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900

Year 900 (CM) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the prevailing system in for civil and ecclesiastical reckoning. This era, spanning the cusp of the 9th and 10th centuries, witnessed the initial consolidation of under , who through military campaigns achieved overlordship over multiple petty kingdoms around 900, laying foundational claims to a unified realm despite later fragmentation. Concurrently, in , the Classic period concluded circa 900, characterized by the abandonment of major urban centers like and amid overpopulation, drought, and warfare, transitioning to the Postclassic era. In , the Carolingian legacy persisted in divided kingdoms amid ongoing Viking incursions, while numerals derived from Indian origins, including zero, began disseminating into via Islamic , facilitating future mathematical advancements. These developments underscored a world of regional power shifts, cultural transmissions, and environmental pressures shaping medieval trajectories.

Events

Europe

In , the seven-year-old , son of , was proclaimed king on 4 February following his father's death the previous year, initiating a period of weak central authority amid ongoing incursions and internal noble rivalries. His nominal rule until 911 represented the final phase of Carolingian dominance in the eastern Frankish lands, with effective power devolving to regional dukes such as those in and . In Anglo-Saxon England, was crowned king of the on 8 June at , succeeding and inheriting a kingdom divided between Wessex-led territories and Danish-controlled regions in the . Edward promptly fortified burhs and launched campaigns to reclaim eastern territories, building on Alfred's defensive strategies against persistent Viking threats. In southern Italy, prince Atenulf I of consolidated power by seizing control of through conquest in 899 and formal recognition as prince in 900, thereby uniting the two principalities into a significant polity rivaling neighboring and amid Saracen raids along the coast. Viking fleets continued depredations across Europe, with raiders targeting Mediterranean coasts including and , exacerbating fragmentation in post-Carolingian realms while Norse settlers established deeper footholds in Ireland and the . These incursions prompted localized fortifications and alliances but highlighted the absence of unified imperial defense following the Treaty of Verdun's enduring divisions.

Near East and North Africa

In 900, the Abbasid Caliphate's authority had fragmented, with direct control limited primarily to central Mesopotamia around Baghdad under Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902), who pursued administrative reforms and military campaigns to reassert influence over provincial governors. Regional powers, such as the Tulunids in Egypt and Syria, operated with significant autonomy, reflecting the caliphate's weakened central governance amid internal strife and economic pressures. Egypt was governed by the Tulunid dynasty, established in 868 as the first independent Islamic rule over the region, separating from Abbasid oversight; by 900, Emir Abu'l Jish (r. 896–904) held power following a turbulent succession marked by his father's assassination in 896, maintaining control over the Valley and parts of the through a professional of Turkish slave soldiers. The dynasty's economic prosperity derived from and trade, funding architectural projects like the completed earlier in the century. In , the Aghlabid emirate ruled (modern , eastern , and western ) under Ibrahim II (r. 875–902), nominally loyal to the Abbasids but effectively independent, with its navy dominating Mediterranean commerce and raiding Byzantine territories and . Ibrahim II's reign saw internal rebellions and external expeditions, including interventions in to suppress local uprisings. Meanwhile, Isma'ili Shi'a missionaries among the in the laid the ideological foundations for the Fatimid challenge, which would culminate in the Aghlabids' overthrow in 909. Ongoing Arab-Byzantine conflicts persisted along the Anatolian frontier, with the under Leo VI (r. 886–912) fortifying defenses against raids from Abbasid-aligned emirates in and , though no major pitched battles are recorded for the exact year.

Asia

In Korea, the kingdom was founded in 900 amid the fragmentation of the , marking the start of the period. In China, the , weakened by internal rebellions and eunuch influence, depended on the military support of northern warlord to sustain imperial authority by 900. The Kirghiz Turks consolidated control over eastern around 900, establishing kingdoms in and Turfan as the influence waned in the region. In southern India, circa 900, the expanded to dominate much of the Tamil regions, laying foundations for later imperial growth. The in continued with courtly culture flourishing in (modern ), though no major political upheavals are recorded for the year.

Sub-Saharan Africa

In , the (Wagadu), ruled by the , exerted control over key routes, deriving wealth from taxing , , and exchanges between North African merchants and southern suppliers. Its rulers, titled ghana (meaning "warrior king"), governed from the capital , which housed up to 20,000 inhabitants and featured stone architecture alongside mud-brick structures, supporting a professional army estimated at 200,000 men including cavalry. The empire's stability in 900 stemmed from agricultural surplus in the and alliances with nomads, though it remained polytheistic amid growing Islamic influence from traders. In the , the Kingdom of Aksum entered a phase of contraction around 900, having peaked as a trading power centuries earlier with exports of , , and to , , and Persia. Soil exhaustion, , and the rise of Islamic caliphates disrupting maritime routes after the contributed to its decline, reducing Aksum's territorial extent from to northern and . By this time, its Christian monarchy, established in the , persisted but shifted inland, foreshadowing the Zagwe dynasty's rule by 960. Along the East African Swahili Coast, Bantu-speaking communities developed autonomous city-states from the 8th to 9th centuries, leveraging monsoon winds for Indian Ocean commerce in timber, ivory, and slaves bartered for Chinese porcelain, Indian textiles, and Arabic glassware. Sites like Shanga and Kilwa featured coral-stone mosques and houses by 900, evidencing early Islam's adoption among elites while retaining matrilineal kinship from African roots; archaeological finds of imported beads and coins indicate trade volumes supporting populations in the thousands. Further south, proto-urban societies emerged in regions like the Limpopo Valley, with Mapungubwe's foundational phase around 900 involving , cattle herding, and trade networks linking to the . Concurrently, migrations continued disseminating iron smelting and banana cultivation across central and southern savannas, enabling denser settlements but also environmental pressures from slash-and-burn farming. In Nigeria's , 9th-century castings using lost-wax techniques reveal localized metallurgical sophistication independent of imperial centers.

Americas

In , the Classic underwent a profound transformation around 900, marked by the abandonment of major southern lowland centers such as and due to interconnected factors including severe multi-decadal droughts, from and soil exhaustion, intensified warfare, and disruptions in trade networks. Archaeological evidence from lake sediment cores and speleothems confirms at least three prolonged dry periods between 800 and 900 that reduced agricultural yields in rain-dependent regions, exacerbating pressures in urban areas supporting up to 100,000 inhabitants. While elite political structures collapsed, Maya populations persisted and shifted northward to the , where Postclassic sites like began to flourish, indicating adaptation rather than extinction. Concurrently in central , the s consolidated power, sacking the remnants of Teotihuacán around 900 and establishing (Tollan) as their capital, initiating a period of militaristic expansion that influenced subsequent Mesoamerican cultures through like colonnaded halls and warrior . society, centered in the region, emphasized trade and ritual centers, with estimates of Tula's population reaching 40,000 by the early , reflecting a shift toward post-Teotihuacán . In the , the Middle Horizon reached its zenith with the Wari (Huari) expansion from influencing highland through administrative colonies and terraced agriculture supporting and cultivation, while in the Bolivian maintained a lake-based with raised fields irrigating over 100,000 hectares, sustaining populations estimated at 20,000–40,000 via camelid and exchange networks extending to the . Both polities showed signs of strain by 900, with Wari pottery styles diversifying amid decentralization and Tiwanaku's monumental gateways facing erosion from climatic shifts, foreshadowing their decline around 1000. North American cultures transitioned toward complexity, with the proto-Mississippian tradition emerging in the Midwest and Southeast around 900, evidenced by earthen mound constructions at sites like precursors and increased agriculture enabling sedentary villages of several hundred residents. In the Southwest, communities along the Salt River developed extensive canal systems irrigating 10,000 acres for cotton and beans, while in the region constructed pit houses and early great houses, adapting to arid conditions through kiva-based rituals and turkey domestication. These developments supported population densities up to 1–2 persons per square kilometer in fertile valleys, driven by climatic amelioration post-800.

By Topic

In 900, the diffusion of the horse collar from to represented a pivotal advancement in . This harness, which distributed pressure across the horse's shoulders rather than throat, enabled animals to exert greater pulling force for plowing and transport, boosting productivity in northern European farming. Its adoption, though gradual and more widespread by the , contributed to the intensification of use amid the Medieval Warm Period's onset around this era. Concurrent with technological exchanges, Islamic trade networks expanded along the East coast, exemplified by the establishment of a Muslim settlement at in northern . Positioned approximately 150 miles south of the Red Sea's mouth, served as a hub linking inland goods with Arabian and markets, fostering the growth of a Muslim headquartered there by the late . This development highlighted the role of maritime commerce in disseminating southward from the .

Religion

Pope , who had reigned since 898, died in early 900, leading to the election of Benedict IV later that year amid persistent factional strife and noble influence in Roman politics. John IX's pontificate focused on curbing anarchy from incursions and internal disorder, including synodal efforts to reaffirm doctrinal continuity post-Photian controversies, though the papacy entered a phase of deepening instability known retrospectively as the . In the Islamic sphere, the Qarmatians—an militant Isma'ili Shia sect originating from proselytizing efforts in the 890s—established a theocratic state in al-Ahsa and Bahrain by 899, achieving key military successes against Abbasid forces near Basra around 900, which enabled territorial consolidation and propagation of their egalitarian, esoteric doctrines challenging orthodox Sunni authority. This expansion reflected broader fragmentation in the Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902), where regional semi-autonomous movements exploited central weaknesses to advance alternative interpretations of Shi'ism, including communal property and rejection of traditional pilgrimage rites. In , the late (ending 907) saw Buddhism's influence wane after the 845 suppression under Emperor Wuzong, which destroyed over 4,600 monasteries and forced 260,000 monks and nuns to laicize; by 900, economic pressures and recurring persecutions further eroded monastic wealth and institutional power, paving the way for intensified state and Daoism. Concurrently in , Hindu dynasties like the emerging Imperial Cholas (from ca. 848) emphasized Shaivite devotion through temple endowments, contributing to a synthesis of devotional traditions amid declining Buddhist presence in the subcontinent.

Warfare and Conflicts

In England, the accession of following Alfred the Great's death on October 26, 899, precipitated Æthelwold's Revolt, as Alfred's nephew Æthelwold contested the succession by seizing in early 900 and allying with Danish Vikings in and to challenge Edward's authority. Edward responded by fortifying strategic burhs and mobilizing forces, ultimately quelling the uprising by 902 after Æthelwold's death in battle against West Saxon troops at . This internal conflict intertwined with ongoing Danish threats, as Vikings exploited the instability to raid , though Edward's campaigns laid groundwork for later reconquests of territories. Viking incursions persisted across in 900, with fleets conducting raids along the Mediterranean coast, targeting coastal settlements in regions vulnerable to their mobility. These expeditions extended prior ventures, such as those reaching Iberia and , driven by opportunities for plunder amid fragmented local defenses, though specific engagements in 900 yielded limited documented territorial gains. In parallel, settlers in established bases like maintained pressure on Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, contributing to a pattern of intermittent warfare that reshaped demographic and political boundaries. In the , Byzantine Emperor Leo VI launched offensives against Abbasid positions in , , and starting in 900, aiming to reclaim frontier territories through coordinated army maneuvers. These campaigns reflected Leo's strategic adaptations in his Taktika, emphasizing thematic troops and alliances, yet faced setbacks from Arab counter-raids and logistical strains. Concurrently, in , Aghlabid Muslim forces captured from Byzantine control in 900, advancing the island's conquest amid naval and land skirmishes that eroded remaining Greek strongholds by 902. These Arab-Byzantine clashes underscored persistent frontier attrition, with neither side achieving decisive dominance in 900.

Economy and Trade

In circa 900 AD, international trade networks spanned Eurasia and the Indian Ocean, facilitating the exchange of luxury goods, raw materials, and technologies amid fragmented political structures in Europe, the Byzantine Empire, the Abbasid Caliphate, and Tang China. The Silk Road, a network of overland routes from China through Central Asia to the Mediterranean, remained active, primarily transporting silk, spices, porcelain, and precious metals, though disrupted by nomadic incursions and the Tang dynasty's weakening control. Maritime extensions via the Indian Ocean linked these routes to Southeast Asia, India, and East Africa, where Arab and Persian merchants dominated, trading commodities such as camphor, aloeswood, sandalwood, and textiles from India and beyond. Viking traders from Scandinavia expanded northern European commerce, establishing emporia like Hedeby in Denmark as hubs for exchanging furs, walrus ivory, amber, and slaves for silver dirhams from the Abbasid Caliphate, often transported via the Volga River to the Caspian Sea and Baghdad. Hoards of Islamic silver coins in Scandinavia attest to these connections dating back to at least the 8th century, with peak flows in the 9th-10th centuries supporting Viking economic expansion and raids-turned-trade. In the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople served as a central entrepôt, leveraging its strategic position to tax and redistribute goods from the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and overland routes, sustaining a monetized economy based on the gold solidus. Agricultural surpluses in regions like the Nile Valley and the basin underpinned these trade systems, enabling specialization and urban growth, while currencies like Arab dirhams and Byzantine nomismata provided stable media of exchange across diverse economies. Slave trading was prevalent, with supplying captives from to Islamic markets and Indian Ocean networks transporting East Africans to the and . These exchanges, though vulnerable to warfare and , fostered technological diffusion, such as from westward, but overall volumes paled compared to later medieval revivals, reflecting localized, elite-driven commerce rather than mass markets.

Arts, Literature, and Culture

In , 900 marked the approximate end of the Carolingian artistic revival, which from roughly 780 to 900 produced illuminated manuscripts, ivories, and architectural elements emulating classical and early Christian models under royal . Monastic workshops emphasized figural representation in Gospels and psalters, with gold and silver leaf enhancing religious , though political instability fragmented after Charlemagne's heirs. In and Norse-influenced regions, the Jellinge style of emerged circa 900–975 , distinguished by bold, ribbon-like of animals and masks, blending zoomorphic traditions with imported Carolingian and Anglo-Saxon influences on runestones, jewelry, and ship carvings. This style reflected Norse seafaring culture's emphasis on status symbols and mythological motifs, as evidenced in early examples from and . Amid the under the , 900 fell within a period of literary and artistic efflorescence in , where court poets composed panegyrics and scholars advanced Arabic prose; the facilitated translations of Greek texts into Arabic, underpinning advancements in , , and illustrated treatises. and geometric tilework adorned mosques and palaces, prioritizing while incorporating Persian and Byzantine decorative elements. In , the Classic Maya period concluded around 900 CE, with artists at sites like and producing limestone stelae, jade mosaics, and painted ceramics depicting rulers' accessions and rituals until regional collapse from environmental and warfare pressures. These works integrated hieroglyphic texts with naturalistic portraits, serving propagandistic functions in collapsing city-states.

Science, Medicine, and Technology

In the , ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925), a and polymath based in and , advanced clinical through systematic observation and experimentation, distinguishing from based on their distinct symptoms and progressions, which laid early groundwork for understanding viral diseases. His extensive Kitab al-Hawi (Comprehensive Book), compiled over decades including the late , synthesized Greek, Indian, and Persian medical texts with original case studies, emphasizing empirical testing of treatments like diet, , and . Al-Razi also pioneered the use of as an and mercury compounds for , though these were part of broader 9th–10th-century pharmacological innovations during the Abbasid era. Astronomer and mathematician (c. 858–929), working in , refined Ptolemaic models around 900, calculating the solar year length at 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds—accurate to within 2 minutes of modern values—and improving trigonometric tables for planetary motion, which influenced later European astronomy. These contributions, documented in his (astronomical handbook) completed in the early 10th century but based on late 9th-century observations, utilized advanced instruments like the for precise measurements. In , during the waning (618–907), Daoist alchemists refined early compositions in the mid-to-late , initially seeking elixirs of but yielding explosive mixtures of saltpeter, , and documented in texts like the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolue (c. 850), enabling rudimentary and incendiary devices by 900. feats included improved water-powered mills and hydraulic systems for and grain processing, supporting agricultural output amid dynastic instability. In , scientific activity centered on monastic preservation rather than innovation; the , an Anglo-Saxon herbal manuscript compiled c. 900–950, prescribed remedies blending empirical herbs (e.g., for infections) with incantations, reflecting limited systematic medicine amid Carolingian intellectual continuity. , including zero, began transmitting to via around 900, facilitating future arithmetic advancements, though adoption lagged until the .

Individuals

Births

Adaldag, a Benedictine monk who served as Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen from 936 to 988, was born in 900. He played a significant role in the missionary efforts to convert the Slavs and Scandinavians to Christianity, establishing sees and supporting the church's expansion in northern Europe under the Ottonian dynasty. Konrad von Altdorf, later Bishop of Regensburg, was born in the same year. Appointed bishop around 968, he administered the diocese amid the political turbulence of the Holy Roman Empire, focusing on ecclesiastical governance and local patronage. Precise birth records for lay notables in 900 remain elusive, as contemporary annals and charters prioritized events over personal dates, with estimates for figures like (king 950–961) derived from regnal timelines rather than direct evidence.

Deaths

, king of since 895 and illegitimate son of East Frankish king Arnulf, was killed on August 13 in battle against Reginar I, , near Susteren in present-day ; his death led to the succession of his half-brother as king of . Fulk the Venerable, archbishop of since 883 and staunch supporter of Carolingian claims against rival king , was assassinated on June 17 while en route to negotiate with King Charles the Simple; the murder, involving a small escort overwhelmed by attackers, stemmed from conflicts over control of abbeys like Saint-Vaast, likely instigated by Baldwin II, .