal al Akhdar, LY District · Arthropods · Chelicerates · Arachnids · Hexapods · Insects · Chordates · Vertebrates · Ray-finned fishes · Amphibians · Birds ...Missing: fauna | Show results with:fauna
[103]
Climate profile: Libya - Atlantic Council
Projected yearly temperature rises of approximately 1.5-2°C in Libya are expected to result in a decline in crop yields of as much as 30 percent by the year ...
[104]
Detecting and Analyzing Land Use and Land Cover Changes in the ...
The region of Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar in northeastern Libya has undergone rapid, wide-ranging changes in the land use and land cover (LULC) intensified by the ...
[105]
Response of Potential Indicators of Soil Quality to Land-Use and ...
Dec 24, 2021 · This study was conducted in Al Jabal Al Akhdar region, Libya, to assess the effects of land-use and land-cover changes on soil quality.
[106]
Investigating soil properties on the north and south slopes at ...
Jun 17, 2024 · This scholarly study investigated the physicochemical characteristics of soil in the Al-Jabal Al-Akhdar forest, Libya, with a specific focus on the influence ...
[107]
Meet the guardians of Libya's Green Mountain - Climate Champions
Aug 1, 2024 · Al-Jabal al-Akhdar, or the Green Mountain, is a mountainous plateau running in northeastern Libya for about 350 kilometres (220 miles) on the Mediterranean ...
[108]
Libya's battle to protect its endangered forests - Frontline - The Hindu
Jul 20, 2021 · In the face of these threats, in 2018 civil society organizations began a series of reforestation campaigns in Al-Jabal al-Akhdar. The Libyan ...
[109]
[PDF] Project Title Strengthening Wadi Naqa Reserve through
Jan 15, 2025 · Wadi El-Naqa Reserve is a newly created reserve in April 2023 in the eastern part of. Jabal Al-Akhdar and is considered the most important ...Missing: reforestation | Show results with:reforestation
[110]
Potential and perspectives for establishing protected areas in El ...
Apr 2, 2022 · This study was conducted in El-Abyar area in El-Jabal El-Akhdar region, northeast Libya. The aim was to study the environmental settings and the potential and ...Missing: reforestation | Show results with:reforestation
[111]
Libya: The fight to save a forest surrounded by desert - DW
Jul 20, 2021 · Al-Jabal al-Akhdar is estimated to cover about 943,000 hectares (2.3 million acres) and nearly half is forested, according to the government's ...