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Rain shadow

A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountain range, formed when prevailing winds carry moist air that rises, cools, and releases precipitation on the windward side, leaving descending air warmer and drier on the opposite side.^[1] This phenomenon, known as the orographic effect, occurs because air forced upward by topography cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate of approximately 1°C per 100 meters until it reaches saturation, after which condensation forms clouds and rain, depleting moisture from the air mass.^[1] On the leeward slope, the air descends and warms, reducing relative humidity and inhibiting further precipitation, often resulting in arid or semi-arid conditions.^[2] The rain shadow effect plays a crucial role in global climate patterns and the formation of many deserts, particularly those in mid-latitudes where westerly winds dominate.^[3] Notable examples include the Great Basin Desert in the United States, created by the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada mountains, where the windward western slopes receive abundant rainfall while the eastern Owens Valley and Nevada interiors experience extreme aridity with annual precipitation often below 10 inches.^[1] Similarly, the Atacama Desert in Chile, the driest non-polar desert on Earth, lies in the rain shadow of the Andes, exacerbating its hyper-arid conditions influenced by both orographic blocking and cold ocean currents.^[3] In southeastern California, the Mojave Desert, including areas like Joshua Tree National Park, forms a rain shadow behind the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains, where winter storms from the Pacific are depleted of moisture before reaching the interior.^[2] These regions not only highlight the effect's geographical variability but also underscore its ecological impacts, such as supporting unique desert biomes adapted to low water availability.^[3]

Definition and Mechanism

What is a Rain Shadow

A rain shadow is an area of significantly reduced rainfall on the leeward side of a mountain range or other elevated terrain, positioned away from the direction of prevailing winds.^[4] This phenomenon creates a stark contrast between the drier leeward regions and the wetter windward sides, where moist air is more readily able to deliver precipitation.^[5] Key characteristics of rain shadows include the development of arid or semi-arid conditions, often leading to desert formation or localized drier microclimates in otherwise temperate zones.^[6] These areas typically receive substantially less annual precipitation compared to surrounding regions, with the severity depending on the height and orientation of the topographic barrier.^[7] The term "rain shadow" was first recorded in meteorological literature in 1896, used to describe patterns of leeward aridity resulting from mountainous obstructions to airflow.^[8] Unlike other dry regions formed primarily by latitudinal effects, such as subtropical high-pressure zones, or by oceanic influences like cold coastal currents, rain shadows arise specifically from topographic barriers that intercept and deplete moist air masses before they reach the leeward side.^[9]^[10] This topographic causation distinguishes rain shadows as a localized climatological feature tied to elevation rather than broader global circulation patterns.^[4]

How Rain Shadows Form

Rain shadows form through a series of meteorological processes driven by topography and atmospheric dynamics. Prevailing winds carry moist air masses toward a mountain barrier, where the terrain forces the air to rise—a phenomenon known as orographic lift.^[1] As the air ascends, it encounters decreasing atmospheric pressure, causing it to expand.^[11] This expansion leads to adiabatic cooling, where the air temperature decreases without heat exchange with the surroundings. For unsaturated air, this occurs at the dry adiabatic lapse rate, given by the equation \Gamma_d = \frac{g}{C_p} \approx 9.8^\circ \text{C/km}, where g is gravitational acceleration and C_p is the specific heat capacity of dry air at constant pressure.^[12] Once the air reaches saturation, further cooling happens at the moist adiabatic lapse rate, averaging about 6°C per kilometer due to latent heat release from condensation.^[13] The cooling continues until the air reaches its dew point, at which point water vapor condenses to form clouds.^[14] On the windward side of the mountain, the condensed moisture precipitates out as rain or snow, significantly depleting the air's humidity before it crests the barrier.^[15] The now drier air then descends the leeward slope, where it compresses under increasing pressure, warming adiabatically at a rate similar to the dry lapse rate. This warming inhibits cloud formation and creates stable subsidence, resulting in clear, arid conditions characteristic of the rain shadow.^[16] The intensity of a rain shadow depends on several factors, including the height and steepness of the mountain range, the consistency and strength of prevailing winds, and the initial humidity of the air mass. Taller mountains enhance orographic lift and cooling, while persistent wind directions maximize moisture extraction.^[17] In certain latitudes, trade winds or monsoon flows can amplify these effects by directing consistently moist air toward topographic barriers, such as in tropical regions where seasonal wind reversals interact with mountain ranges.^[18]

Effects of Rain Shadows

Impacts on Precipitation and Climate

Rain shadows create pronounced precipitation gradients, with windward slopes receiving substantially more rainfall than leeward sides due to orographic lift depleting moisture from ascending air masses. In the Washington Cascades, for instance, annual precipitation exceeds 4,000 mm on western ridges, while the Columbia River basin to the east receives less than 250 mm, representing a ratio of over 16:1. These gradients can span 2-10 times the precipitation volume, forming sharp boundaries often mapped using isohyets—lines connecting points of equal rainfall—to delineate the transition from wet to arid zones. Such mapping reveals steep declines over short distances, as seen in high-resolution analyses of mountainous watersheds where leeward precipitation drops rapidly post-orographic barrier.^[19]^[20]^[21] Leeward areas in rain shadows experience amplified temperature effects from reduced cloud cover and moisture, leading to hotter daytime highs via intense solar insolation and cooler nighttime lows through radiational cooling. This results in large daily temperature ranges, often exceeding 30 °C in extreme cases, with annual averages typically 15–25 °C, as clear skies facilitate rapid heat loss after sunset. In subtropical rain shadow deserts, daytime temperatures can surpass 45°C in summer, dropping below 0°C at night, exacerbating aridity by limiting atmospheric moisture retention. These thermal extremes stem from descending dry air warming adiabatically, which increases the saturation vapor pressure and causes relative humidity to plummet—often to below 20%—as the air's capacity for water vapor rises faster than any residual moisture replenishment.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Wind patterns in rain shadows further intensify dryness through katabatic flows—cold, dense air draining downslope from elevated terrain—and subsidence inversions that cap vertical mixing. Katabatic winds, such as those in the equatorial Andes, accelerate moisture evaporation from surfaces while compressing and heating air aloft, suppressing cloud formation and precipitation. Subsidence inversions, formed by large-scale descending motion, create stable layers that trap low-level haze or fog, preventing convective uplift and reinforcing aridity over leeward basins. These dynamics enhance the rain shadow by promoting persistent clear conditions and evaporative losses.^[26]^[27] Seasonal variations modulate rain shadow intensity, with effects often strengthening in winter under stable, prevailing wind regimes that align consistently with orographic barriers. In midlatitude systems like the Cascades, winter-mean rain shadows correlate with large-scale patterns such as ENSO, where northerly storm tracks during La Niña amplify leeward dryness. In monsoon-dominated regions, shadows can reverse or intensify; for example, during India's northeast winter monsoon, easterly flows may wet typically dry leeward zones behind the Western Ghats, inverting the summer southwest monsoon shadow. These shifts highlight how directional wind changes alter orographic impacts across seasons.^[28]^[29] Over long timescales, rain shadows contribute to the formation and persistence of semi-arid zones and desertification by sustaining low precipitation in leeward areas, compounding moisture deficits. This orographic aridity interacts with global circulation patterns, such as Hadley cells, where subtropical subsidence already inhibits rainfall; rain shadows exacerbate this in regions like the southwestern United States, turning potentially marginal lands into persistent deserts. Such interactions amplify desert boundaries, as descending Hadley cell air aligns with leeward downslope flows to hinder moisture advection.^[30]^[31]

Ecological and Human Consequences

Leeward zones of rain shadows predominantly support xerophytic vegetation, such as cacti and succulents, which exhibit specialized adaptations to arid conditions including deep root systems for accessing subsurface water and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis to minimize daytime water loss through transpiration.^[32]^[33] These traits enable survival in environments where annual precipitation often falls below 250 mm, contrasting sharply with the lush, high-biomass rainforests on windward slopes.^[34] Overall biodiversity in leeward areas is typically reduced compared to windward regions due to the scarcity of water limiting habitat complexity and species richness, resulting in sparser ecosystems dominated by drought-tolerant flora and fewer vertebrate populations. Rain shadows contribute to habitat fragmentation by creating transitional ecotones between moist windward forests and arid leeward deserts, fostering zones of elevated species turnover where unique assemblages emerge.^[35] These ecotones often harbor endemic fauna adapted to intermediate conditions, such as specialized rodents or reptiles in isolated arid pockets that exhibit behavioral or physiological traits for water conservation.^[36]^[37] Soils in leeward areas are frequently sandy and erosion-prone, with reduced vegetative cover exacerbating wind and episodic flash-flood erosion rates that can exceed 10 t ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in some basins.^[38] Water availability is further constrained, leading to reliance on non-precipitation sources like fog interception or nocturnal dew condensation, which can provide a significant portion of hydration for certain plant species in coastal rain shadow deserts.^[39]^[40] Human settlement in rain shadow regions faces significant agricultural limitations due to low and erratic precipitation, necessitating intensive irrigation systems such as ancient qanats—underground aqueducts that tap aquifers—or modern dams to sustain crop production in otherwise marginal lands.^[41] These adaptations have historically driven migrations from hyper-arid leeward interiors toward more viable windward or riparian areas, as seen in patterns of ancient population shifts in response to prolonged droughts.^[42] Economically, such zones support pastoralism, where mobile herding of livestock exploits sparse grazing, and mining operations that leverage accessible mineral deposits in sparsely vegetated terrains, though both activities strain limited resources.^[43]^[44] Rain shadow areas exhibit heightened vulnerability to climate change, with projections indicating potential precipitation declines of 20-50% by 2100 in many arid zones under high-emission scenarios, amplifying dryness and stressing adapted ecosystems.^[45] Conservation efforts prioritize protected areas to safeguard rain shadow-adapted species, focusing on habitat restoration and connectivity to mitigate fragmentation effects.^[46] In cases of double rain shadows—where converging mountain ranges create ultra-arid cores—these regions paradoxically serve as biodiversity hotspots for hyper-specialized endemics, underscoring the need for targeted reserves to preserve evolutionary refugia.^[22]^[47]^[48]

Examples in Africa

Northern Africa

In northern Africa, the Atlas Mountains serve as a major topographic barrier that exacerbates the aridity of the Sahara Desert through a pronounced rain shadow effect. Prevailing westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean carry moist air toward the continent, leading to orographic precipitation primarily on the northern, windward slopes of the Atlas range in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. This process deposits much of the available moisture before the air descends dry and warmed on the southern, leeward side, further desiccating the expansive Sahara region to the south.^[49] The rain shadow contributes significantly to the hyper-arid conditions of the Sahara's core, where annual rainfall often falls below 50 mm in many areas, with some regions experiencing precipitation less than once per year on average. This topographic influence amplifies the desert's overall dryness across approximately 9.2 million km², making it one of the most extreme arid environments on Earth. Specific locales, such as the High Plateaus in Algeria and the interior plateaus of Morocco, receive 100-200 mm less annual precipitation than adjacent coastal zones, where rainfall can exceed 600 mm due to direct Atlantic influence. In shadowed valleys south of the Atlas, intermittent oases form where groundwater and rare fog support limited vegetation, providing critical refugia amid the surrounding desolation.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53] Geologically, the Atlas Mountains originated from the inversion of a Triassic-Jurassic rift basin during Cenozoic tectonic compression, with major uplift phases occurring between 30 and 20 million years ago in the Oligocene to Miocene epochs. This orogenic development intensified regional aridity starting in the Miocene by enhancing the rain shadow, as the rising barrier increasingly blocked moist air flows into what would become the modern Sahara. A unique aspect of this rain shadow is its interaction with the persistent subtropical high-pressure system over northern Africa, which promotes descending, dry air masses and suppresses convection, resulting in one of the planet's strongest combined topographic-climatic desiccation effects.^[54]^[55]

Eastern Africa

The Ethiopian Highlands, including the Simien Mountains, produce a significant rain shadow effect on the eastern and northern lowlands, particularly the Danakil Desert in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Moist monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean and Red Sea rise over the highlands, releasing precipitation on the windward slopes where annual rainfall can exceed 1,000 mm, while the descending air on the leeward side warms and dries, leading to hyper-arid conditions in the Danakil region with average annual precipitation below 50 mm. This effect contributes to the Danakil being one of the hottest and driest places on Earth, with surface temperatures often exceeding 50°C and minimal vegetation.^[56]

Southern Africa

In southern Africa, the Cape Fold Mountains create a prominent rain shadow effect, where prevailing westerly winds carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the southwestern slopes, resulting in higher precipitation on the windward side while the leeward regions, including the Karoo Basin and Breede River Valley, experience significantly reduced rainfall.^[57] This orographic barrier leads to arid conditions in the interior, with the Karoo Basin receiving annual rainfall typically between 100 and 300 mm, fostering a unique ecosystem dominated by drought-adapted succulent flora such as aloes and other leaf-succulents in the Succulent Karoo biome.^[58]^[59] Further inland, the Drakensberg Mountains' eastern escarpment exacerbates the rain shadow, shielding the Lesotho highlands and adjacent interior plains from moist easterly air masses originating from the Indian Ocean, which reduces rainfall in these areas by approximately 40-60% compared to windward slopes.^[60] For instance, while the eastern Drakensberg can receive up to 1,600 mm annually, the leeward lowlands in Lesotho average 400-700 mm, contributing to semi-arid grasslands and increased vulnerability to drought.^[61] The establishment of these rain shadows has played a role in the region's long-term aridification, particularly since the Miocene around 5 million years ago, when tectonic uplift and ocean current changes intensified dry conditions in the interior, influencing modern water scarcity challenges in South Africa.^[62] Seasonal variability moderates this effect, with summer convective rains providing partial relief to the interiors, though the rain shadows remain pronounced during the winter months when westerly flows dominate.^[63]

Examples in Asia

Central and Northern Asia

In Central and Northern Asia, the Himalayan mountain range creates a pronounced rain shadow over the Tibetan Plateau by blocking moist air from the South Asian monsoon, resulting in arid conditions across much of the region. The plateau, spanning approximately 2.5 million square kilometers, receives less than 500 mm of annual precipitation in its northern and central areas due to this orographic barrier, where prevailing winds from the south lose moisture upon ascending the southern slopes, leaving drier air to descend on the leeward side.^[64]^[65] This rain shadow extends northward, contributing to the formation of the Gobi Desert, where the northern flanks of the Himalayas and associated ranges intercept additional moisture, exacerbating aridity across the steppes and desert basins. The Gobi experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from -40°C in winter to 40°C in summer, driven by the combination of high elevation, low humidity, and continental climate influences that amplify diurnal and seasonal variations.^[66]^[67] Further north, the Altai Mountains generate their own rain shadow effects on the leeward eastern and southeastern sides, where westerly winds carrying moisture from the Atlantic and Arctic are forced to rise, precipitating on the windward slopes before descending as dry air over Siberian regions. Precipitation gradients in this area are stark, decreasing from over 1,000 mm annually on the northwestern flanks to less than 300 mm in the southeastern rain shadow zones, fostering arid steppes and contributing to the expansion of desert-like conditions into southern Siberia.^[68]^[69] The tectonic origins of these ranges trace back to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates, which initiated uplift around 50 million years ago and progressively intensified the rain shadow effects, particularly since the Pleistocene epoch when glacial cycles and further elevation gains enhanced moisture blocking.^[70]^[71] A distinctive feature of these Central and Northern Asian rain shadows is the influence of high elevations exceeding 4,000 meters, which block liquid precipitation and amplify overall aridity.

Eastern Asia

In Eastern Asia, rain shadows are prominent in island and peninsular settings where coastal mountain ranges intercept moist monsoon and winter winds, creating localized dry zones on leeward sides. The Japanese Alps in central Honshu exemplify this, where northwesterly Siberian winds carry moisture from the Sea of Japan, leading to heavy orographic precipitation on the western slopes but significantly reduced rainfall in eastern valleys due to the rain shadow effect.^[72] Annual precipitation drops markedly from over 2,300 mm on the windward western side near Nagaoka to around 940 mm in the leeward Nagano basin, fostering drier conditions that support distinct ecological gradients.^[72] This orographic barrier enhances adiabatic warming on the descending leeward air, contributing to warmer, sunnier climates in eastern Honshu valleys compared to the wetter west. On the Korean Peninsula, the north-south trending Taebaek Mountains create a pronounced rain shadow on their eastern flanks, particularly during the summer monsoon when southwesterly winds are blocked, resulting in the lowest seasonal rainfall in northeastern regions.^[73] Summer precipitation in this leeward zone typically falls below 700 mm, compared to 800-900 mm or more in windward southwestern areas, limiting agricultural productivity and constraining rice cultivation to more irrigated or western locales where moisture is abundant.^[73] The dryness influences traditional farming practices, as the reduced reliability of monsoon rains necessitates supplemental irrigation and shifts crop suitability toward drought-tolerant varieties in eastern coastal plains. Similarly, Taiwan's Central Mountain Range, rising sharply to over 3,000 m, casts a rain shadow over southwestern plains during northeastern monsoons and typhoon seasons, where descending air leads to substantially lower precipitation. Annual rainfall in these leeward southwestern areas averages less than 1,500 mm, in stark contrast to over 3,000 mm on the windward northeastern slopes and east coast, creating a "crazy quilt" of climate zones with arid pockets amid the island's overall humid regime.^[74] This gradient affects water resource management, as the dry southwestern plains rely on reservoirs fed by upstream mountain runoff despite the orographic depletion. Many of these ranges in Eastern Asia, including elements of the Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese cordilleras, originated from Miocene tectonic and volcanic activity, which formed young, rugged topography that intensifies rain shadow gradients through steep elevations and impermeable volcanic substrates.^[75] Miocene uplift and associated volcanism, dating to 23-5 million years ago, enhanced orographic blocking, promoting sharper precipitation contrasts than in older, eroded ranges elsewhere.^[75] In modern contexts, these leeward dry zones amplify urban heat island effects in populated areas, as subsidence warming and reduced evaporative cooling interact with anthropogenic heat in cities like Seoul, where topographic shadows from nearby ranges exacerbate nighttime temperature rises during dry periods.^[76] Urban redevelopment in such shadowed basins increases sensible heat fluxes, intensifying local warming by up to 2-3°C in built environments compared to rural windward sites.^[76]

Southern Asia

In southern Asia, rain shadows are prominently shaped by the Western Ghats, a mountain range along India's western coast that intercepts the southwest monsoon winds originating from the Arabian Sea. These winds, laden with moisture, ascend the steep windward slopes, leading to heavy orographic precipitation on the western side, while the leeward eastern slopes and adjacent lowlands experience significantly reduced rainfall due to the depletion of moisture. The Deccan Plateau, lying in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats, receives annual precipitation averaging 250–1,150 mm, with some areas like the Tirunelveli region in Tamil Nadu recording less than 500 mm per year, fostering arid to semi-arid conditions that contrast sharply with the windward zones' averages exceeding 3,000 mm.^[77]^[78] The Eastern Ghats, running parallel along the eastern coast, exert a comparatively weaker rain shadow effect because of their lower elevation and discontinuous nature, which allows more moisture from the Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon to penetrate inland. However, they still create semi-arid zones in regions like Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh, where annual rainfall often falls between 375 and 700 mm, supporting agriculture reliant on drought-resistant crops such as millets and groundnuts in rain-fed systems. This semi-arid character is exacerbated by the region's position in the broader rain shadow of the peninsular topography, limiting irrigation potential and promoting adaptive dryland farming practices.^[79] The Nilgiri Hills, a subset of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu, produce localized rain shadows that highlight sharp precipitation gradients within a compact area. While the western flanks receive up to 4,600 mm annually from monsoon uplift, the eastern leeward sides drop to below 800 mm, creating contrasts exceeding 1,500 mm across short distances and influencing microclimates that range from lush hill forests to dry scrublands. These variations underscore the role of topography in modulating monsoon rainfall at finer scales.^[80] The Western Ghats themselves formed as an escarpment following the Deccan Trap volcanic activity around 66 million years ago, with significant uplift occurring over the subsequent 60 million years during India's northward drift, establishing the longstanding rain shadow over the peninsula. This geological legacy has historically fostered ancient dry farming cultures on the Deccan Plateau, where communities adapted to the low and variable rainfall by cultivating resilient crops like sorghum and pulses, as evidenced in archaeological records from the Chalcolithic period onward. The rain shadow's influence on aridity has thus shaped agrarian societies reliant on monsoon timing for millennia.^[81]^[82]^[83] Rain shadow intensity in southern Asia exhibits notable interannual variability, driven by fluctuations in southwest monsoon strength, which can alter precipitation in leeward zones by 20–30%. Stronger monsoons enhance orographic lift and windward rainfall but correspondingly deepen the shadow through greater moisture extraction, while weaker years reduce overall input, amplifying aridity across the region. This variability poses ongoing challenges for water management and agriculture in the affected lowlands.^[84]

Western Asia

In Western Asia, the Zagros Mountains play a pivotal role in forming rain shadows by intercepting westerly winds carrying moisture from the Mediterranean Sea, resulting in markedly reduced precipitation on the leeward Iranian Plateau. This orographic effect contributes significantly to the extreme aridity of the Dasht-e Kavir desert, where annual rainfall averages less than 100 mm, fostering vast salt flats and hyper-arid conditions.^[85]^[86] Further east, the Taurus Mountains in southeastern Turkey exacerbate dryness in the Syrian Desert by blocking similar westerly moisture flows, leading to annual precipitation below 200 mm on the eastern flanks and surrounding lowlands. This rain shadow intensifies the desert's semi-arid to arid climate, with sparse vegetation adapted to minimal water availability. To the north, the Elburz Mountains act as a barrier to humid air masses from the Caspian Sea, creating sharp aridity gradients across central Iran, where leeward areas receive far less rainfall than the saturated northern slopes.^[87]^[88]^[89] The intensification of these rain shadow effects stems from ongoing tectonic activity, including active folding and thrusting in the Zagros and Elburz ranges driven by the collision between the Arabian and Eurasian plates, which began in the Late Cretaceous and accelerated during the Miocene around 10 million years ago. This uplift has elevated the barriers, enhancing moisture interception and promoting persistent dryness. A unique regional factor is the interaction with the Arabian anticyclone, a semi-permanent high-pressure system that suppresses convective activity and reinforces subsidence over the Middle East, compounding the topographic rain shadows to sustain long-term aridity.^[90]^[91]

Examples in Europe

Central Europe

In Central Europe, rain shadows are generally modest due to the region's continental climate and multi-directional wind patterns, which dilute the orographic effects compared to more oceanic settings. Prevailing westerly winds interact with ancient mountain ranges to create subtle precipitation gradients in leeward valleys and basins, resulting in drier conditions that influence agriculture and microclimates without forming extreme aridity. These effects are particularly evident in the Bohemian Massif, the Black Forest-Vosges system, the inner arcs of the Carpathians, and the Alps, where erosion over geological time has subdued the topography in some areas, further weakening the rain shadow intensity.^[92] The Bohemian Massif, part of the Variscan orogeny dating to approximately 300 million years ago, casts a partial rain shadow over the Moravian basins to its east, where westerly winds lose moisture upon ascending the highlands. Annual precipitation in these leeward lowlands, such as southern Moravia, averages less than 525 mm, compared to over 1,000 mm on the windward Bohemian slopes and highlands. This gradient supports drier forest-steppe vegetation in Moravia, shaped by the less pronounced orographic barrier formed by the eroded massif.^[93]^[93]^[94] Similarly, the Black Forest and Vosges Mountains, also remnants of the Variscan orogeny, create a rain shadow in the Upper Rhine Valley, leading to notably dry conditions in this rift valley. Precipitation here ranges from 515 to 615 mm annually, significantly lower than the 1,200 mm or more received on the windward sides of these ranges, where moist Atlantic air is forced upward. The resulting aridity contributes to favorable microclimates for viticulture in the Rhine Graben, including regions like Alsace and Baden, where reduced rainfall enhances grape ripening.^[95]^[95]^[92] The Carpathian Mountains exert a partial rain shadow on the inner Hungarian Plain, particularly from easterly and southerly flows blocked by the range's outer arcs, reducing precipitation by about 20% in the basin's central areas. Average annual rainfall in the plain is around 500-600 mm, versus 700-800 mm or higher along the Carpathian windward slopes, with the effect moderated by the mountains' relatively recent Alpine formation and surrounding variable wind regimes. This subdued dryness affects the plain's steppe-like landscapes, though multi-directional continental airflow prevents stronger shadows.^[96]^[96] The Alps also produce a rain shadow, with northern windward slopes in countries like Switzerland and Austria receiving abundant precipitation from westerly flows (often exceeding 1,500 mm annually), while southern leeward areas in northern Italy, such as parts of the Po Valley, experience drier conditions averaging 700-900 mm, contributing to semi-arid microclimates in the foothills.^[97] Overall, the ancient, eroded Variscan structures in Central Europe produce these tempered rain shadows, with effects further diminished by seasonal wind shifts from westerlies to continentals, contrasting with more persistent oceanic influences elsewhere.^[98]

Northern Europe

In Northern Europe, the rain shadow effect is prominently observed in the British Isles and along the Scandinavian Peninsula, where westerly oceanic winds interact with upland topography to create stark precipitation contrasts. The Pennines in northern England serve as a key example, where prevailing Atlantic storms are forced to rise over the range, leading to enhanced orographic rainfall on the western slopes while depriving the eastern leeward side of moisture. Annual precipitation in the western Pennines often exceeds 1,500 mm, particularly in higher elevations, whereas eastern areas, such as parts of Yorkshire and the North Sea coast, receive less than 800 mm annually due to this shadowing.^[99]^[97] Further north, the Scottish Highlands exemplify a pronounced east-west rainfall gradient, with the eastern leeward slopes and adjacent Lowlands experiencing significantly drier conditions compared to the windward west. The western Highlands, exposed to moist Atlantic air, can receive over 3,500 mm of annual rainfall, while the eastern Lowlands and coast average around 800–1,000 mm, resulting in differences exceeding 1,000 mm across short distances. This pattern arises as moist air ascends the Highland peaks, precipitating most of its water content before descending drier on the lee side.^[100]^[101] The Scandinavian Mountains amplify this effect on a larger scale, casting a rain shadow over much of eastern Sweden, including the Norrland region. Western Norway's coastal fjords and slopes receive abundant precipitation, often surpassing 2,000 mm annually from frequent westerly storms, while the interior of Norrland lies in the leeward zone with averages below 500 mm, fostering a more continental and arid climate. This contrast underscores the mountains' role in blocking maritime moisture, leading to drier conditions inland.^[102]^[103] These rain shadow patterns in Northern Europe owe much to the region's glacial legacy, as post-Ice Age isostatic rebound—ongoing since approximately 10,000 years ago—has preserved and even accentuated the sharp topographic relief of the uplands. The Weichselian glaciation's retreat triggered viscoelastic adjustment of the Earth's mantle, uplifting areas like the Scottish Highlands and Scandinavian Mountains by several meters per century initially, maintaining the elevated barriers that enhance orographic effects today.^[104]^[105] Modern studies, such as those in England's Peak District—a southern extension of the Pennine chain—quantify the rain shadow's impact, revealing approximately a 40% reduction in precipitation on leeward days during westerly flows, with bulk statistics confirming drier conditions east of the uplands. These observations highlight the effect's consistency in cool-temperate settings, influencing local ecosystems and water resources.^[97]

Southern Europe

In southern Europe, the Pyrenees mountain range creates a pronounced rain shadow effect over the Ebro Valley in northeastern Spain, where prevailing westerly winds deposit much of their moisture on the northern slopes before descending drier on the southern side. Annual precipitation in the northern Pyrenees reaches 1,000–1,200 mm or more, particularly at higher elevations influenced by Atlantic air masses, while the Ebro Valley interior receives less than 400 mm annually, contributing to its semi-arid conditions.^[106]^[107] The Apennine Mountains in Italy similarly produce a rain shadow, with wetter conditions on the western Tyrrhenian coast contrasting sharply with drier areas on the eastern Adriatic coast. For instance, coastal sites like La Spezia on the west receive over 1,300 mm of annual rainfall due to orographic lift from westerly flows, whereas eastern locations such as Rimini average around 700–800 mm, reflecting the leeward dryness. This gradient influences agriculture in the adjacent Po Valley to the north, where reduced precipitation variability exacerbates irrigation needs for crops like rice and maize.^[108]^[109]^[110] Further south, Spain's Sierra Nevada range casts a rain shadow over the Almería region, fostering one of Europe's driest locales through the blocking of moist air from the Mediterranean. Annual rainfall in Almería falls below 300 mm, resulting in semi-desert landscapes dominated by arid scrub and limited vegetation, while the windward slopes of the Sierra Nevada can exceed 1,000 mm.^[22] These rain shadows interact with the broader Mediterranean climate, characterized by mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, where orographic barriers amplify seasonal droughts by limiting moisture transport inland. Geological uplift of ranges like the Pyrenees and Apennines during the Pliocene epoch, approximately 5 million years ago, enhanced these effects, establishing persistent aridity patterns that define southern Europe's ecological zones.^[111] A unique feature in this region is the occasional reversal of minor rain shadow influences by Sirocco winds, warm southeasterly flows originating from North Africa that pick up moisture over the Mediterranean and deliver rainfall to typically leeward eastern coasts.^[112]

Examples in the Americas

Caribbean

In the Caribbean, prevailing northeastern trade winds interact with the islands' topography to produce pronounced rain shadows, particularly on the leeward (southern and western) slopes of mountainous terrains. These winds carry moisture from the Atlantic, leading to orographic lift and heavy precipitation on windward northern and eastern coasts, while descending dry air creates arid conditions on the opposite sides. This north-south contrast is evident across the Greater Antilles, where steep volcanic and limestone ridges amplify the effect, resulting in stark precipitation gradients that shape local climates, agriculture, and ecosystems.^[113]^[114] On Cuba, the Sierra Maestra mountains in the southeast create a notable rain shadow, particularly affecting the Guantánamo Bay region, where annual rainfall drops to 400–750 mm due to the blocking of moist trade winds, contrasting with over 2,000 mm on the northern windward slopes. Similarly, in western Cuba, areas like Pinar del Río experience relatively lower precipitation, averaging around 800–1,000 mm annually, compared to 1,500–2,000 mm in northern regions, influenced by the island's elongated topography and trade wind patterns. These gradients highlight how Cuba's terrain, rising abruptly from coastal plains, enhances the rain shadow by forcing air to rise and precipitate on the windward side before descending drier on the leeward.^[115]^[116]^[117] Hispaniola, shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, exemplifies this phenomenon through its central Cordillera Central mountains, which block trade winds and produce a sharp rain shadow on the southwestern leeward slopes, particularly in parts of Haiti where annual rainfall can be as low as 500–800 mm, compared to 1,500–2,500 mm on the northern and eastern windward sides of the Dominican Republic. Precipitation gradients across the island can exceed 500 mm (about 20 inches), with the leeward areas receiving 2–6 inches in some months due to the descending air, fostering drier thorn scrub vegetation in Haiti while supporting wetter rainforests in the Dominican Republic. This topographic barrier, peaking at Pico Duarte (3,098 m), intensifies the effect, contributing to Haiti's overall aridity despite its tropical location.^[118]^[119]^[120] In Jamaica, the Blue Mountains and John Crow Mountains create a classic rain shadow, drenching the northern slopes with over 5,000 mm annually while the southern plains receive less than 1,500 mm, often exhibiting semi-arid conditions with rainfall below 760 mm in southwestern areas. This disparity, up to 500 mm or more across the island, influences agriculture—such as sugarcane and coffee thriving in wetter north versus drier grazing lands south—and tourism, with the arid south attracting visitors to its distinctive landscapes. The steep relief, with elevations exceeding 2,000 m, forces trade winds to release moisture rapidly on the windward side, leaving the leeward south in a persistent dry zone.^[121]^[122]^[123] Many Caribbean islands, including those in the Greater Antilles, owe their steep topography to Miocene-era volcanic activity (approximately 23–5 million years ago), which formed rugged arcs of andesitic volcanoes and associated relief that now channel and block trade winds, intensifying rain shadows compared to flatter islands. This geological youth—relative to older, eroded landmasses—preserves high elevations and sharp gradients, making the region particularly susceptible to orographic rainfall disparities. For instance, the volcanic cores of Hispaniola and Jamaica provide the elevated barriers essential for these effects.^[124]^[114] Hurricanes, which traverse the Caribbean from June to November, can temporarily mitigate rain shadows by delivering intense, widespread rainfall that penetrates leeward areas, sometimes exceeding 300 mm in a single event and replenishing dry zones. However, these storms often reinforce annual patterns, as their tracks align with trade wind directions, enhancing orographic precipitation on windward sides while the post-storm subsidence can prolong leeward dryness outside the hurricane season. In Jamaica, for example, non-hurricane periods see minimal rainfall in shadowed southern areas due to the Blue Mountains' barrier.^[125]^[123]^[126]

North America

In North America, the rain shadow effect is prominently illustrated by the Sierra Nevada mountain range in California, which blocks moist Pacific air masses, creating arid conditions on its eastern leeward side. The western windward slopes of the Sierra Nevada receive substantial precipitation, often exceeding 1,500 mm annually, supporting dense forests and high snowfall.^[127] In stark contrast, the leeward regions, including Death Valley and the Great Basin Desert, experience extreme aridity, with Death Valley averaging just 48 mm of annual precipitation due to the depletion of moisture as air rises over the range.^[128] This orographic barrier intensifies the desert climate across the Great Basin, where evaporation exceeds sparse rainfall, leading to expansive drylands.^[127] Further north, the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon exemplifies a pronounced rain shadow, with westerly winds carrying Pacific moisture that precipitates heavily on the western slopes. Windward areas receive over 4,000 mm annually, fostering temperate rainforests and heavy snowpack.^[129] On the eastern leeward side, precipitation drops below 250 mm per year in many locations, resulting in semiarid steppes and sagebrush landscapes across eastern Washington and Oregon.^[129] Similarly, the Olympic Mountains in western Washington create a localized rain shadow, where the town of Sequim on the leeward northeastern side averages only about 420 mm annually, compared to over 3,800 mm on the windward west coast.^[130]^[131] The Rocky Mountains produce a more variable rain shadow across the continent's interior, with partial effects on the High Plains to the east due to additional moisture from Gulf of Mexico air masses. The leeward High Plains transition to shortgrass steppes with reduced but still viable precipitation, supporting ranching rather than full desertification.^[132] Stronger aridity occurs in the intermontane basins between the Rockies and other cordilleran ranges, such as the Great Basin to the west, where rain shadows amplify dryness and limit vegetation to shrubs and grasses.^[132] Post-Pleistocene climatic shifts, beginning around 10,000 years ago after glacial retreat, have enhanced aridity in these rain shadow regions through intensified summer warming and reduced effective moisture.^[133] In the northwestern United States, the uplift of ranges like the Cascades and Sierra Nevada strengthened rain shadows, promoting the expansion of sagebrush steppes over former coniferous forests.^[133] For instance, the Bitterroot Range in Montana, part of the northern Rockies, contributes to drier intermontane valleys today, reflecting this post-glacial drying trend that solidified arid ecosystems.^[133] Rain shadow intensity in the Pacific Northwest exhibits variability influenced by large-scale climate patterns, such as El Niño events, which temporarily weaken the shadows by shifting storm tracks southward and reducing orographic precipitation contrasts.^[134] During El Niño phases, leeward areas like eastern Washington may receive relatively more moisture compared to typical years, alleviating aridity briefly before normal westerly flow resumes.^[134]

South America

In South America, the Andes mountain range produces a distinctive bidirectional rain shadow effect due to latitudinal shifts in prevailing winds, creating contrasting aridity patterns along its length. In the northern and central Andes (roughly 0° to 30°S), easterly trade winds carry moisture from the Atlantic and Amazon basin, which is orographically lifted and precipitated on the eastern slopes, leaving the western side in a pronounced rain shadow. Conversely, in the southern Andes (south of 30°S), dominant westerly winds from the Pacific lead to heavy orographic rainfall on the western flanks and a rain shadow on the eastern side. This reversal results in wetter conditions on opposite sides of the range depending on latitude, profoundly shaping regional climates.^[135] The Atacama Desert in northern Chile exemplifies the western rain shadow in the central Andes, where moisture-laden easterlies from the Amazon are blocked, yielding extreme aridity. Core areas receive less than 1 mm of annual rainfall, establishing the Atacama as the driest non-polar desert globally. This hyperaridity is compounded by the cold Humboldt Current along the Pacific coast, which cools surface waters, strengthens a temperature inversion layer, and inhibits convective cloud formation and precipitation.^[136]^[47]^[137] In southern South America, the eastern rain shadow affects Patagonia, where westerlies unload moisture over the Chilean Andes, drastically reducing precipitation on the Argentine side. The Patagonian steppe receives under 200 mm of annual rainfall, supporting arid shrublands and grasslands, while the windward western slopes feature temperate rainforests and fjords with over 3,000 mm of yearly precipitation.^[138] These rain shadow patterns trace back to the Miocene tectonic uplift of the Andes, initiated around 20 million years ago, which elevated the range sufficiently to block moisture transport and initiate aridity in rain-shadowed zones. Ongoing uplift has continued into the Quaternary, with Holocene climate shifts—such as intensified subtropical highs and altered wind regimes—amplifying the effects, particularly in the Atacama where ultra-aridity became entrenched. The interplay of this orographic barrier with coastal cold currents uniquely intensifies aridity beyond typical rain shadow conditions elsewhere.^[139]

Examples in Oceania

Australia

The Great Dividing Range, stretching over 3,500 kilometers along Australia's eastern seaboard, acts as a significant barrier to moist easterly trade winds originating from the Pacific Ocean, resulting in a pronounced rain shadow effect over the western interior. This orographic blocking leads to substantially reduced precipitation on the leeward side, contributing to the aridification of much of the continent's interior. Approximately 70% of Australia's landmass is classified as arid or semi-arid, receiving less than 500 mm of annual rainfall, largely due to this rain shadow dynamic that prevents moisture from penetrating beyond the range.^[140]^[141] In Tasmania, the Central Midlands region experiences a similar but regionally distinct rain shadow caused by prevailing westerly winds interacting with the island's central highlands and western mountains. These winds, part of the Roaring Forties, deposit most of their moisture on the windward western slopes, leaving the leeward eastern and midland areas significantly drier. Mean annual rainfall in the Central Midlands is less than 600 mm, compared to over 3,000 mm on the west coast, highlighting the sharp precipitation gradient induced by this topographic effect.^[142]^[143] Further north, the Flinders Ranges in South Australia's outback create localized rain shadows, where the ranges' ridges block sporadic southerly and westerly moisture flows, exacerbating aridity in surrounding lowlands with average annual rainfall around 200-250 mm.^[144]^[145] Australia's rain shadow features are rooted in ancient Gondwanan geology, with the precursor structures to the Great Dividing Range and other eastern highlands forming during the breakup of the supercontinent around 100 million years ago in the Cretaceous period. These ranges, though exhibiting low relief today (typically under 1,500 meters elevation), remain effective at blocking moisture due to their extensive length and alignment perpendicular to prevailing winds, a legacy of tectonic uplift and erosion over tens of millions of years.^[146]^[147] Under projected climate change scenarios, Australia's interior rain shadow regions are expected to become 10-20% drier by 2050, driven by reduced winter and spring rainfall and enhanced subsidence warming on the leeward sides, intensifying continental aridity.^[148]^[149]

Pacific Islands

In the Hawaiian Islands, the summits of volcanic mountains, such as Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea on the Big Island, create pronounced rain shadows due to the prevailing northeastern trade winds, which force moist air to rise and condense on windward slopes, leaving leeward areas arid.^[150] For instance, the Kona coast on the leeward side of the Big Island receives less than 500 mm (about 20 inches) of annual rainfall, in stark contrast to over 3,000 mm (120 inches) on the windward Hilo side, where orographic lift enhances precipitation.^[151] This microclimatic divide supports dry ecosystems on the leeward coasts, including sparse vegetation adapted to low moisture, while the isolation of these small oceanic landmasses intensifies the effect, as limited surface area concentrates the shadow's impact.^[152] Similarly, in New Zealand, the Southern Alps on the South Island generate a rain shadow that desiccates the eastern Canterbury Plains, where westerly winds lose moisture crossing the range. Annual rainfall here averages below 600 mm, such as 618 mm in Christchurch, compared to over 4,000 mm on the western slopes near the main divide.^[153] These volcanic and tectonic formations, part of island arcs developed 1-5 million years ago, amplify localized dry zones on leeward flanks, fostering grasslands and semi-arid conditions distinct from the wetter western regions.^[154] In Fiji and Samoa, volcanic ridges on islands like Viti Levu and Upolu create localized rain shadows along leeward coasts, where southeast trade winds deposit moisture on windward elevations, resulting in dry zones with annual rainfall as low as 1,650-2,290 mm versus over 3,000 mm elsewhere.^[155] These small landmasses, formed through hotspot and arc volcanism within the past 1-5 million years, heighten the prominence of such micro-shadows, supporting unique dry forests and coastal scrub that rely on infrequent convectional showers.^[156] The isolation of these Pacific archipelagos further accentuates these patterns, as surrounding ocean moderates broader influences.^[157] These rain shadow-dependent dry ecosystems in Pacific islands face heightened vulnerability from sea-level rise, which exacerbates coastal erosion, groundwater salinization, and intrusion into arid lowlands already stressed by low precipitation. Projections indicate at least 15 cm of rise by 2050 in regions like Fiji, potentially inundating leeward dry habitats and disrupting adapted flora and fauna.^[158] Combined with rain shadow-induced drought risks, this threatens the resilience of these isolated biomes.^[159]

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The role of the Arabian Anticyclone in precipitation of Iran
In general, the AAC seems to be related to the spatial patterns and intensity of precipitation in Iran with the movement of the north, especially the east.Missing: shadow | Show results with:shadow
[91]
Climatology of precipitation in the Vosges mountain range area
Rainshadow on the leeward side of the Vosges is leading to dry conditions with only up to 550 mm per year in the Upper Rhine low-lands (Minářová, 2013; Parlow ...
[92]
[PDF] Vegetation of the Czech Republic: diversity, ecology, history and ...
In contrast, forest-steppe in southern Moravia, which occurs in the less pro- nounced rain shadow of the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, is a part of the ...
[93]
[PDF] Climatic and weather conditions in the Czech Republic
The average total rainfall there is in excess of 1,200 millimetres. The driest region of the Czech Republic is in southeast Moravia (lowlands) and northwest ...Missing: shadow | Show results with:shadow
[94]
[PDF] The Rhine River Basin
the Vosges, Black Forest, Rhenish mountains and South. German Scarplands and ... the rain shadow of the Vosges only receives 515–615 mm/ year. In the ...
[95]
Hungary climate: average weather, temperature, rain, when to go
The wettest area is the west, where 600-700 millimeters (23.5-27.5 inches) of rain (or snow) fall per year, while in the rest of the plain, precipitation ...Missing: Carpathians shadow
[96]
The Variscan orogeny: extent, timescale and the formation of the ...
The volume begins with the comparison of the Variscan evolution of the French Massif Central with the Vosges Mountains and the Bohemian Massif (Lardeaux et al.
[97]
[PDF] North East England: climate - Met Office
The average annual rainfall exceeds 1500 mm in the higher parts of the Pennines. There is a decrease as the land falls eastwards, such that the east coast is ...
[98]
Quantifying the Rain-Shadow Effect: Results from the Peak District ...
When the flow is westerly, 1.5 mm (50%) more average daily precipitation occurs on the Manchester side of the Peak District compared to the Sheffield side. In ...Abstract · WHAT IS A RAIN SHADOW... · THE PEAK DISTRICT AND ITS...
[99]
How do Scotland's mountains affect its rainfall?
Dec 17, 2020 · Annual average rainfall may exceed 3500mm per year, and there may be a 'day of rain' (exceeding 1mm) on average almost two days out of every ...Missing: gradients | Show results with:gradients
[100]
Private water supplies and the potential implications of climate change
Aug 20, 2020 · The west is generally wetter whilst the east is dryer, giving a distinct west to east gradient due to the 'rain shadow' influence of the western ...
[101]
Norway - Arctic, Fjords, Coastal | Britannica
Western Norway has a marine climate, with comparatively cool summers, mild winters, and nearly 90 inches (2,250 mm) of mean annual precipitation. Eastern Norway ...
[102]
A Climatology of Rain-on-Snow Events for Norway in - AMS Journals
A similar pattern is found for the western flank of high-elevation areas in the North region. Related to this, a rain shadow-type pattern is apparent in the ...Missing: Norrland | Show results with:Norrland
[103]
Postglacial rebound - Antarctic Glaciers
Postglacial rebound occurs when ice sheets recede, and is how the earth's geoid returns to its shape. Understanding postglacial rebound is important for ...<|separator|>
[104]
Glacial isostatic adjustment of Scandinavia and northwestern ...
Aug 5, 2025 · In this study, we use palaeoshoreline data from Scandinavia, the Barents Sea and northwestern Europe (NW) as well as radial crustal velocities ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[105]
France - Climate, Mediterranean, Atlantic | Britannica
Annual precipitation is more than 50 inches (1,270 mm) at higher elevations in western and northwestern France, in the western Pyrenees, in the Massif Central, ...The Mediterranean Region · Plant And Animal Life · Plant Life
[106]
a regional case study, the Ebro River basin, northeast Iberian ...
Mean annual precipitation varies from over 2000 mm in the Pyrenees to less than 400 mm in the arid interior. The rainfall regime is characterised by inter- ...
[107]
Mapping oxygen stable isotopes of precipitation in Italy - ScienceDirect
... and by the marked “rain shadow effect” due to the Apennine range. In the present work, a new map of δ18O distribution of precipitation in Italian territory (Fig ...
[108]
La Spezia climate: weather by month, temperature, rain
The rains are abundant, in fact they amount to 1,300 millimeters (51 inches) a year. The rainiest period is from October to December. The city is located on the ...
[109]
Rimini climate: weather by month, temperature, rain
Precipitation amounts to 25.4 inches per year: so, it is at an intermediate level. It ranges from 1.6 inches in the driest month (January) to 3.0 inches in the ...
[110]
Atmospheric methane, southern European vegetation and low-mid ...
Jan 30, 2009 · In general, amount and seasonality of rainfall are viewed as primary determinants of vegetation patterns across Mediterranean landscapes (e.g. ...
[111]
Local Weather Phenomena: Sirocco - Infoplaza
Jul 24, 2025 · The Sirocco is a warm and dry wind in the Mediterranean area, with increasing humidity levels towards Europe. An eastward moving low pressure ...Missing: reverse shadow
[112]
The Effects of the Trade Winds on the Distribution of Relative ...
On many oceanic tropical islands the trade winds blow from the east and as the air passes over the island it loses moisture to rain. The two hypotheses for this ...<|separator|>
[113]
[PDF] Climate, People, and Vegetation of the West Indies
rain shadow occurs on the leeward side, which sustains only dry to. Page 3. Climate, People, and Vegetation | 19 moist forests. Overall, annual rainfall is ...
[114]
Guantanamo Bay Lepidoptera study sets baseline for future research
Sep 6, 2012 · “Guantanamo is a special area because it's a desert-type habitat due to the rain shadow effect from the mountains,” Lott said. “There's ...
[115]
4 RAINFALL MAPS OF CUBA - AMS Journals
Pinar del Rio Province, with a 5-year record, has the island's maximum annual ra.infal1 of 79 inches. Union de. 1 Fcscue. Edwfn J. “Rainfall Maps of Cuba ” Mo.
[116]
Cuba climate: average weather, temperature, rain, when to go
Annual precipitation is generally between 1,000 and 1,500 millimeters (40 and 60 inches). In the south, where the only mountainous areas are found, there is a ...Missing: gradient | Show results with:gradient
[117]
RAINFALL MAPS OF HISPANIOLA - jstor
A remarkably sharp rain shadow appears on the leeward slopes of the central mountains where from two to six inches of rainfall are recorded. The mountains of ...
[118]
[PDF] The Effects of the Trade Winds on the Distribution of Relative ...
Aug 3, 2015 · The basic idea is that the consistency of the trade winds creates a rain shadow in the western parts of oceanic tropical islands. Mountains in ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[119]
Biogeographical Areas of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic ...
Sep 6, 2017 · Most of Hispaniola has a pluviseasonal tropical macrobioclimate and a predominantly subhumid ombrotype, with rainfall ranging from 1000 to 2000 ...<|separator|>
[120]
A Climatic Map of Jamaica on the Koppen System - AMS Journals
There are only two areas of Cb, the larger in the Blue Mountains and the ... rain-shadow effect creates a more pronounced aridity. Two types of areas ...
[121]
Jamaica - GEOGRAPHY - Country Studies
... Cuba and Hispaniola (the island containing the Dominican Republic and Haiti). ... Warm trade winds from the east and northeast bring rainfall throughout the year.<|control11|><|separator|>
[122]
Atlantic hurricane activity during the last millennium | Scientific Reports
Aug 5, 2015 · Very little precipitation occurs outside of the hurricane season because of the influence of the rain shadow of the Blue Mountains.
[123]
Early miocene corals from the Culebra Formation, Panama
Aug 6, 2025 · Caribbean reefs underwent significant biotic change during the Late Oligocene and Early Miocene. This was a critical time in the evolution ...
[124]
Orographic Enhancement of Precipitation inside Hurricane Dean in
The rain shadow is mostly west of the island in Fig. 11a, while in Figs. 11b and 11c it is located north and northwest of the island. This shift is consistent ...
[125]
Impacts of Local Convective Processes on Rain on the Caribbean ...
May 29, 2019 · This study aims to determine the impacts of tropical island processes on local convective storms. An analysis of rain events on the island of Puerto Rico
[126]
Rain Shadow - National Geographic Education
Dec 9, 2024 · A rain shadow is a patch of land that has been forced to become a desert because mountain ranges blocked all plant-growing, rainy weather.Missing: origin history
[127]
THE CLIMATE OF DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA - AMS Journals
Death Valley is dry because it sits in the rainshadow of four major mountain ranges to the west. (Sierra Nevada, White/Inyo Mountains, the Argus. Range, and ...
[128]
On the Dynamical Causes of Variability in the Rain-Shadow Effect
We find that that a strong rain shadow is associated with warm-sector precipitation and a northern Pacific storm track, while a weak rain shadow is associated ...
[129]
Washington's Climate
While the Cascade Mountains cause the most distinct rainshadow in the state, the Olympic Mountain range also produces a rain shadow effect. For example, ...<|separator|>
[130]
United States - The Dry West | Britannica
The grasslands occur principally in the Great Plains area and extend westward into the intermontane basins and benchlands of the Rocky Mountains. Numerous ...The Humid--Arid Transition · Animal Life · Settlement Patterns
[131]
[PDF] USGS DDS-43, Quaternary Vegetation History
The vegetation was apparently responding to both the dryer, colder glacial climates and the increasing rain shadow as the Cascades were uplifted. The ...
[132]
Spatially coherent variability in modern orographic precipitation produces asymmetric paleo-glacier extents in flowline models: Olympic Mountains, USA
### Summary: El Niño's Effect on the Rain Shadow in the Pacific Northwest (Olympic Mountains)
[133]
TECTONICS AND CLIMATE - Ocean Drilling Program
... rain shadow on the eastern side (Patagonian desert). A reversed rainfall pattern marks the low-latitude regions, where the barrier leads to enhanced ...
[134]
Paleo-climate shifts in the Atacama Desert from PMIP4 simulations
At present, the annual rainfall amount is less than 1mm for parts of the hyper-arid core of the desert.
[135]
Inside the Atacama Desert: uncovering the living microbiome of an ...
Nov 14, 2024 · The extreme aridity is a result of the strong Pacific anticyclone and the cold north-flowing Humboldt Current. This combination leads to a ...
[136]
South American Climate Dynamics and Evolution of the Andes
Strong Westerlies result in orographic precipitation on the western side of the mountain range and a rain shadow on the eastern side (Fig. 2.1b). The ...
[137]
Oxygen isotopic response to late Cenozoic Andean surface uplift
Holocene precipitation and atmospheric changes ... Surface uplift of the Andes influences precipitation ... to 12-15 Ma has been related to the rain shadow effect ...
[138]
Rainfall isotope variations over the Australian continent
Approximately 70% of the Australian continent is classified as arid (desert, average annual rainfall <250 mm) or semi-arid (grasslands, average annual rainfall ...
[139]
The water cycle | Murray–Darling Basin Authority
There is more rainfall east of the Great Dividing Range (the west is in rain shadow). West of the Range is the Murray–Darling Basin.
[140]
[PDF] Future climate projections for Tasmanian IBRA regions
There is a steep gradient in total annual rainfall from the western region across the eastern central plateau, resulting in a rain shadow region over the ...
[141]
[PDF] climate futures for tasmania
Tasmania have risen more than daily maximum temperatures. Rainfall over Tasmania results from a combination of prevailing westerly winds, mountainous ...
[142]
The Flinders Ranges - A biography of the Australian continent
Sep 30, 2013 · The rainfall is mainly in winter, and averages about 200 mm/yr. The accumulation of permanent water bodies is prevented by the an average ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[143]
[PDF] A BIOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE FLINDERS RANGES SOUTH ...
Jan 6, 2015 · The Flinders Ranges are an uplifted area of mostly sedimentary rock covering approximately 37,000 km2 of South. Australia from Crystal Brook in ...
[144]
Geological controls on palaeo-environmental change in a tectonic ...
▻ A pronounced tectonic–orographic rain shadow developed in the Pliocene. ▻ Rising antiformal ranges exposed substrates that caused salination and coal fires. ▻ ...
[145]
What is the tectonic setting for the formation of the Great Dividing ...
Dec 21, 2014 · The Great Dividing Range was formed during the Carboniferous period—some 300 million years ago—when Australia collided with what is now parts ...
[146]
Climate projections for Australia - CSIRO
Seasonal-average rainfall changes will vary across Australia. In southern mainland Australia, winter and spring rainfall is projected to decrease (high ...Missing: interior | Show results with:interior
[147]
[PDF] Regional Report - Climate change in Australia
CLIMATE CHANGE IN AUSTRALIA. 180. Page 185. FIGURE 9.9: MID CENTURY (2050) PROJECTED TEMPERATURE CHANGE (°C, LEFT), RAINFALL RELATIVE PERCENT CHANGE (RIGHT) FOR ...
[148]
Rain Shadows on the Summits of Hawaii | NOAA Climate.gov
Jan 5, 2011 · The sharp contrast in vegetation is called the rain shadow effect. ... As the air rises, it chills in the cool, high-altitude temperatures.
[149]
Yearly Rainfall Averages in Hawaii - Current Results
Hawaii Big Island ; 273, Hilo, 120.4 ; 50, Kailua Kona, 9.9 ; 281, Kapoho Beach, 81.5 ; 56, Mauna Loa Observatory, 14.3 ...
[150]
Hawaii's Water Cycle - Board of Water Supply
Rain is the predominant form of precipitation in our islands, although dew and fog drip also add water. During winter, snow, freezing rain, and sleet ...2. Water On The Ground · The Rainforest · 3: Water Below The Ground
[151]
[PDF] CANTERBURY - NIWA
The plains, with prevailing winds from the north- east and south-west, low rainfall, and a relatively large annual temperature range by New Zealand standards. 2 ...
[152]
Canterbury | Earth Sciences New Zealand - NIWA
The plains, with prevailing winds from the northeast and south-west, low rainfall, and a relatively large annual temperature range by New Zealand standards.<|separator|>
[153]
[PDF] FIJI - SPREP
The west coast of Viti Levu is in a rain shadow, and thus experiences a distinct dry season. Maximum and minimum temperatures for Suva are 30°C and 20.5°C ...
[154]
Fiji Tropical Dry Forests | One Earth
... Fiji's tropical dry forests. These forests have long dry seasons created by rain shadows of mountains on the larger islands. Fijian 'dry' forests are ...
[155]
The age and origin of the Pacific islands: a geological overview - PMC
Though formed from continental crust, these islands result from local tectonic activity but have geological histories extending back prior to 40 Ma, in marked ...Missing: shadows | Show results with:shadows
[156]
NASA Analysis Shows Irreversible Sea Level Rise for Pacific Islands
Sep 25, 2024 · In the next 30 years, Pacific Island nations such as Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Fiji will experience at least 6 inches (15 centimeters) of sea level rise.Missing: dry rain shadow
[157]
Climate change and hydrological risk in the Pacific - IWA Publishing
Jan 25, 2021 · This geography can also cause rain shadows, leading to heterogeneous access to water and risks of drought (Pearce et al. 2018). The land area of ...