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Jammu and Kashmir

Jammu and Kashmir is a union territory of India, formed on 31 October 2019 under the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which abolished the region's special autonomous status previously enshrined in Article 370 of the Indian Constitution and separated Ladakh as a distinct union territory.^[1]^[2] The territory encompasses the Jammu and Kashmir divisions, spanning diverse topography from the fertile Kashmir Valley and Pir Panjal Range to the rugged Jammu hills, with an administered area of approximately 42,241 square kilometers and a population of 12,267,013 as recorded in the 2011 census.^[3] Geographically, it lies north of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, west of Ladakh, and borders Pakistan to the west and China to the north and east, forming a strategic Himalayan frontier marked by high-altitude passes and glacial rivers.^[3]^[2] Historically, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir acceded to the Dominion of India on 26 October 1947, when Maharaja Hari Singh executed the Instrument of Accession amid an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen supported by Pakistan, prompting Indian military intervention the following day and the first Indo-Pakistani war.^[4]^[5] The 1949 ceasefire established the Line of Control, dividing the region with Pakistan administering about 78,000 square kilometers as Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, while China seized Aksai Chin—roughly 38,000 square kilometers—during the 1962 Sino-Indian War, though India maintains sovereignty claims over the entirety of 222,236 square kilometers.^[6]^[3] The post-accession era has featured persistent territorial disputes, punctuated by wars in 1965 and 1999, and a Pakistan-fueled Islamist insurgency since 1989 that peaked in the 1990s but has since waned amid Indian counterinsurgency efforts and governance reforms, including the 2019 reorganization that extended full constitutional rights, boosted investment, and facilitated tourism recovery.^[7] This culminated in 2024 assembly elections—the first since 2014—with high voter turnout leading to a National Conference-led government under Chief Minister Omar Abdullah, signaling stabilized local politics despite ongoing cross-border tensions.^[8]

Geography

Physical Features

The region encompassing Jammu and Kashmir exhibits diverse physiographic divisions, including the Jammu plains and foothills, the Kashmir Valley, and the Ladakh plateau. The Jammu division features outer plains adjacent to the Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract, rising into the Siwalik Hills (with elevations of 600–1,500 meters) and lesser Himalayan ranges that form a transitional zone of folded sedimentary rocks and dissected terrain.^[9]^[10] The Kashmir Valley constitutes a longitudinal alluvial basin, approximately 135 kilometers long and 40 kilometers wide, situated between the Pir Panjal Range to the southwest and the Greater Himalayan Range (Zanskar sub-range) to the northeast. This synclinal depression, formed by tectonic folding during Himalayan orogeny, supports fertile soils deposited by ancient glacial and fluvial action. The Pir Panjal Range, the longest segment of the lesser Himalayas in the area, stretches over 300 kilometers from the Jhelum River gorge to the upper Beas River, with peaks such as Tatakuti reaching 4,745 meters, creating a rain shadow effect that influences regional precipitation patterns.^[9]^[11]^[12] The Ladakh plateau, elevated at an average of over 3,000 meters and extending northward beyond the Greater Himalayas, comprises a high-altitude cold desert with karst topography, glacial valleys, and the Ladakh and Zanskar ranges; it transitions into the Tibetan Plateau and features sparse vegetation due to arid conditions and permafrost in higher zones.^[13]^[10] Major rivers of the Indus basin dominate the hydrology, with the Jhelum originating at Verinag Spring (elevation 1,800 meters) in the Pir Panjal foothills, meandering 725 kilometers through the Kashmir Valley and Wular Lake (area 189 square kilometers) before piercing the range at Baramulla. The Chenab, rising from Chandra Taal in the Jammu Himalayas, flows 960 kilometers westward through rugged gorges in the Jammu hills, contributing to the region's sediment load and seasonal flooding dynamics. These waterways, fed by glacial melt and monsoon rains, carve deep valleys and sustain alluvial deposits critical to the valley's agriculture.^[11]^[9] The western boundary aligns with the Line of Control amid varied terrain of rivers, valleys, and siwalik spurs, while the northern and eastern frontiers traverse the Karakoram and Himalayan ranges, where elevations exceeding 5,000 meters and glacial features like the Siachen Glacier (length 76 kilometers) form extensive natural barriers of ice, rock, and extreme weather.^[13]^[9]

Climate and Natural Resources

The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies significantly across its regions due to elevational differences and topographic influences, resulting in subtropical conditions in the Jammu plains, temperate patterns in the Kashmir Valley, and cold arid conditions in Ladakh.^[14] In the Kashmir Valley, winters from December to March feature sub-zero temperatures often dropping to -15°C, accompanied by heavy snowfall that accumulates in higher elevations, while summers from June to August see maximum temperatures around 32°C with moderate precipitation.^[15] Precipitation is generally low, averaging under 1000 mm annually in most areas, predominantly as snow in winter, with diurnal temperature variations exceeding 20°C in valleys due to clear skies and low humidity. Higher altitudes, including parts of Ladakh, experience arid conditions with minimal rainfall below 100 mm per year and persistent cold, where temperatures can fall to -18°C in winter.^[16] Natural resources in the region include substantial forest cover, estimated at over 20% of the area, dominated by coniferous species such as deodar cedar and pine, which support timber production.^[17] Mineral deposits, primarily in the Jammu region, encompass gypsum, limestone, magnesite, and coal, though extraction remains limited by infrastructure constraints.^[18] The territory holds significant hydropower potential, derived from perennial rivers like the Jhelum and Chenab, fed by glacial melt and monsoon inflows, with an estimated capacity exceeding 20,000 MW, though much remains untapped.^[19] Agricultural lands in the Kashmir Valley yield specialized crops, including saffron from Pampore fields, which produce around 5-7 tons annually under temperate conditions, and apples from orchards covering over 150,000 hectares, thriving in the valley's microclimate.^[20] Environmental challenges include deforestation, which has reduced forest cover by approximately 10-15% over recent decades due to logging and land conversion, exacerbating soil erosion and altering local hydrology. Glacial retreat, driven by rising temperatures averaging 0.1-0.2°C per decade in the Himalayas, has led to the shrinkage of over 1,000 glaciers in the region, increasing downstream water variability and sediment loads in rivers.^[21]^[22] Flood risks are heightened by these factors, as evidenced by the September 2014 deluge, triggered by 5-7 days of continuous heavy rainfall exceeding 300 mm in the Jhelum catchment, which inundated over 80% of the Kashmir Valley and caused widespread glacial lake outbursts.^[23]^[24] This event, the most severe in 60 years, highlighted vulnerabilities from reduced wetland buffering and upstream deforestation, resulting in altered riverine sediment dynamics and heightened erosion rates.^[25]

History

Ancient and Medieval Periods

Archaeological evidence from the Burzahom site in the Kashmir Valley indicates Neolithic settlements dating to approximately 3000 BCE, featuring pit dwellings, polished stone tools, and early agriculture, marking one of the region's earliest known human habitations.^[26]^[27] This period reflects indigenous development of sedentary communities, with artifacts suggesting continuity into later prehistoric phases without direct ties to contemporaneous Indus Valley cultures farther south.^[28] During the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE, Emperor Ashoka promoted Buddhism in Kashmir, constructing stupas and viharas as part of his broader edicts to disseminate the faith following his conversion around 260 BCE.^[29] These structures, referenced in later historical chronicles like the Rajatarangini, underscore early imperial integration of the region into northern Indian Buddhist networks, though direct archaeological confirmation remains limited.^[29] The Kushan Empire, under Emperor Kanishka (r. circa 127–150 CE), further elevated Buddhism's role in Kashmir, convening the Fourth Buddhist Council there to systematize Mahayana doctrines and patronizing monastic centers.^[30]^[31] This era saw artistic and architectural advancements blending Greco-Buddhist styles, evidenced by coinage and relics, positioning Kashmir as a conduit for Buddhist transmission between Central Asia and India.^[32] From the 7th to 9th centuries CE, the Karkota dynasty governed Kashmir, with King Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) expanding territorial influence through military campaigns against regional powers, fostering a period of economic prosperity and cultural synthesis.^[33]^[34] Architectural legacies include the Martand Sun Temple, constructed under Lalitaditya in the 8th century CE, dedicated to the solar deity Surya and exemplifying Kashmiri Shaivism with its hypostyle design and courtyard layout.^[35] Subsequent dynasties like the Utpala and Lohara maintained Hindu-Buddhist traditions until political instability in the early 14th century facilitated the rise of the Shah Mir dynasty, founded by Shah Mir in 1339 CE after the overthrow of the last Hindu queen, Kota Rani.^[36] This marked the onset of Muslim sultanate rule, incorporating Persian administrative influences while retaining elements of local Kashmiri customs, as seen in the blending of Islamic governance with valley-specific land systems.^[36] Early Shah Mir sultans, such as Shamsuddin (r. 1339–1342 CE), consolidated power amid Mongol threats, establishing a dynasty that endured until 1561 CE.^[37]

Dogra Dynasty and Princely State

The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was founded by Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra chieftain from the Jamwal clan who had risen to prominence as a military commander under Maharaja Ranjit Singh of the Sikh Empire. Appointed Raja of Jammu around 1820, Gulab Singh expanded his territory through conquests, including the annexation of Ladakh between 1834 and 1842 following campaigns against local Tibetan-influenced rulers.^[38] The decisive establishment of the unified state occurred after the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846), when the British East India Company, victorious over the Sikhs, sold the Kashmir Valley to Gulab Singh via the Treaty of Amritsar signed on March 16, 1846. Under the treaty's terms, Gulab Singh paid 7.5 million Nanakshahi rupees (equivalent to 75 lakh rupees) for sovereignty over the valley and its dependencies, formally recognizing him as Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir while requiring loyalty to the British Crown.^[39]^[40] Gulab Singh's rule (1846–1857) focused on consolidating administrative control over the disparate regions of Jammu (Hindu-majority hill territories), the Kashmir Valley (fertile but previously exploited under Afghan and Sikh governors), and Ladakh (high-altitude Buddhist enclaves), introducing a centralized revenue system amid ongoing border skirmishes with Tibetan forces. His son, Ranbir Singh (r. 1857–1885), pursued reforms to stabilize governance and economy, promulgating the Ranbir Penal Code in the 1860s, which drew from Hindu legal traditions like the Mitakshara but incorporated Islamic principles such as Sharia elements for personal laws affecting the Muslim population, aiming to balance the state's religious pluralism.^[41] Ranbir Singh also advanced infrastructure, including early irrigation works like extensions to local kuls (community channels) and state-sponsored canals in Jammu's agrarian belts, which boosted rice and maize yields in areas previously limited by inconsistent water supply; these efforts supported over 75% of the population reliant on agriculture, though yields remained modest due to feudal land tenures.^[42]^[43] The state's demographics reflected stark regional diversity, with the Kashmir Valley holding a Muslim majority exceeding 90% by the early 20th century, Jammu province featuring a Hindu plurality alongside substantial Muslim communities (overall state Muslims at 77.1% in 1941 per census data), and Ladakh dominated by Buddhists at around 47% of its population.^[44] This composition—totaling roughly 4 million residents by 1941—fostered administrative challenges under Hindu Dogra rulers, as Muslim peasants in Kashmir faced begar (forced labor) impositions and high land revenue demands averaging 30–50% of produce, sparking localized unrest and petitions for relief documented in British resident reports from the 1870s onward.^[45] While Ranbir Singh's codes and famine relief measures in the 1870s mitigated some grievances by standardizing taxation and prohibiting arbitrary begar in core areas, underlying frictions persisted, with Dogra favoritism toward Hindu officials in Kashmir administration exacerbating perceptions of bias among the Muslim majority.^[41]

Partition, Accession, and Early Conflicts

In the aftermath of the partition of British India on August 15, 1947, the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, initially sought to remain independent through a standstill agreement with Pakistan while delaying a decision on accession to either dominion.^[46] However, on October 22, 1947, Pakistani military officers orchestrated an invasion by Pashtun tribal militias under Operation Gulmarg, advancing toward Srinagar with support from regular Pakistani forces, resulting in widespread atrocities including the killing of an estimated 20,000 to 35,000 civilians, primarily Hindus and Sikhs, in areas like Baramulla and Muzaffarabad.^[47] ^[48] Facing the collapse of his forces and the tribal lashkars' rapid advance to within miles of Srinagar, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to India on October 26, 1947, formally integrating the state into the Indian Union and requesting military assistance; the document ceded control over defense, external affairs, and communications to India while preserving internal autonomy.^[49] ^[46] Indian troops airlifted to Srinagar on October 27, 1947, halted the invasion, sparking the First Indo-Pakistani War, which saw Indian forces reclaim much of the Kashmir Valley and Jammu while Pakistani regulars and tribesmen occupied roughly one-third of the state, including Gilgit-Baltistan and much of Azad Kashmir.^[50] The war concluded with a UN-mediated ceasefire on January 1, 1949, establishing the Ceasefire Line (later renamed the Line of Control in 1972), which divided the state with India controlling about two-thirds, including the Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.^[51] The United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) resolutions of August 13, 1948, and subsequent Security Council actions, including Resolution 91 of March 30, 1951, outlined a phased demilitarization process requiring Pakistan to first withdraw its tribesmen and nationals, followed by India's reduction of forces to a minimum before a plebiscite under UN supervision; however, Pakistan's failure to fully withdraw impeded implementation.^[52] ^[53] Tensions escalated in the Second Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, triggered by Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which infiltrated some 30,000 commandos into Indian-administered Kashmir to incite an uprising; the operation failed, leading to open conflict from August to September 1965, with major battles in the Chhamb sector and Haji Pir Pass, where Indian forces captured strategic heights before a UN-mandated ceasefire on September 23 restored the pre-war status quo ante, though India retained tactical gains like the Haji Pir Pass until partially returned under the Tashkent Agreement of January 1966.^[54] ^[55] The Third Indo-Pakistani War of December 1971, primarily over East Pakistan's secession, saw limited but significant fighting along the Kashmir LoC, where Indian forces advanced into territories like Chhamb and Turtuk, capturing over 5,000 square kilometers; Pakistan's surrender in the east on December 16, 1971, led to the Simla Agreement of July 2, 1972, in which both nations agreed to resolve disputes bilaterally without third-party involvement, formalized the LoC as the de facto boundary pending final settlement, and committed to non-interference, with India repatriating over 90,000 Pakistani POWs and most captured territory except minor adjustments for defensive lines.^[56] ^[57]

Insurgency Era (1989–2019)

The insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir erupted in the late 1980s, triggered primarily by the alleged widespread rigging of the November 1987 state legislative assembly elections, in which the National Conference-Congress alliance secured a sweeping victory amid reports of ballot stuffing, voter intimidation, and the declaration of defeated candidates as winners.^[58] ^[59] This electoral fraud eroded trust in India's democratic institutions among segments of the Kashmiri Muslim population, particularly youth who had mobilized under the Muslim United Front, prompting many to abandon electoral politics for armed separatism.^[58] Militant groups proliferated rapidly after 1988, with the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) leading initial operations through high-profile actions like the 1989 kidnapping of foreign tourists and Rubaiya Sayeed, daughter of India's home minister.^[60] The JKLF initially pursued an independent Kashmir, drawing local recruits disillusioned by governance failures. By 1989, Hizbul Mujahideen emerged as a rival Islamist outfit, advocating merger with Pakistan and quickly surpassing JKLF in recruitment and attacks through enforced ideologies and external ideological support.^[60] These groups sustained operations via arms smuggling and funding networks, exploiting porous borders to import weapons and sustain cadres.^[61] Parallel to the militancy's rise, targeted violence against the Kashmiri Pandit Hindu minority intensified, culminating in mass exodus by early 1990. Threats broadcast via mosques, selective killings, and arson drove an estimated 300,000 Pandits from the Kashmir Valley, reducing their population from around 140,000-160,000 households pre-insurgency to a few thousand remnants.^[62] ^[63] This demographic shift, amid over 200 documented Pandit murders between 1990 and 1995, reflected militants' strategy to consolidate control by eliminating perceived Indian loyalists, though some analysts attribute partial causation to broader chaos rather than systematic genocide.^[63] Violence escalated sharply through the 1990s, peaking with thousands of annual fatalities from ambushes, bombings, and reprisals; for instance, 1995 recorded 5,946 incidents, the highest single-year tally.^[64] Overall, the conflict claimed approximately 41,000 lives from 1988 to 2017, including civilians, security forces, and militants, with civilian deaths predominant in the early phase due to indiscriminate attacks and enforced shutdowns.^[65] Foreign fighters, often ideologically aligned with global jihadist networks, bolstered militant ranks, with reports documenting their infiltration alongside arms via established routes.^[61] Post-2000, insurgency intensity waned due to intensified Indian counter-operations, including precision strikes and intelligence-led arrests that dismantled local command structures and reduced active militants from thousands to hundreds by the mid-2010s.^[66] Annual fatalities dropped markedly after 2004, reflecting disrupted supply lines and surrenders amid sustained military pressure, though sporadic spikes persisted from residual cells.^[66] This decline underscored the causal role of external sustainment in prolonging the conflict, as domestic recruitment faltered without continuous inflows.^[61]

Abrogation of Article 370 and Post-2019 Developments

On August 5, 2019, the Government of India, exercising powers under President's Rule imposed on June 20, 2019, issued a presidential order abrogating Article 370 of the Constitution, which had granted special autonomous status to Jammu and Kashmir, and simultaneously revoked Article 35A, which restricted property rights and settlement for non-residents.^[67]^[68] This was followed by the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, effective October 31, 2019, which reorganized the former state into two union territories: Jammu and Kashmir (with a legislative assembly) and Ladakh (without one), thereby applying all provisions of the Indian Constitution uniformly and extending central laws on citizenship, fundamental rights, and reservations to the region.^[67] The changes aimed to integrate the territory more fully with India, eliminating perceived barriers to investment and development while addressing long-standing security concerns rooted in separatist militancy.^[69] Post-abrogation, security metrics indicated a substantial decline in terrorism-related violence. Government data reported a 70% reduction in terror activities from 2019 to 2024, with terrorist incidents dropping from 417 in 2018 to around 125 by 2023, corroborated by independent trackers showing fewer civilian and security force fatalities.^[70]^[71]^[72] This trend aligned with intensified counter-terrorism operations, including the neutralization of over 1,800 militants since 2019, though civilian casualties remained a persistent issue amid targeted killings.^[70] Politically, the first legislative assembly elections since 2014 were held in three phases from September 18 to October 1, 2024, with a voter turnout of 63.88%, resulting in the National Conference securing 42 seats, Bharatiya Janata Party 29, and Congress 6, leading to a coalition government under Omar Abdullah sworn in on October 16, 2024.^[73] Economically, the abrogation facilitated infrastructure expansion, with over 2,200 projects valued at more than ₹25,000 crore completed or underway by 2024, including the Chenab Rail Bridge (world's highest rail arch) and expansions in highways, airports, and renewable energy like solar and hydroelectric initiatives.^[74]^[75] However, foreign direct investment inflows remained minimal, totaling just ₹10.52 crore from 2020 to September 2024—the lowest among Indian states and union territories—despite incentives, highlighting challenges in attracting external capital amid ongoing security perceptions.^[76] Initial measures included a communications blackout starting August 5, 2019, suspending internet, mobile, and landline services until gradual restoration by February 2021, justified by authorities to prevent unrest but criticized for economic disruption.^[77] These developments marked a shift toward centralized governance and development focus, with empirical security gains but mixed economic progress.

Government and Politics

Administrative Divisions and Governance

Following the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act of 2019, effective from August 5, the region was bifurcated into two Union Territories: Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh, with the former retaining a legislative assembly under direct central oversight.^[78] The Lieutenant Governor, appointed by the President of India, serves as the administrative head, wielding executive authority akin to other Union Territories to ensure integrated governance and policy implementation.^[79] Manoj Sinha has held this position since August 7, 2020, focusing on developmental initiatives amid centralized control.^[80] The Union Territory comprises two divisions—Jammu Division and Kashmir Division—encompassing 20 districts in total, with Jammu Division featuring 10 districts in a predominantly Hindu-majority southern region and Kashmir Division similarly structured in the Muslim-majority valley.^[81] Each district is subdivided into tehsils headed by tehsildars, facilitating administrative efficiency under divisional commissioners who report to the Lieutenant Governor's office.^[81] This structure supports targeted resource allocation for stability, infrastructure, and equitable development across diverse terrains. Post-2019 reorganization, Panchayati Raj Institutions were fully integrated via the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, establishing a three-tier system of gram panchayats, block panchayats, and district panchayats to devolve powers and boost local participation in planning and decision-making.^[82] The Jammu and Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act, amended post-abrogation, extended constitutional safeguards, including reservations for marginalized groups, with over 4,000 gram panchayats operationalized to channel funds directly for village-level projects.^[83] This shift addressed prior delays in grassroots democracy, enabling approximately ₹1,200 crore in additional central grants for local bodies since 2019.^[84] The abrogation repealed Article 35A's restrictive provisions, which had discriminated against women marrying non-residents, West Pakistan refugees, and certain ethnic minorities by denying them property and residency rights, thereby extending equal citizenship under the Indian Constitution.^[78] National frameworks, including the Right to Education Act of 2009, were uniformly applied, mandating free and compulsory education for children aged 6-14 and integrating Jammu and Kashmir into broader welfare schemes like the National Food Security Act.^[78] These measures prioritize non-discriminatory access to services, with centralized mechanisms ensuring compliance and monitoring for sustained regional integration.

Electoral Politics and Representation

The political landscape of Jammu and Kashmir has been dominated by regional parties advocating varying degrees of autonomy, alongside national parties favoring fuller integration with India. The Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (NC), established in the 1930s, has historically emphasized regional autonomy and Kashmiri identity, securing majorities in assembly elections such as 2002 and forming coalitions thereafter.^[85] The People's Democratic Party (PDP), founded in 1999, promoted a "self-rule" agenda and alternated power with NC, notably leading the government from 2002 to 2008 and in coalition with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) from 2014 to 2015.^[85] In contrast, the BJP, representing Hindu-majority Jammu, has campaigned on abrogation of special status and economic integration, gaining seats primarily in Jammu divisions during elections like 2014.^[86] Voter turnout has fluctuated significantly, often influenced by calls for election boycotts from separatist groups like the Hurriyat Conference, which argued polls lacked legitimacy without resolving the Kashmir dispute; such appeals contributed to low participation, dipping below 30% in Srinagar during some 1990s and 2000s polls.^[87] Turnout rebounded to around 58% in the 2014 assembly elections but remained contested amid insurgency-related disruptions.^[88] In the 2024 assembly elections—the first since the 2019 reorganization into union territories—overall turnout reached 63.88%, the highest for assembly polls in decades, with phase-wise figures including 61.38% in phase 1 and 69.69% in phase 3, signaling broader acceptance despite residual apathy in parts of the Kashmir Valley.^[89]^[90] This surge, exceeding the 2024 Lok Sabha turnout in several districts, countered narratives of rejection, as voting proceeded peacefully without overt boycott mobilization from traditional separatists.^[88]^[91] Electoral representation underwent restructuring via the Jammu and Kashmir Delimitation Commission, constituted in 2020 and finalized in 2022, which redrew boundaries using the 2011 census to allocate 90 assembly seats—43 in Jammu, 47 in Kashmir—addressing prior imbalances where Kashmir held disproportionate seats relative to population.^[92] The exercise increased Jammu's share from 37 to 43 seats, aiming for equitable demographic weighting, though contested by some Valley-based parties for allegedly favoring Jammu's Hindu-majority areas. Post-2019, electoral dynamics showed a shift from entrenched family-led parties toward diversified participation, with over 20 new outfits registering between 2019 and 2022, enabling independents and non-dynastic candidates to contest amid reduced militancy. In 2024, while NC retained Valley strongholds through alliances like with Congress, independents captured notable seats, reflecting grassroots mobilization over hereditary dominance previously exemplified by the Abdullah and Mufti families.^[93] This evolution, coupled with high turnout, underscores a pragmatic engagement with the electoral process, prioritizing development and governance over autonomy rhetoric in voter preferences.^[91]

Central Government Interventions

The Government of India has deployed central paramilitary forces, including the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), to Jammu and Kashmir for counter-insurgency operations, with approvals for additional battalions in response to specific threats, such as the deployment of three battalions to Jammu in August 2025 and in-principle approval for 20 more battalions following the Pahalgam attack in July 2025.^[94]^[95] These deployments, coordinated under the Ministry of Home Affairs, aim to bolster internal security and facilitate the transition of responsibilities from the Indian Army to central police forces where feasible.^[96] The Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA), extended to designated disturbed areas in Jammu and Kashmir under the Jammu and Kashmir Armed Forces Special Powers Act of 1990, grants security forces powers for search, arrest, and use of force based on periodic threat assessments by the central government, with discussions on partial revocation reflecting improved ground conditions.^[97] Empirical data indicate a significant decline in terrorist incidents post-2018, with the Ministry of Home Affairs reporting reduced infiltration and attacks, attributed to these coordinated federal security measures.^[98]^[99] In parallel, the central government has pursued development initiatives, notably the Prime Minister's Development Package (PMDP) of 2015, which allocated approximately Rs 58,477 crore across 53 projects in sectors including roads, power, education, and health, implemented by 15 ministries.^[100] This package was extended by three years to March 2022 in December 2019, with further progress post-reorganization, completing or substantially advancing 29 projects by 2022 and supporting infrastructure like schools and connectivity.^[101]^[102] The Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity of the 2019 presidential orders abrogating Article 370 and reorganizing Jammu and Kashmir into union territories in a unanimous verdict on December 11, 2023, affirming Parliament's authority under Article 370(3) and directing restoration of statehood at an appropriate time.^[103]^[104] These interventions reflect federal mechanisms to address separatism through integrated security and economic integration, correlating with official data on lowered violence levels.^[71]

Security and Conflicts

Origins and Nature of Militancy

Militancy in Jammu and Kashmir originated in the late 1980s, initially driven by groups like the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), founded in 1977 as a secular, pro-independence outfit that launched armed operations in 1988 targeting Indian security installations.^[105] This phase emphasized Kashmiri self-determination through nationalist lenses rather than religious ideology, with early actions focused on hit-and-run attacks against military targets. However, by the early 1990s, the dominant strain shifted toward Islamist militancy, exemplified by the rise of Hizbul Mujahideen, established in 1989 as an ideologically rigid group seeking accession to Pakistan under an Islamic framework.^[106] This transition reflected deeper radicalization processes, including the propagation of Deobandi and Wahhabi interpretations of jihad through cross-border madrasa networks that indoctrinated recruits with puritanical views framing the conflict as a religious duty over mere territorial grievance.^[107] Local clerical endorsements accelerated this ideological pivot, with fatwas issued in 1990 by figures like Mirwaiz Maulana Muhammad Farooq declaring armed resistance a religious obligation, thereby recasting secular dissent into jihadist fervor and drawing in youth via mosques and informal study circles.^[108] Radicalization prioritized absolutist narratives of eternal conflict, sidelining pragmatic politics and fostering a cadre committed to total societal transformation, as evidenced by Hizbul's internal purges of non-conforming members and enforcement of Sharia-like codes in controlled areas by 1992.^[109] The nature of this militancy manifested in asymmetric tactics designed to maximize psychological impact, including ambushes on security convoys, improvised explosive devices (IEDs), and selective assassinations of civilians labeled as informants or non-Muslims, such as the targeted killings of over 650 Kashmiri Pandits between 1989 and 2004.^[110] Groups adapted fidayeen-style assaults—small teams storming fortified positions with intent to die—while suicide bombings, though infrequent compared to other insurgencies, occurred in high-profile cases like the 2000 Legislative Assembly attack and the 2019 Pulwama incident, killing 40 paramilitary personnel.^[111] These methods deliberately blurred military-civilian lines to erode governance legitimacy, with Ministry of Home Affairs records indicating that civilian fatalities from militant actions averaged 200-400 annually during peak years (1990s-2000s), alongside 300-500 security personnel deaths per year.^[112] Post-2019 trends show a marked decline in local recruitment into these groups, dropping from peaks of over 100 Kashmiri youth joining annually in 2016-2018 to fewer than 30 by 2022-2023, as radicalization conduits weakened amid expanded economic avenues and targeted interventions that disrupted ideological echo chambers without formal deradicalization labeling here.^[110] ^[113] This contraction underscores how sustained exposure to alternative prospects diluted the appeal of militant ideologies, reducing the influx of homegrown operatives reliant on prior madrasa or familial indoctrination pathways.^[114]

Pakistan-Sponsored Terrorism

Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has been implicated in orchestrating terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir through support for militant groups, including provision of training, funding, and infiltration across the Line of Control (LoC).^[115]^[116] Declassified intelligence and court testimonies, such as FBI evidence presented in U.S. proceedings, indicate ISI's direct sponsorship of attacks in the region, countering Pakistani denials by highlighting state agency involvement in proxy warfare.^[117] Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), designated as terrorist organizations by the United Nations, maintain training camps in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK), including areas near Muzaffarabad, where recruits are prepared for infiltration and operations in Jammu and Kashmir.^[118] These camps have facilitated attacks such as the 2008 Mumbai assaults, executed by LeT operatives motivated by the group's Kashmir-focused jihadist ideology, resulting in 166 deaths and demonstrating the spillover of Pakistan-sponsored militancy beyond the region.^[111] LeT founder Hafiz Muhammad Saeed faces UN sanctions for leading the group, with assets frozen and travel bans imposed since 2008 under Security Council resolutions.^[119] Post-2019, despite India's abrogation of Article 370, Pakistan-sponsored terrorism persisted, exemplified by the April 22, 2025, Pahalgam attack in Jammu and Kashmir, where militants killed 26 civilians, primarily Hindu tourists, using automatic weapons in a targeted assault on a scenic meadow.^[120] This incident, the deadliest civilian attack in India since 2008, prompted escalated cross-LoC firing, with Pakistan initiating unprovoked small-arms and artillery exchanges in multiple sectors including Kupwara and Poonch on subsequent nights, as reported in official Indian Army statements.^[121] International scrutiny has intensified through the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), which grey-listed Pakistan from 2018 to 2024 for deficiencies in countering terror financing, including failures to prosecute leaders of LeT and JeM linked to Kashmir operations.^[122] Even after removal from the grey list, FATF issued warnings in October 2025 that exit does not shield Pakistan from ongoing monitoring, citing persistent use of digital wallets and other methods to fund camps amid reports of JeM explosives in Indian attacks.^[123] These designations underscore global recognition of state complicity, despite Pakistani assertions of non-involvement.

Indian Counter-Terrorism Measures

India has employed intelligence-led operations as a core component of its counter-terrorism strategy in Jammu and Kashmir, targeting militant hideouts and infiltration routes along the Line of Control. These operations have resulted in the neutralization of thousands of militants since the onset of the insurgency in 1989, with security forces conducting precision strikes based on human and technical intelligence.^[112] In response to the Uri army base attack on September 18, 2016, which killed 19 Indian soldiers, the Indian Army launched cross-border surgical strikes on September 29, 2016, targeting nine terror launch pads in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. The strikes, executed by special forces, inflicted significant casualties on militants preparing for infiltration, as confirmed by the Ministry of External Affairs and Defence Ministry in a joint briefing. Similarly, following the Pulwama suicide bombing on February 14, 2019, that claimed 40 Central Reserve Police Force personnel, the Indian Air Force conducted the Balakot airstrike on February 26, 2019, striking a Jaish-e-Mohammed camp in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province to disrupt terrorist training infrastructure.^[124]^[125] Post the abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019, counter-terrorism efforts intensified with enhanced area domination and cordon-and-search operations, leading to a marked decline in violent incidents. Stone-pelting events, often used as a proxy for unrest, dropped by approximately 88% in 2020-2021 compared to 2019 levels, with zero reported incidents in 2023 according to Ministry of Home Affairs data. Rehabilitation programs for surrendering militants have also been implemented, offering vocational training and incentives to encourage defections and reduce recruitment.^[126]^[127] Legal measures have bolstered these operations, particularly through amendments to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) in 2019, which empowered the government to designate individuals as terrorists and seize assets linked to terror financing without prior judicial approval. These provisions have facilitated actions against networks funding militancy, including hawala channels and overseas remittances, aligning with India's commitments under the Financial Action Task Force. Overall, these strategies have contributed to a reduction in terrorist incidents, with official statistics showing fewer infiltrations and attacks in recent years.^[128]^[129]

Persistent Challenges and Recent Incidents

Despite a general decline in militant encounters since the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019, radicalization remains a persistent challenge, increasingly driven by social media platforms that disseminate extremist propaganda and glorify terrorism. Jammu and Kashmir Police identified around 200 such handles in early April 2025, many linked to groups like The Resistance Front (TRF), which use encrypted apps and online networks for recruitment and incitement.^[130] ^[131] These digital tactics have sustained low-level recruitment amid reduced physical infiltration, complicating counter-radicalization efforts that prioritize deradicalization over solely kinetic operations. The April 22, 2025, attack in Baisaran Valley near Pahalgam exemplified ongoing targeted killings, with militants gunning down 26 civilians—mostly Hindu tourists—in the deadliest civilian assault in Kashmir since 2019. Claimed by TRF, an offshoot of Lashkar-e-Taiba, the incident involved selective targeting of non-Muslims, prompting Indian retaliatory strikes on terrorist infrastructure in Pakistan and highlighting vulnerabilities in tourist-heavy areas despite enhanced security.^[132] ^[133] ^[134] Indian forces later neutralized three perpetrators in July 2025, but the event underscored how sporadic, high-impact attacks persist amid broader reductions in insurgency scale. Human rights monitoring reveals tensions between security imperatives and detention practices, with the Public Safety Act (PSA) enabling preventive arrests criticized for overuse against youth and dissenters. In March 2025, Chief Minister Omar Abdullah reported approximately 400 such PSA detentions of individuals without prior criminal records, fueling claims of arbitrary application to suppress separatism.^[135] ^[136] Separatist groups and some advocacy reports allege systemic abuses, including prolonged detentions without trial, yet aggregate data show declining overall violations and encounters, as reflected in National Human Rights Commission registrations and fewer large-scale militancy incidents compared to pre-2019 peaks.^[137] Freedom House's 2025 assessment upgraded Indian-administered Kashmir to "Partly Free," attributing improvements to competitive elections and stabilized law and order, which counterbalance narratives of unmitigated repression with evidence of reduced violence lethality.^[8]

Demographics

Population Distribution and Composition

The population of the Jammu and Kashmir Union Territory stood at 12,541,302 according to the 2011 census, representing 1.04% of India's total population at that time.^[138] Projections based on census trends estimate the figure to reach approximately 16 million by 2025, reflecting a decadal growth rate of around 23% from 2001 to 2011 that has since moderated due to declining birth rates. This growth is unevenly distributed, with 75% of the population residing in rural areas and the remainder in urban settings as of 2011.^[138] Population density across the territory averages 124 persons per square kilometer, but exhibits stark regional variations driven by topography and arable land availability. The Kashmir Valley, encompassing about 16% of the territory's area, supports over half the population at a density of approximately 430 persons per square kilometer, concentrated in fertile alluvial plains. In contrast, the Jammu region's hilly and mountainous terrains yield sparser densities, often below 200 persons per square kilometer, with even lower figures in remote sub-Himalayan areas.^[139] ^[140] Key urban centers anchor much of the territory's concentrated habitation. Srinagar, the summer capital and largest city, had a district population of 1.24 million in 2011, with city estimates approaching 1.2 million amid ongoing urbanization. Jammu city, the winter capital, recorded a district population of 1.53 million in 2011, with the urban core projected at around 750,000 residents by 2025.^[141] ^[142] Demographic trends indicate slowing expansion, with the total fertility rate dropping to 1.4 children per woman in the 2019–21 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), the lowest among Indian states and union territories and well below the replacement level of 2.1.^[143] This decline, consistent across regions including the Valley, signals an emerging aging population structure, as evidenced by rising median ages and reduced dependency ratios in recent surveys. Literacy rates stood at 67.16% overall in 2011, with Jammu division registering higher attainment around 73% compared to approximately 65% in the Kashmir division, reflecting disparities in access to education infrastructure. ^[144]

Religious and Ethnic Dynamics

The population of Jammu and Kashmir, as per the 2011 census, comprises approximately 68.3% Muslims, 28.4% Hindus, 1.9% Sikhs, and 0.9% Buddhists, with smaller Christian and other minorities.^[145] Regional variations are stark: the Kashmir Valley is overwhelmingly Muslim at around 96%, while Jammu division holds a Hindu majority of over 60%, and Ladakh features Buddhist predominance exceeding 45%.^[146] These distributions reflect geographic and historical settlement patterns, with Muslims concentrated in the Valley and Pir Panjal areas, Hindus in Jammu plains, and Buddhists in Ladakh's high-altitude districts.^[138] The exodus of Kashmiri Pandits, a Hindu subcaste native to the Valley, dramatically altered its religious homogeneity. Between late 1989 and early 1990, amid rising Islamist militancy, an estimated 90,000 to 100,000 Pandits—roughly 90% of the community's 120,000 to 140,000 Valley residents—fled targeted violence, including assassinations and threats, leaving behind fewer than 5,000 by mid-1990.^[147] This displacement, driven by insurgent calls for Islamic governance, reduced the Hindu presence in the Valley to under 1% today, transforming it from a pluralistic hub to a near-monolithic Muslim enclave and exacerbating sectarian divides.^[148] Ethnically, the region features diverse groups tied to religious identities: Kashmiri Muslims dominate the Valley, comprising the core Indo-Aryan population with Sunni-majority affiliations; Dogras, a Hindu-majority Indo-Aryan group, prevail in Jammu's lower hills; and nomadic Muslim Gujjars and Bakarwals, of Central Asian descent, traverse both divisions seasonally.^[149] Paharis, another Muslim and Hindu mix in the Pir Panjal, and Ladakhi Tibetans in the east add further layers, with tribal affiliations influencing pastoral and agrarian lifestyles.^[150] Linguistically, these dynamics manifest in spoken vernaculars: Kashmiri (Dardic branch) among Valley Muslims, Dogri and related Pahari dialects in Jammu's Hindu and Muslim areas, and Gojri among Gujjars, while Urdu serves as the longstanding official language since 1889, functioning as a unifying administrative medium despite limited native fluency.^[151] This multilingualism underscores ethnic fragmentation, with Urdu's Perso-Arabic script historically bridging Hindu and Muslim literati pre-partition. Pre-1990 inter-community relations exhibited syncretic elements, such as shared Sufi-Rishi traditions blending Islamic mysticism with indigenous Shaivite influences, fostering coexistence in mixed neighborhoods and joint festivals.^[152] However, underlying frictions—stemming from Dogra Hindu rule's perceived favoritism and land reforms favoring Muslims—eroded amid the 1989 insurgency, which weaponized religious identity through selective targeting of Hindus and Sikhs, polarizing communities into fortified enclaves and mutual suspicion.^[153] This shift from pragmatic accommodation to communal estrangement persists, with trust deficits hindering reintegration efforts.^[154]

Migration and Demographic Policies

Following the abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019, the Indian government amended domicile eligibility criteria through the Jammu and Kashmir Grant of Domicile Certificate (Procedure) Rules, 2020, which extended domicile status to individuals who had resided in the region for 15 years, studied there for seven years and passed class 10 or 12 examinations, or served in central or union territory government roles.^[155]^[156] These rules, notified on March 31, 2020, via the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Adaptation of State Laws) Order, aimed to facilitate the integration of skilled workers and government employees to support administrative and developmental needs in the union territory, rather than enabling unrestricted settlement.^[157] By April 2025, Jammu and Kashmir authorities reported issuing 83,742 domicile certificates to non-state subjects or outsiders since the 2019 changes, out of a total of over 3.5 million certificates processed, with the union territory's estimated population at approximately 13.8 million.^[158]^[159] This figure represents less than 1% of the population and primarily includes central government personnel and their families relocated for service, with no verified evidence of large-scale civilian influx altering residency patterns.^[160] Claims of "settler colonialism" or systematic demographic engineering, often voiced by regional political figures like PDP leader Waheed Parra, lack empirical support given the modest scale and targeted nature of issuances, contrasting with unsubstantiated projections of mass Hindu settlement.^[161] Parallel initiatives have focused on reversing the 1990 exodus of Kashmiri Pandits through rehabilitation schemes, including employment packages offering 25,000 jobs announced in 2021 and property restorations exceeding 600 cases by 2022, though actual permanent returns remain limited to a few thousand families amid security concerns.^[162]^[163] These efforts, extended through 2025-26 under central schemes, prioritize transit accommodation and financial aid but have not materially shifted the region's Muslim-majority composition, projected to hold steady absent a full census since 2011.^[164] In Pakistan-administered Kashmir, demographic shifts driven by settlement of Punjabis and Pashtuns have been documented as altering local ethnic balances, unlike the data-constrained changes in Indian-administered areas where inflows remain negligible relative to population baselines.^[165] Fears of parallel engineering in Jammu and Kashmir thus appear overstated, as issuance trends indicate administrative pragmatism over transformative migration.^[166]

Economy

Traditional Sectors

The economy of Jammu and Kashmir prior to 2019 was predominantly agrarian, with agriculture and horticulture forming the backbone, contributing significantly to gross state domestic product (GSDP) and employment for a large rural population.^[167] Horticulture, in particular, dominated exports, with apples accounting for the bulk of production; the region supplied approximately 75-77% of India's total apple output, primarily from the Kashmir Valley, supporting over seven lakh families directly or indirectly through cultivation, packing, and transport.^[168]^[169] Saffron cultivation, concentrated in areas like Pampore tehsil of Pulwama district, provided over 90% of India's domestic production from about 5,700 hectares of land, though yields had been declining due to factors such as climate variability and outdated farming practices. Handicrafts represented another traditional pillar, leveraging local skills in weaving Pashmina shawls from Changthangi goat wool, silk carpets, papier-mâché, and wood carvings, which employed thousands of artisans and generated export revenue but suffered from limited mechanization and market access.^[170] These sectors underscored a heavy reliance on primary activities, with little diversification; industrial growth remained stunted under the provisions of Article 370, which restricted non-residents from acquiring land or establishing businesses, deterring external investment and perpetuating a low-industrialization trap. Remittances from migrant laborers in Gulf countries supplemented household incomes and cushioned economic vulnerabilities, with inflows supporting consumption and small-scale investments amid seasonal agricultural unemployment; however, this dependency masked structural weaknesses, including high youth unemployment rates exceeding 18% in the 15-29 age group, driven by skill mismatches and insufficient job creation in non-agrarian fields.^[171]^[172] Overall, these traditional sectors reflected underperformance during the period of special autonomy, characterized by stagnant per capita income growth and vulnerability to external shocks like weather disruptions or conflict-related disruptions, without substantial shifts toward manufacturing or services.^[173]

Post-Abrogation Economic Reforms

Following the abrogation of Article 370 on August 5, 2019, Jammu and Kashmir's integration into India's national economic architecture enabled the full extension of key laws such as the Goods and Services Tax (GST) regime and the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), which were previously limited by the region's special status. These measures promoted economic formalization by unifying taxation processes—eliminating exemptions that had encouraged informal trade—and providing a structured framework for corporate debt resolution, thereby enhancing investor confidence and credit access. Official assessments indicate that GST compliance expanded the tax base, with registered businesses increasing from around 50,000 in 2019 to over 1 lakh by 2023, though revenue impacts remain debated amid recent rate adjustments.^[174]^[175] Nominal Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) rose from Rs 1.57 lakh crore in 2018-19 to Rs 2.25 lakh crore by 2022-23, reflecting an average annual growth exceeding 7% in nominal terms, driven by central funding and policy alignment, though real GSDP growth averaged 3.97-4.89% from 2019-25, below the pre-abrogation rate of 6.91% and national averages around 8%.^[174]^[176]^[177] This growth contrasted with pre-2019 stagnation risks from insulated policies, as integration unlocked central schemes contributing up to 40% of budgetary outlay by 2024-25. Reforms in land acquisition and industrial policies spurred investment inflows, with 6,851 proposals totaling Rs 1.19 lakh crore approved for industrial estates and special economic zones (SEZs) by August 2024, alongside grounded investments of Rs 9,606 crore creating 63,710 jobs.^[178]^[179] Central oversight via schemes like PM's Development Programme enhanced transparency in fund allocation, extending jurisdiction to agencies such as the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), enabling prosecutions of cases previously shielded under state autonomy, though quantifiable corruption reductions remain unverified beyond anecdotal government claims.^[180]^[181]

Tourism and Infrastructure Growth

Tourism in Jammu and Kashmir experienced significant growth following the revocation of Article 370 in August 2019, with domestic tourist arrivals rebounding from a low of 25.19 lakh in 2020—impacted by security concerns and the COVID-19 pandemic—to 2.07 crore in 2023 and a record 2.35 crore in 2024.^[182]^[183] Pre-2019 figures, such as approximately 1.26 crore arrivals in 2018, had established the region as a major draw, but post-revocation recovery demonstrated resilience amid intermittent violence.^[184] This uptick included foreign tourists rising from 1,650 in 2021 to 55,337 in 2023, reflecting improved perceptions of accessibility despite ongoing risks.^[182] The April 22, 2025, terrorist attack in Pahalgam's Baisaran Valley, which killed 26 civilians—primarily Hindu tourists—and was attributed to Pakistan-based groups, temporarily disrupted inflows, with Kashmir's tourist numbers plunging 52% in the first half of 2025 compared to 2024.^[185] Indian authorities responded with heightened security measures and diplomatic pressure on Pakistan, while local officials emphasized the region's safety for visitors outside conflict zones to sustain momentum.^[186] By mid-2025, partial recovery efforts focused on diversified destinations beyond Kashmir Valley, underscoring tourism's role in economic stabilization despite such incidents. Infrastructure developments have bolstered tourism accessibility. The 272-km Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL), initiated in 2002 and fully operationalized on June 7, 2025, connects the Kashmir Valley to India's broader rail network, reducing travel time and enhancing year-round connectivity previously hampered by harsh winters.^[187] Complementing this, the Zojila Tunnel project—a 13.1-km bi-directional tunnel linking Srinagar to Ladakh—stands at 64% completion as of mid-2025, with full operationalization delayed to February 2028 due to geological challenges, COVID-19 disruptions, and a prior terrorist incident at a related site.^[188] Hydropower expansion supports infrastructural reliability for tourism-dependent areas. Jammu and Kashmir's installed capacity of approximately 3,540 MW is set to increase by up to 7,000 MW over the next 8-10 years through projects like the 1,856-MW Sawalkot on the Chenab River and others totaling over 3,000 MW, including Pakal Dul (1,000 MW) and Ratle (850 MW), enabling consistent power for hotels, transport, and amenities amid seasonal demands.^[189]^[190]^[191] This growth has spurred job creation in tourism and services, with the sector's expansion post-2019 generating employment for thousands in hospitality, guiding, and ancillary roles, though precise figures vary amid informal labor prevalence.^[192]

Culture and Society

Linguistic and Religious Traditions

Kashmiri, the predominant language of the Kashmir Valley, belongs to the Dardic subgroup of the Indo-Aryan language family and is spoken by approximately 7 million people.^[193] Among Muslim speakers, it is typically rendered in a modified Perso-Arabic script, adapted from Urdu conventions to accommodate unique phonetic elements like retroflex sounds.^[194] In the Jammu region, Dogri prevails as an Indo-Aryan language within the Western Pahari group, serving as a medium for local folklore and oral traditions among the Dogra community.^[195] This linguistic mosaic underscores a heritage where languages evolved through historical migrations and interactions, fostering shared vocabularies in trade and daily life across ethno-religious lines. Kashmiri literary traditions exemplify syncretism, particularly through the vakhs (mystical verses) of 14th-century poetess Lal Ded (Lalleshwari), which fuse non-dualistic Shaivite philosophy with Sufi introspection on divine unity and self-realization.^[196] Her works, orally transmitted and later compiled, emphasize direct experiential knowledge of the divine over ritual orthodoxy, influencing subsequent Rishi poets who bridged Hindu asceticism and Islamic mysticism.^[197] This blending is evident in the Rishi order, a 15th-century Sufi movement in Kashmir that adopted vegetarianism and meditative seclusion reminiscent of pre-Islamic yogic rishis, promoting communal harmony through folk teachings on ethical living and tolerance.^[198] Religious observances reflect this heritage via shared shrine veneration and festivals transcending sectarian divides. Sufi urs commemorations, such as the annual event at Charar-e-Sharif honoring Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Noorani (Nund Rishi) in October, draw interfaith pilgrims for dhikr recitations and communal feasts, echoing the saint's syncretic shrukhs that parallel Lal Ded's verses.^[199] Similarly, the Hazratbal Shrine's urs for its relic of the Prophet Muhammad's hair fosters collective devotion, with practices incorporating local mystical elements. Kashmiri Hindus mark Navreh, the lunar new year on Chaitra Shukla Pratipada (typically March-April), with rituals invoking spring renewal and familial thali displays symbolizing prosperity, a tradition rooted in ancient Puranic calendars yet observed amid broader cultural coexistence.^[200] These customs prioritize experiential piety and seasonal cycles over doctrinal exclusivity, as seen in joint participation at sites blending architectural motifs from Persian and indigenous styles.^[201] Culinary practices further illustrate syncretic influences, with wazwan—a ritualistic multi-course banquet of up to 36 dishes, primarily lamb-based—tracing Persian-Islamic origins to 14th-century arrivals like Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani, who integrated Central Asian feasting norms with local spices and yogurt tempering.^[202] Prepared by hereditary hanjis (cooks) for weddings and festivals, it embodies communal etiquette where dishes are shared from large platters, reflecting egalitarian values akin to Rishi teachings on hospitality irrespective of faith.^[203] The Gujjar and Bakarwal communities maintain tribal pastoral systems characterized by seasonal nomadism, with Bakarwals primarily herding sheep and goats across high-altitude pastures in the Pir Panjal range during summers and lower plains in winters, while Gujjars focus on cattle and buffalo rearing in semi-nomadic patterns.^[204]^[205] These groups, comprising about 11% of Jammu and Kashmir's population, rely on traditional institutions for resource management and conflict resolution among kin networks.^[206] Traditional joint family systems, prevalent in rural and tribal areas for resource sharing and elder care, have declined since the 1990s due to urbanization, education, and economic pressures, shifting toward nuclear units particularly among younger generations in districts like Rajouri and Kishtwar.^[207]^[208] Consanguineous marriages, such as first-cousin unions, remain common at rates up to 62% in some Muslim-majority areas like Bhimber, reinforcing kinship ties but also reflecting patriarchal norms.^[209] Gender roles exhibit patriarchal structures, with women often managing household and pastoral duties while facing restrictions on mobility and decision-making; honor killings, though underreported, persist in cases tied to inter-caste or elopement disputes, with Jammu and Kashmir recording low but nonzero incidents amid broader Indian trends of familial enforcement of norms.^[210] Female literacy has risen to approximately 68% as of recent estimates, surpassing earlier figures from the 2011 census (56.4%) due to expanded schooling access, though rural gaps remain with rates below national averages for girls.^[211] The abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019 extended central Indian laws to Jammu and Kashmir, applying equal inheritance rights to daughters under statutes like the Hindu Succession Act for applicable communities and overriding prior regional customs that denied women property shares upon marrying non-residents, thereby enhancing female economic agency.^[212]^[213] Higher education infrastructure has expanded with the establishment of IIT Jammu in 2016 and IIM Jammu in the same year, providing local access to engineering and management programs and reducing out-migration for studies, with campuses emphasizing research and skill development for regional youth.^[214]^[215] These institutions have enrolled thousands annually, contributing to evolving norms by promoting merit-based opportunities over traditional kinship preferences.^[216]

Cultural Impacts of Conflict

The exodus of Kashmiri Pandits in the early 1990s, triggered by targeted violence amid rising militancy, led to the displacement of an estimated 100,000 to 300,000 individuals, fundamentally eroding Kashmir's composite culture that integrated Hindu, Muslim, and Sufi elements.^[217]^[218] Pandits, as custodians of Shaivite traditions and Kashmiri language scholarship, contributed uniquely to this syncretic ethos through literature, rituals, and interfaith dialogues, whose absence post-exodus diminished cultural pluralism and intensified sectarian divides.^[219] This demographic shift, coupled with militancy's promotion of exclusivist ideologies, weakened the historical Kashmiriyat framework that emphasized shared heritage over rigid communal boundaries.^[218] Militant groups, often backed by external Salafi-Wahhabi influences from Pakistan and the Middle East, challenged Kashmir's entrenched Sufi traditions, which had fostered tolerance and syncretism for over seven centuries through shrines, poetry, and music.^[220]^[221] The influx of jihadist ideologies during the 1990s insurgency promoted iconoclasm, targeting Sufi mausoleums—such as attacks in 1995—and shifting public discourse from mystical pluralism to puritanical intolerance, as evidenced by the rise of groups enforcing veiling and prohibiting traditional practices.^[222]^[223] This ideological pivot, documented in analyses of radicalization trends, replaced Sufi emphasis on inner spirituality with external conformity, altering social norms and diminishing the valley's historical resistance to orthodoxy.^[224] During the peak insurgency from the late 1980s to early 2000s, local artistic expression faced suppression through militant threats and self-censorship, with performances and visual arts curtailed to avoid reprisals for perceived pro-India or non-conformist content.^[225] Folk theater and satirical works, once vibrant outlets for critique, declined sharply, as artists reported intimidation and venue shutdowns amid violence.^[226] Post-2019 abrogation of Article 370, Bollywood's return to Kashmir for filming—evident in over a dozen productions by 2021, including location shoots in Srinagar—signaled a resurgence in cinematic activity, shifting from militancy-era avoidance to portraying normalized landscapes, though local narratives remained marginalized.^[227] Despite disruptions, cultural resilience manifested in sustained folk traditions like Chakri music, a rhythmic genre blending Sufi poetry and string instruments, which communities preserved through private gatherings and diaspora performances to maintain linguistic and emotional ties amid conflict.^[228] Handicrafts such as Pashmina weaving and papier-mâché, employing thousands pre- and post-conflict, endured as economic and identity anchors, with artisan cooperatives adapting to market challenges while embedding motifs of resilience.^[229]^[230] Kashmiri Pandit exile literature, including memoirs like Rahul Pandita's Our Moon Has Blood Clots (2013), documented displacement's trauma and preserved rituals through narrative, fostering intergenerational continuity and revival calls.^[231] Recent efforts, such as community-led Sufi music festivals and craft training programs since the mid-2010s, aim to reclaim traditions against radical erosion.^[232]^[233]

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The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was established by Maharaja Gulab Singh, the founder of the Dogra dynasty, in 1846 (Ram, 1977; Panikkar, 1930).
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The treaty between the British Government on the one part and Maharajah Gulab. Singh of Jammu on the other concluded on the part of the British Government ...Missing: Kashmir | Show results with:Kashmir
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Treaty of Amritsar March 16, 1846. Legal Document No 1. The treaty between the British Government on the one part and Maharajah Gulab Singh of Jammu on the ...
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[PDF] A Study of Economic and Political Reforms By Maharaja Ranbir Singh
Maharaja Ranbir Singh exhibited remarkable cognitive prowess, characterized by a formidable intellect, an exceptional capacity for information retrieval, ...
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Agrarian Reforms Under Maharaja Ranbir Singh - Academia.edu
Maharaja Ranbir Singh implemented significant agrarian reforms to improve Jammu and Kashmir's agricultural economy. · Over 75% of Jammu and Kashmir's population ...
[43]
[PDF] Kashmir Peasant Economy under Dogra's: A Case study of Agrarian ...
The nature and types of land, geo-climatic conditions, irrigation facilities all determined the nature of Kashmiri agriculture and thereby had a significant ...
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Jan 17, 2017 · Census Of India 1941 Vol Xxii Jammu Kashmir State Part I Book Source: Digital Library of India Item 2015.62753<|separator|>
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[PDF] Census of India, 1941
... JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE. 315.46. 1941. Tab . r. .JAMMU: i.nted under the ... State at. :he next Census. It is being printed for local issue only. Parts I ...
[46]
[PDF] Room No. 209-A, North Block New Delhi, Dated 10 June, 2014
Since the original/signed document of Instrument of Accession of Jammu & Kashmir State signed by. Shri Hari Singh on 26.10.1947 is available in National ...
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Oct 22, 2023 · Operation Gulmarg was a codename for a plan formulated by the Pakistani government and military to support the invasion of Jammu and Kashmir in ...
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[50]
[PDF] 1947-48 INDO-PAK WAR: THE FIRST WAR OF KASHMIR ...
Oct 18, 2022 · ... Jammu in the afternoon of. 25 October 1947, and brought back Instrument of Accession, signed by Maharaja Hari Singh. With the acceptance of ...
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In July 1949, India and Pakistan signed the Karachi Agreement establishing a ceasefire line to be supervised by the military observers. These observers, under ...
[52]
UN Documents for Jammu and Kashmir: Security Council Resolutions
This resolution called on both India and Pakistan to execute a programme of demilitarisation and terminated UNCIP. 3 June 1948 S/RES/51, This resolution ...
[53]
Security Council resolution 91 (1951) [The India-Pakistan Question]
Calls upon the parties to co-operate with the United Nations Representative to the fullest degree in effecting the demilitarization of the State of Jammu and ...<|separator|>
[54]
The India-Pakistan War of 1965 - Office of the Historian
The 1965 war was over Jammu and Kashmir, starting with border clashes and a Pakistani attempt to seize Kashmir, ending with a UN ceasefire and UN mediation.
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1965: Indo-Pak War (The Complete Voyage)
The war was primarily fought along the International Border and in the Kashmir Valley, with major battles in areas such as Akhnoor, Chhamb, Khem Karan and Kutch ...
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When guns got to Kashmir Valley after rigged polls of 1987
Apr 19, 2024 · Against this backdrop, Valley-based leader Sajad Lone spoke about the rigged elections of 1987. The rigging of the polls, which the Congress ...
[59]
How Mufti Mohammad Sayeed Shaped the 1987 Elections in Kashmir
Mar 22, 2016 · ... elections weren't rigged by the NC but by the government of India.” Even Farooq, though he initially denied allegations of rigging, came to ...
[60]
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Mar 3, 2019 · Al Jazeera explains the major groups that are involved in the armed movement for Kashmiri self-determination.
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Jul 8, 2019 · According to Indian authorities, “cross-border terrorism emanating from Pakistan” is the main challenge in Jammu and Kashmir. 18. Since the late ...
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The Kashmiri Pandits: An Ethnic Cleansing the World Forgot
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[65]
41,000 deaths in 27 years: The anatomy of Kashmir militancy in ...
Sep 25, 2017 · HT looked at the latest available government data to anyalse the deaths and patterns of violence in Kashmir in the past 27 years. Read more: ...
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[PDF] Annual Report - Ministry of Home Affairs
However, Pak-sponsored cross-border terrorism in Jammu & Kashmir and insurgency related violence in some of the North. Eastern (NE) States and naxal violence in ...Missing: SATP | Show results with:SATP
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abrogate Article 370 - Press Release:Press Information Bureau
Dec 11, 2023 · On 5th of August 2019, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji took a visionary decision to abrogate Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir.
[68]
[PDF] press information bureau - Ministry of Home Affairs
The provisions of. Article 370 would cease to exist from the date President of India issues a notification in this regard, after the ...
[69]
Indian Revocation of Kashmir's Special Status - CSIS
Aug 12, 2019 · On August 5, 2019, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi's ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) announced the revocation of Articles 370 and 35-A from the country ...
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J&K Sees 70% Drop In Terror Activities, Civilian Casualties Still A ...
Nov 13, 2024 · J&K Sees 70% Drop In Terror Activities, Civilian Casualties Still A Concern. A steep decline in the number of terrorists killed in various ...
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Decline in Terror Incidents in Jammu and Kashmir
Dec 19, 2023 · The approach of the Government is to dismantle the terror eco-system. Security measures are being strengthened to sustain peace and stability in J&K.
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datasheet-terrorist-attack-fatalities - South Asia Terrorism Portal
South Asia Fatalities Data 2025 · South Asia Timeline Data 2025 · South Asia Assessment · South Asia Documents. Fatalities in Terrorist Violence. Terrorism ...Number of Terrorism Related... · Terrorism Assessment, Jammu... · SurrenderMissing: 1989-2019 | Show results with:1989-2019
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Jammu & Kashmir - ECI Result
Oct 8, 2024 · General Election to Assembly Constituencies: Trends & Results October -2024 ... Jammu & Kashmir ... JKN ... 42 ... BJP ... 29 ... INC ... 6 ... JKPDP ... 3 ... JPC.Jammu & Kashmir · 42 · 29 · Aam Aadmi Party (Jammu...
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Post-Article 370 infrastructure is rebuilding Jammu & Kashmir
Jul 6, 2025 · As of 2024, more than 2,200 infrastructure projects worth over Rs 25,000 crore have been completed or are in progress in Jammu and Kashmir under ...
[75]
Jammu and Kashmir: Six Years After Revocation of Article 370
Aug 11, 2025 · Solar and hydroelectric projects are also fast-tracking development while enhancing sustainability. The expansion of telecommunication ...
[76]
Jammu & Kashmir Sees Lowest FDI in India Despite Post-Article 370 ...
Oct 5, 2025 · Jammu & Kashmir FDI: Despite Article 370 abrogation and policy push, J&K recorded just ₹10.52 crore in FDI since 2020, the lowest among all ...
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“No Internet Means No Work, No Pay, No Food”: Internet Shutdowns ...
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Homepage | Official Website of Raj Bhawan Jammu and Kashmir ...
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Jammu and Kashmir, a UT on the Northern Part of India, is divided into 20 administrative geographical units called districts. These 20 districts have been ...
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[PDF] Best Practices from UT of J&K - Inter-State Council Secretariat
➢ Grass-root democracy strengthened. 73rd constitutional amendment has been implemented in 2019 and three tier. Panchayati Raj system introduced for the first ...<|separator|>
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These are newly created UTs w.e.f. 31.10. 2019 after bifurcation of erstwhile State of Jammu & Kashmir. UTs of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh have adopted the ...
[84]
Analyzing the transition of Panchayati Raj Institutions in Jammu and ...
Jul 8, 2023 · Analyzing the transition of Panchayati Raj Institutions in Jammu and Kashmir ... after August 5, 2019, Rs 1,200 crore more were released. In ...
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[87]
Why Polls Without 'Boycott Call' Still Face Voter Apathy In Kashmir
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Oct 8, 2024 · While the voter turnout was higher than the Lok Sabha polls, only six of the 20 districts registered an increase since 2014 Assembly polls.
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May 11, 2024 · Discover how the voter turnout in Jammu and Kashmir reflects significant political shifts over the decades, from the insurgency era to the ...
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The Jammu and Kashmir Delimitation report - The Hindu
May 9, 2022 · How will the redrawing of electoral boundaries affect the people of J&K? Does it set the stage for elections?
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Kashmir's First Election in a Decade Shows a Changing Political ...
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[95]
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The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) will now take over the internal security management of Jammu and Kashmir and the Northeastern States by 2005.Missing: AFSPA | Show results with:AFSPA
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[PDF] Armed Forces (Jammu and Kashmir) Special Powers Act, 1990
[10th September, 1990.] An Act to enable certain special powers to be conferred upon members of the armed forces in the disturbed areas in the State of ...Missing: CRPF | Show results with:CRPF
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Infiltration and Terrorist Attacks In J&K - PIB
The incidents of infiltration and terrorist attacks have decreased significantly since 2018 in Jammu and Kashmir. The details of Estimated Net Infiltrations ...
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[PDF] government of india - Ministry of Home Affairs
Jul 20, 2022 · (a) & (b) The incidents of terrorist attacks have decreased significantly since 2018 in Jammu and Kashmir. The details of terrorist ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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development in jammu and kashmir - PIB
Dec 6, 2023 · 58,477 crores by 15 Ministries/Departments in the UT of Jammu and Kashmir under the Prime Minister's Development Package-2015 in sectors such as ...
[101]
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Dec 11, 2019 · (i) To extend the timeline for implementation of PMDP approved in 2016 beyond 31st March 2019 by 3 years i.e. up to 31st March 2022 with ...
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Dec 11, 2023 · and Kashmir rested in the ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh. 119. The ... “Instrument of Accession of Jammu and Kashmir State. WHEREAS the ...
[104]
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Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF)
The Kashmiri people first formed military units in the late 1940s to defend themselves against the maharajah's forces and then the Indian forces and to ...
[106]
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The most organised militant outfit was the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front. (JKLF), headed by Amanullah Khan in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir. Yasin Malik was ...
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Aug 1, 2012 · BBC News profiles militant groups fighting in Indian-administered Kashmir, amid signs that the insurgency is significantly tailing off.
[110]
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Sep 1, 2025 · These measures largely prevented militant violence against security forces and restricted civil unrest and disruption of law and order, marked ...
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Examining Extremism: Lashkar-e-Taiba - CSIS
Oct 28, 2021 · In 1999, LT introduced fidayeen (suicide attacks) to Kashmir ... Attacks inside India began in 2000, when militants targeted the Red ...
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Mar 30, 2023 · Though in terms of. Entries 1 and 2 of List II - 'State List' - in the. Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India,. 'publicorder'and'police' ...
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The State of Kashmir's Separatist Insurgency Since 2019
Jul 10, 2025 · ... violence during the peak of insurgency and terrorism in Kashmir. However, in recent years, there has been a sharp rise in terrorism, with ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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May 8, 2025 · Recent data has confirmed a resurgence of Pakistan-sponsored terrorism across the region. This analysis examines Pakistan's entrenched terror ...
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Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence and its ties with radical groups
Although the situation concerning terrorist attacks on national soil has improved, jihadism is an endemic problem in the region and medium-term prospects are ...
[118]
LASHKAR-E-TAYYIBA | Security Council - UN.org.
Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT) is a Pakistan-based organization which has engaged in terrorist activity and supported listed individuals and entities, including Al- ...
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HAFIZ MUHAMMAD SAEED | Security Council - UN.org.
In accordance with paragraph 13 of resolution 1822 (2008) and subsequent related resolutions, the ISIL (Da'esh) and Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee makes ...
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Security Council Press Statement on Terrorist Attack in Jammu and ...
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[121]
Pak troops resorts to unprovoked firing along LoC in 8 ... - The Hindu
May 6, 2025 · “During the night of May 5-6, Pakistan Army initiated unprovoked small-arms fire across the LoC in areas opposite Kupwara, Baramulla, Poonch, ...
[122]
"Black and grey" lists - FATF
The FATF identifies jurisdictions with weak measures to combat money laundering and terrorist financing (AML/CFT) in two FATF public documents that are issued ...High-Risk Jurisdictions subject · Countries · High-risk and other monitored · NepalMissing: Kashmir | Show results with:Kashmir
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Transcript of Joint Briefing by MEA and MoD (September 29, 2016)
Sep 29, 2016 · Almost 20 infiltration attempts have been foiled by the Indian army successfully during this year. During these terrorist attacks and ...
[125]
Pulwama attack 2019 - The Hindu
... Pulwama attack 2019, Complete Coverage on Pulwama attack 2019. ... Tripura Former Chief Minister Manik Sarkar. BJP used Pulwama attack, Balakot air strike ...PM Modi, Amit Shah pay... · Ex-Tripura CM Manik Sarkar · Satya Pal Malik
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MHA data: 88% dip in J&K stone-pelting compared to 2019
Aug 4, 2021 · Stone-pelting incidents in Jammu and Kashmir have seen a massive drop since 2019 amid heavy presence of armed forces, Covid-related restrictions and crackdown ...
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Stone Pelting, Strikes Stopped Following Article 370 Abrogation
Aug 5, 2024 · In 2023, no incidents of stone pelting or strikes were reported, showing a 100 per cent drop since 2010, when 2,654 incidents of stone pelting ...
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Home - Counter Terrorism and Counter Radicalization Division
Sep 22, 2025 · गृह मंत्रालय Ministry of Home Affairs · Organisation Chart of CTCR division · Acts · Rules · List of Banned Organisations/Individuals · Others.
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J&K Police identifies 200 social media handles involved in ...
Apr 4, 2025 · India News: Jammu and Kashmir Police has identified 200 social media handles involved in spreading radicalisation and glorifying terrorism.
[131]
Digital Warfare in Kashmir: Evolving Tactics of Insurgency in the ...
The Resistance Front (TRF), People's Anti-Fascist Front (PAFF), Kashmir Tigers, and the Muslim Janbaz Force — are ...
[132]
Pahalgam terror attack 2025 - The Hindu
It was the first major terror attack on civilians in Kashmir since the Centre ended J&K's special status in 2019. Director General of Military Operations (DGMO) ...
[133]
What is The Resistance Front, the group claiming the deadly ...
Apr 23, 2025 · By 2020, the group started taking responsibility for minor attacks, including targeted killings of individuals. ... killed in gunfights in Kashmir ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Operation Sindoor: a turning point for India in addressing terrorism ...
May 21, 2025 · Two weeks later, India struck back with a military operation leading to an escalation of violence between the two rivals, India and Pakistan.Missing: 2000s | Show results with:2000s<|separator|>
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J&K CM Omar flags 'misuse' of Public Safety Act against youth with ...
Mar 7, 2025 · He said 400 youths were jailed under PSA in J&K. “Police and law and order are not with me. I have no briefing.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Surge in Arrests Under Draconian Laws in Jammu and Kashmir
Aug 9, 2024 · According to the report, over 2,700 people were booked under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Public Safety Act (PSA) between ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: India
Terrorists in Jammu and Kashmir, northeastern states, and Maoist terrorism-affected areas committed abuses, including killing 20 security personnel and 18 ...Missing: 2025 | Show results with:2025
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state profile - Planning Development & Monitoring Department
As per 2011 census, the population of the state is 12541302 which represents 0.93% of the total population of the country comprisinnng of 6640662 males and ...
[139]
India - J&K UTLBC
As per 2011 census, the population density in the state is 124 persons per sq. km of area as against density of 382 persons per sq. Km in India. The state ranks ...
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[PDF] Jammu and Kashmir: Hindus no more have a place in the Valley
Density of population in the Valley is high at 432 persons per km2; in Jammu, it is less than half of the Valley at 205 persons per km2; Ladakh accommodates ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[141]
Jammu and Kashmir - Data Commons
1. Jammu district, 1.53M 2011 · 2. Srinagar district, 1.24M 2011 · 3. Anantnag district, 1.08M 2011 · 4. Baramulla district, 1.01M 2011.
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Jammu Population 2025
Jammu's 2025 population is now estimated at 751,521. In 1950, the population of Jammu was 81,624. Jammu has grown by 13,271 in the last year, which represents ...
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Jammu Kashmir Among States with Low Total Fertility Rate, NFHS-5 ...
Dec 20, 2024 · Jammu and Kashmir has achieved a Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 1.4, according to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5, 2019–21).
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[PDF] Regional Analysis of Literacy in Jammu and Kashmir - IJTSRD
Jammu has a 73% literacy rate, while Kashmir has 65%. Differences exist between districts, education zones, and socio-economic groups. High dropout rates are a ...
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C-01: Population by religious community, Jammu and Kashmir - 2011
Jan 21, 2021 · The figures of six major religious communities, viz., Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains are presented in this table in the ...
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Jammu and Kashmir Hindu Muslim Population
Christian Population in Jammu and Kashmir is 35.63 Thousand (0.28 percent) of total 1.25 Crore. Hindu are minority in Jammu and Kashmir state forming 28.44% of ...Jammu District Religion Data · Srinagar District Religion Data
[147]
The Kashmiri diaspora remembers the displacement - Sage Journals
Jun 13, 2024 · From 1989 to 1991, the majority of Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) were displaced from their home in the Muslim-majority Indian-administered ...
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The Internal Displacement of the Kashmiri Pandits
Nov 3, 2020 · More than 90% of KPs became internally displaced by the conflict, and the majority of the population relocated to urban areas such as Jammu and ...
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Political divisions of the divided State of Jammu & Kashmir
The major ethnic groups living in Jammu & Kashmir include Kashmiris, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Paharis, Dogras and Ladakhis. Jammu lies towards the southern and south ...
[150]
Major Ethnic Groups - Geography of Jammu and Kashmir State
Major ethnic groups include Dards, Ladakhis, Gujjars, Rajputs, Paharis, Kashmiris, Hanjis, Dogras, Chibhalis, Rhotas, Gaddis, and Sikhs.
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Kashmiri - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
628 Inter-Community Relations. HISTORY AND CULTURAL RELATIONS. Unlike many parts of the South Asian subcontinent, the history of the Kashmir Valley ...
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[PDF] Religion, Terrorism and Inter-Community Relations - IJIP
Jul 14, 2023 · Even during 1990, when Pandits left the valley, the carried the memories of goodwill and cooperation Page 5 Religion, Terrorism and Inter- ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
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[PDF] Kashmiri Pandits Amid Conflict-induced Displacement
Feb 29, 2024 · This study is an exploration of the multifaceted factors leading to the internal displacement of. Kashmiri Pandits in the 1990s within the ...
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[PDF] Jammu and Kashmir Grant of Domicile Certificate (Procedure) Rules ...
––(1) These rules may be called the Jammu and Kashmir Grant of Domicile Certificate (Procedure). Rules, 2020. (2) These rules shall come into force on the date ...
[156]
Kashmir: new domicile rules spark fresh anger a year after India ...
Jul 29, 2020 · Under the new law, non-Kashmiris and their children are now eligible for domicile if they have served as government officials in the region, or ...
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The Domicile Law of Jammu and Kashmir
Sep 12, 2020 · The union government assured of a substitute and came up with a policy through executive order on 1 April 2020. This was called the domicile ...
[158]
Over 83000 non-state subjects issued domicile certificates in 2 years
Apr 10, 2025 · The ministry reported that a total of 35.12 lakh domicile certificates have been issued across the Union Territory in the last two years, ...
[159]
Population: Jammu & Kashmir | Economic Indicators - CEIC
Population: Jammu & Kashmir data was reported at 13.758 Person mn in 2025. This records an increase from the previous number of 13.660 Person mn for 2024.Missing: projection | Show results with:projection
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Over 83,000 Outsiders Granted Domicile Certificates in J&K Post ...
Apr 9, 2025 · Kashmir Politics: J&K govt reveals 83742 domicile certificates issued to outsiders since Article 370 abrogation, raising demographic ...
[161]
Fears of demographic change in Kashmir are real: Waheed Parra
Apr 15, 2025 · The PDP leader says 83,742 domicile certificates were issued to non-natives in Jammu and Kashmir over two years. Published : Apr 15, 2025 12 ...
[162]
Government's 2022 J&K plan: Resettlement of Kashmiri Pandits ...
Feb 13, 2021 · The minister said that the government provides Rs 13,000 per month to the families of 44,000 Kashmiri Pandits who have relief cards. "The ...
[163]
India's push to resettle Kashmiri Hindus exposes old fault lines | News
Apr 1, 2022 · Last month, the government claimed it had restored more than 600 properties belonging to Kashmiri Pandits in the past five years. The targeted ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Status of various schemes of Jammu & Kashmir Division, MHA
Sep 4, 2024 · This mainly comprised Kashmiri Hindus/Pandits. A smaller number of ... The Scheme has been extended till 2025-26 in UT of J&K and. UT of ...
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UKPNP leaders condemn demographic changes in PoJK, PoGB
Jan 27, 2025 · ... demographic changes taking place in Pakistan-occupied Jammu and Kashmir (PoJK) and Pakistan-occupied Gilgit Baltistan (PoGB).Missing: administered | Show results with:administered
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Domicile certificate data revives 'identity' debate in J&K, fears of ...
Apr 14, 2025 · New Delhi: The Jammu and Kashmir government has confirmed the grant of domicile certificates to over 83,000 “non-state persons” in the Union ...
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Jammu and Kashmir - Agriculture, Tourism, Trade | Britannica
Oct 5, 2025 · Resources and power. The union territory has limited mineral and fossil fuel resources, much of which are concentrated in the Jammu region.
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APPLE - National Horticulture Board
J&K has remained the leading apple producer accounting for 60% of the total production in the country. In HP also, apple is the most important crop accounting ...
[169]
Which State is Known as the Apple State of India? - Jagran Josh
Sep 30, 2025 · Jammu & Kashmir is the largest producer of apples in India, contributing more than 70% of total production. It is famous for varieties like ...
[170]
Economy of Jammu and Kashmir | PDF | Tourism - Scribd
Handicrafts and Traditional Industries: J&K has a rich tradition of handicrafts,. including shawls, papier-mâché art, and wood carving. This sector supports
[171]
Foreign Remittance Inflow In J&K Increased In 2020-21
Aug 4, 2022 · The share of inward remittances from Gulf nations dipped sharply during 2020-21 on account of the economic stress created by the COVID-19 ...
[172]
At 16.2% Jammu and Kashmir has second-worst unemployment rate ...
Oct 26, 2020 · At 16.2% Jammu and Kashmir has the second-worst unemployment rate among states/union territories in the country as educated youth struggle with neglect and ...
[173]
Jammu and Kashmir Presentation and Economic Growth Report | IBEF
Jammu and Kashmir is the largest producer of apples, walnuts, and cherries in India. It is also the largest producer of saffron, one of the most expensive ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[174]
J&K's GSDP doubles after Article 370 abrogation - Deccan Herald
Dec 10, 2023 · According to official figures, the GSDP has doubled to over Rs 2.25 lakh crore, which was Rs 1 lakh crore before the abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019.
[175]
How GST Boosts Jammu and Kashmir's (J&K's) Economy
Oct 4, 2025 · The GST cuts from 12% to 5% are poised to enhance the competitiveness of J&K's handicrafts, agriculture, tourism, and specialty products.
[176]
Growth & jobs bounce in first J&K economic survey since abrogation
Mar 7, 2025 · J&K is estimated to achieve a compound annual growth rate of 4.89% in real GSDP from 2019-20 to 2024-25 compared with 4.81% from 2011-12 to 2019 ...
[177]
Six years since the abrogation of Article 370 in J&K, belied promises
Aug 5, 2025 · J&K's $30 billion economy has grown at a much slower pace post the abrogation. The growth in Gross State Domestic Product has declined both in ...
[178]
'1.19 Lakh Crore Investment Received In J&K Post Art 370 ...
Aug 5, 2024 · New Delhi- Jammu and Kashmir has received 6,851 investment proposals to the tune of Rs 1.19 lakh crore ever since Article 370 was abrogated ...Missing: SEZs | Show results with:SEZs
[179]
Jammu and Kashmir witnesses Industrial Boom with ₹9606 Cr ...
Mar 6, 2025 · Additionally, J&K has received 8,306 new investment proposals amounting to ₹1.63 lakh crore, which are expected to generate employment for ...
[180]
Article 370 Abrogation: Impact & Review After 5 Years - TarunIAS
Aug 6, 2025 · For example, central anti-corruption agencies were able to prosecute high-profile cases that were previously out of their jurisdiction, such as ...
[181]
A Study of Government Advertisements on Article 370 in Jammu ...
Now, all anti-corruption central laws will be applicable in the state and all central agencies and watchdogs will work towards checking corruption. This will ...Missing: Reduced | Show results with:Reduced<|control11|><|separator|>
[182]
Tourist Inflow in Jammu & Kashmir - PIB
Jul 21, 2025 · Tourist Inflow in Jammu & Kashmir ; 2020. 25,19,524. 5,317 ; 2021. 1,13,14,920. 1,650 ; 2022. 1,84,99,332. 19,985 ; 2023. 2,06,79,336. 55,337.
[183]
Highest ever over 3 Cr tourists visit J&K in 2024: Centre
Jul 21, 2025 · The Union Territory saw 2,35,24,629 domestic tourists visiting during the year 2024, thus registering an annual growth of 13.76 percent in ...
[184]
Tourist Figure - Department of Tourism, Jammu and Kashmir
TOURIST ARRIVALS IN THE UT OF JAMMU & KASHMIR OVER THE YEARS : ; 2018, January, 920766, 546, 921312 ...
[185]
Global Solidarity with India: A United Front Against Cross-Border ...
May 14, 2025 · The tragic terrorist attack in Pahalgam on April 22, 2025, which killed 26 innocent civilians mostly Hindu tourists sparked nationwide outrage and prompted a ...
[186]
May 7, 2025 India launches attacks on Pakistan after Kashmir ... - CNN
May 7, 2025 · India said it targeted “terrorist infrastructure” belonging to two militant groups – Lashkar-e-Tayyiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). At a press ...
[187]
Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla rail link project fully operational after ...
Jun 7, 2025 · Northern Railways completes 272-km Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link Project in multiple phases, inaugurated by PM Modi in 2025.
[188]
Zojila tunnel deadline pushed to 2028: Here's why Asia's longest ...
Aug 1, 2025 · “The current physical progress stands at 64%, and the project is now targeted for completion by February 2028,” he said. Zojila Tunnel Project ...
[189]
Union Minister for Power and New & Renewable Energy - PIB
Dec 19, 2023 · “7,000 MW of hydro power capacity expected to be added in J&K in next 8 to 10 years” ... The Union Minister for Power and New & Renewable Energy ...
[190]
Harnessing Blue Gold: Hydropower Fuels Jammu & Kashmir's Ascent
Oct 17, 2025 · At present, Jammu and Kashmir has roughly 3,540 megawatts of installed hydropower capacity, generated through central, state, and private sector ...
[191]
India Plans Biggest Hydro Project In J&K, Months After Indus Treaty ...
Jul 31, 2025 · India to build 1856-MW Sawalkote hydroelectric project on Chenab River in J&K · Project tendering started by NHPC with bids due by September 10 ...Missing: capacity addition
[192]
Comprehensive Study on the Socio-Economic Impact of Tourist ...
Aug 9, 2025 · This study investigates the socio-economic impact of tourist inflow in the Kashmir Valley, focusing on key areas such as employment generation, ...
[193]
Kashmiri alphabet and language - Omniglot
Kashmiri is a member of the Dardic subgroup of the Indo-Aryan language family. ... Today Kashmiri Muslims write their language with the Arabic script, and ...
[194]
Kashmiri - Learn Lipi
Script: Most Kashmiri Muslims write the language in a modified Perso-Arabic script, using additional letters to match Kashmiri sounds. Poetry and literature: ...
[195]
The Dogri language - English Made Simple
Feb 25, 2024 · Dogri is an Indo-Aryan language spoken primarily in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It holds significant cultural and historical importance
[196]
Lal Ded | The Poetry Foundation
Lal Ded often used her poetry as a peaceful means of engagement with both Shaivism and Sufism. ... Poems by Lal Ded. [I was passionate] · See All Poems by Lal ...
[197]
The Sufi saint who promoted cultural blend of Shaivism and Islam
Mar 30, 2022 · Lalleshwari, fondly called 'Lal Ded' (Mother Lalla), is among the most prominent Sufi saints of Kashmir who promoted a cultural blend of Shaivism and Islam.
[198]
The Muslim Rishis of Kashmir: A Lesson in Religious Syncretism
May 27, 2023 · The Rishis were representatives of an indigenous loosely grouped order of medicants representing a folk tradition of Islam in the region.
[199]
Charar-i-Sharief Observes Poshak Bandi, Marking the Start of ...
Oct 18, 2025 · Charar-e-Sharif ... This sacred ritual marks the commencement of the annual Urs celebrations, which honour the revered patron saint of Kashmir.
[200]
https://www.diviniti.com/en-us/blogs/news/navreh-festival-2025-celebrate-kashmiri-hindu-new-year
[201]
The Mysticism and Glory of Sufism and Kashmiriyat: Origins, History ...
The syncretism of the two religious communities is further demonstrated through the frequenting of Sufi shrines by members of the groups. Sufis settled on ...
[202]
Meet the 'Devil Chefs' of Kashmir - Atlas Obscura
Feb 4, 2022 · Wazwan itself has Persian roots. According to Khan, Islamic preacher Shah Hamdan brought the feasting style to Kashmir in the 18th century ...
[203]
Kashmir Wazwan
Jan 21, 2021 · Wazwan is a Kashmiri love for food, especially mutton, a feast of assorted dishes from different cultures, rooted in Persian and Afghan ...<|separator|>
[204]
Exploring the traditional knowledge of Gujjars and Bakarwals
Jul 2, 2023 · Indigenous people of Jammu and Kashmir especially Gujjars-Bakarwals are still practicing nomadic lifestyles amid many changes in the recent past ...
[205]
The Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir and their changing marriage ...
Jan 31, 2023 · The Bakarwals are a nomadic community who rear sheep and goats while the Gujjars are a settled community who rear cows and buffalos. Marriage.
[206]
(PDF) An ethnographic study of Gujjar-Bakarwal Tribe resource ...
Gujjar-Bakarwal Tribe, which predominantly lives in the Pir-Panjal range of the Himalayan Mountains in India, also practices seasonal migration for the ...
[207]
Understanding Family Today - Greater Kashmir
Apr 1, 2021 · Now joint family or extended family normative structure or collective ethos too has turned into lobbies, conspiracies, hatred for each other ...
[208]
[PDF] COUSIN MARRIAGES IN KISHTWAR - IMRJR
The study reveals that changes are also coming in the family structure and joint family is now breaking down into nuclear family and hence there is a shift from ...
[209]
Consanguinity and Its Sociodemographic Differentials in Bhimber ...
Consanguineous marriages were 62% of the total marriages (F=0.0348). First-cousin unions were the predominant type of marriages and constituted 50.13% of total ...
[210]
State-wise Analysis for Honor Killings in India 2025
Oct 1, 2025 · State-wise Analysis for Honor Killings in India 2025 · State-wise Honor Killing Cases in India · Reasons for Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan's ...
[211]
Jammu and Kashmir Population 2025 | Sex Ratio | Literacy
The projected population for Jammu and Kashmir in 2025 is 1.60 Crores. The 2011 census recorded 12,541,302. The sex ratio is 889 and literacy rate is 67.16%.
[212]
Article 370 going ended the anti-women inheritance regime of J&K
May 12, 2023 · Under the provisions of the State's Constitution that have since been abolished, women's inheritance was to be done as per the local traditions.
[213]
5 Years Later: Impact of Article 370 Abrogation on J&K - Hindu Dvesha
Sep 1, 2024 · It examines women's improved inheritance and property rights in J&K post-abrogation, addressing the patriarchal customs that previously ...
[214]
About IIT Jammu | Explore Our Modern IIT Campus
Get to know IIT Jammu – a modern IIT campus with advanced infrastructure, collaborative learning spaces, and a strong focus on innovation, research, ...
[215]
Home | Official Website of IIM Jammu| Indian Institute of ...
IIM Jammu announces the launch of its online Summer School for students of 10th, 11th, and 12th classes-reg. ... IIM Jammu Concludes the EOT Program for the first ...
[216]
Jammu: The First Union Territory to Host IIT, IIM, and AIIMS - LinkedIn
Aug 30, 2025 · Access to Quality Education: Students from J&K can now pursue premier degrees without the financial and social burden of moving outside the ...
[217]
Sociological Impact of Exodus on Kashmiri Pandits - SHEHJAR
With the migration of Kashmiri Pandits from the valley, they could not pursue their earlier occupations. They suffer by losing their means of employment. Being ...Missing: population | Show results with:population
[218]
[PDF] KASHMIRI PANDITS AND THEIR EXODUS
While promoting cultural harmony they played crucial role in engagement with unique features of Kashmir Sufi Islam. After India's Independence in 1947, Kashmir ...
[219]
Kashmiri Pandits: History, Culture, and Resettlement | IAS Gurukul
Nov 4, 2023 · ... exodus and the rise of militancy in Kashmir were followed by 'The Unmaking of Composite Culture'. He considers that the concern of a section ...
[220]
Kashmir: From Sufi to Salafi - Pulitzer Center
Nov 5, 2012 · A radical movement infused with jihad, intolerance, radicalism and a contemptuous disregard for Kashmir's nearly 700-year-old tradition of Sufi Islam.
[221]
The Power of Counter-Narratives: Sufi Islam and the Rise of ...
Jun 18, 2019 · This event will assess the impact of Wahhabism on the Middle East and South Asia. It will focus on the role of Sufism in potentially undermining Wahhabism.
[222]
Pan-Islamism and Radicalization of Kashmiri Youth
Many Sufi shrines and mosques were targeted by the Pakistan-backed militant outfits; In May 1995, the Islamist mercenaries from Afghanistan and Pakistan ...
[223]
'From Sufi to Salafi: Spirit of Kashmiriyat in danger' | India News
Jan 18, 2019 · The influence of Wahhabis, according to the officer, has changed the nature of insurgency in Kashmir from calls for “freedom” to that of ...
[224]
Battle Of Minds: Radicalization Growing In Kashmir Valley – Analysis
Dec 2, 2015 · The current phase of radicalisation in the Valley has a few distinct features; Sufism is being replaced by Salafism, more youth is being ...
[225]
Kashmiris turn to art to challenge Indian rule - Al Jazeera
Mar 20, 2018 · Kashmiris use art as a form of protest with satire, in particular, being used as a medium of dissent. DO NOT USE Kashmir art - barbed wire ...
[226]
Kashmir's Cultural Revival - Asia Calling
Folk theater has been an integral part of Kashmiri culture for hundreds of years. This art form however suffered heavily in recent years due a violent ...Missing: post | Show results with:post
[227]
How Bollywood Is Rekindling Its Relation With Kashmir After Article ...
Aug 22, 2021 · Kashmir has been a popular destination for many Bollywood filmmakers. Films like Junglee (1961), Arzoo (1965), Bobby (1973), Roti (1974), ...
[228]
the role of kashmiri folk music in preserving cultural identity and ...
Aug 8, 2025 · This research article explores the historical evolution, distinctive features, and socio-cultural significance of Kashmiri folk music.
[229]
Cultural Crisis in Kashmir: A Heritage at the Crossroads
Sep 26, 2025 · One of the most visible signs of Kashmir's cultural crisis is the slow decay of its traditional crafts. World-famous art forms like Pashmina ...
[230]
https://fazbuy.com/blogs/news/the-resilient-revival-how-kashmir-s-traditional-crafts-are-overcoming-challenges-in-2025
[231]
[PDF] KASHMIRI PANDITS, PALESTINIAN, AND TIBETAN LITERATURE
This comparative study explores the role of storytelling in preserving identity, resilience, and cultural continuity within the exile narratives of Kashmiri ...
[232]
Preserving Kashmiri Culture and Identity During Conflict
This research examines the complex effects of the conflict on Kashmiri cultural expression, including traditional arts and crafts, folk music and dance, and ...
[233]
Need To Preserve Kashmir's Cultural Identity Amidst Globalization
Oct 31, 2024 · Cultural revitalization in Kashmir emerges as a vibrant tapestry woven from the threads of tradition, community engagement, and innovation. In ...