2015
2015 was a Gregorian calendar year that witnessed a spectrum of human achievements and calamities, including breakthroughs in genetic engineering, the intensification of jihadist terrorism, severe natural disasters displacing millions, and tentative steps toward international climate cooperation amid ongoing geopolitical fractures.[1][2][3]
The year opened with the Charlie Hebdo attack in Paris on January 7, where Islamist gunmen killed 12 people in retaliation for satirical depictions of Muhammad, highlighting vulnerabilities in Western societies to radical ideologies fueled by Middle Eastern conflicts.[4] Later, on November 13, coordinated assaults by ISIS operatives across Paris left 130 dead and over 400 injured, marking the deadliest terrorist incident in France since World War II and prompting heightened global counterterrorism measures.[5][1]
Natural disasters compounded human suffering, with 346 events reported worldwide causing 22,773 deaths and affecting 98.6 million people; the April 25 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal alone claimed 8,831 lives and triggered avalanches on Mount Everest, exacerbating regional instability.[3][6] In science, the CRISPR-Cas9 system emerged as a transformative tool for precise genome editing, enabling potential cures for genetic diseases but raising ethical concerns over applications like human germline modification.[2] Diplomatically, the Paris Agreement at COP21 in December secured commitments from nearly 200 nations to curb greenhouse gas emissions, though its non-binding nature and reliance on voluntary targets drew skepticism regarding enforceability.[1] The European migrant crisis, driven by wars in Syria and elsewhere, saw over a million undocumented arrivals straining borders and social fabrics across the continent.[1][7]
Geopolitical Events
Major Conflicts and Interventions
The Syrian Civil War intensified in 2015 amid ongoing battles between the Assad government, various rebel factions, and the Islamic State (ISIS), which controlled significant territory in eastern Syria and parts of Iraq. The United States and allies expanded Operation Inherent Resolve, conducting over 11,000 airstrikes against ISIS targets by year's end, supporting Kurdish and Iraqi ground forces in key offensives. On September 30, Russia launched its direct military intervention at the Syrian government's request, deploying airstrikes that primarily hit opposition groups rather than ISIS initially, bolstering Assad's position and shifting the conflict's dynamics.[8][9][10] In Yemen, Houthi forces, backed by Iran, seized Sana'a and advanced southward, prompting President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to flee. On March 26, Saudi Arabia led a coalition of nine states in "Operation Decisive Storm," initiating airstrikes and a naval blockade to halt Houthi advances and restore Hadi's government, with over 100 sorties flown in the first days. The intervention involved ground incursions by coalition troops and proxies, resulting in widespread destruction and a humanitarian crisis, though it prevented Houthi capture of Aden.[11][12] The war in Donbas, Ukraine, saw heavy fighting early in the year, including the Battle of Debaltseve, before the Minsk II agreement on February 12 established a ceasefire, mandated withdrawal of heavy weapons, prisoner exchanges, and constitutional reforms for autonomy in separatist areas. Mediated by France, Germany, Russia, and Ukraine, the deal reduced large-scale clashes but failed to halt shelling or resolve underlying territorial disputes, with over 9,000 deaths reported since 2014.[13][14] Against ISIS in Iraq, the group captured Ramadi in May after intense urban fighting, displacing thousands, but Iraqi forces with coalition air support retook the city by December 2015, marking a tactical setback for the militants. Similar coalition-backed operations targeted ISIS in Syria, including the defense of Kobani earlier resolved but with ongoing pressure on Raqqa. In Nigeria, a multinational joint task force of Lake Chad nations launched offensives against Boko Haram, reclaiming territory in Borno state amid thousands of casualties.[15]Terrorism Incidents
Terrorist attacks in 2015, predominantly carried out by Islamist groups including the Islamic State (ISIS) and its affiliates, resulted in elevated global casualties, with peaks driven by operations in Iraq and expansions into Europe and elsewhere.[16] The year marked ISIS's territorial height alongside high-profile strikes outside war zones, contributing to over 14,000 terrorism-related deaths worldwide according to databases tracking such events.[17] On January 7, gunmen Said and Cherif Kouachi stormed the Paris offices of satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, killing 12 people and wounding 11 others in an assault linked to depictions of the Prophet Muhammad.[18] The brothers, who claimed allegiance to al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, were killed in a subsequent police operation; parallel attacks over three days, including a kosher supermarket siege, brought the total death toll to 17.[18] These events highlighted vulnerabilities in European urban centers to small-cell jihadist operations. In October, ISIS's Sinai Province affiliate bombed Metrojet Flight 9268 shortly after takeoff from Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, on October 31, killing all 224 aboard in the deadliest aviation terrorist attack since 9/11.[19] Russian authorities confirmed an improvised explosive device, equivalent to 1-1.5 kg of TNT, was detonated mid-flight.[19] Two suicide bombings struck a peace rally outside Ankara Central Station on October 10, killing 95 and injuring over 200, in Turkey's deadliest attack to date; perpetrators were identified as members of the Kurdistan Freedom Falcons (TAK), a PKK splinter, amid escalating domestic conflict.[20] The November 13 coordinated assault in Paris by ISIS operatives targeted multiple sites, including the Bataclan concert hall where 89 died, cafes (39 killed), and the Stade de France stadium (no fatalities from blasts); overall, 130 were killed and 413 wounded across the attacks.[21] Most attackers died in the operation or subsequent suicide detonations, with the plot directed from Syria.[22] On December 2, Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik, a married couple radicalized online and pledging allegiance to ISIS, opened fire at a workplace holiday party in San Bernardino, California, killing 14 and injuring 22 before being killed in a shootout; the FBI classified it as terrorism involving pipe bombs and assault rifles.[23] Elsewhere, al-Shabaab's assault on Garissa University in Kenya on April 2 killed 148, mostly students, while Boko Haram's campaigns in Nigeria and ISIS bombings in Beirut on November 12 (43 dead) underscored the diffuse threat from jihadist networks.[24] These incidents reflected tactical shifts toward mass-casualty strikes in civilian targets to amplify propaganda and instill fear.[16]Migration and Refugee Crisis
The 2015 migration and refugee crisis in Europe involved an unprecedented influx of over 1 million people arriving primarily by sea and land routes, with UNHCR recording 1,004,356 sea arrivals to Greece (849,519) and Italy (153,842), marking a sharp escalation from prior years driven by conflicts and instability in origin countries.[25] A total of 1.3 million first-time asylum applications were lodged across EU member states, Norway, and Switzerland, the highest since World War II, with applicants predominantly from Syria (49%), Afghanistan (21%), and Iraq (7%), though significant numbers originated from Eritrea, Nigeria, and Pakistan—nations where economic hardship and persecution overlapped.[26] The demographic skewed heavily male (72% of arrivals) and young (median age 27), with families comprising a minority, reflecting patterns of opportunistic migration amid permissive border policies.[27] Primary causes traced to protracted conflicts, including Syria's civil war—which by mid-2015 had displaced 6.6 million internally and pushed 4 million abroad due to regime bombardments, ISIS territorial gains, and sectarian violence—compounded by instability in Libya following the 2011 NATO intervention that dismantled state controls, enabling smuggling networks to proliferate unchecked.[28] [29] Afghanistan's Taliban resurgence and Iraq's ISIS offensives similarly fueled outflows, while African routes highlighted mixed motives, as evidenced by UNHCR data showing only 84% of arrivals from top refugee-producing countries, with the remainder often economic seekers exploiting asylum systems.[30] Over 3,770 deaths occurred during Mediterranean crossings, underscoring the perils of overloaded vessels operated by traffickers charging $1,000–$5,000 per person.[25] Key developments included Germany's suspension of Dublin Regulation returns on August 24, followed by Chancellor Angela Merkel's "Wir schaffen das" statement on August 31, which signaled openness and drew an estimated 800,000 arrivals to Germany by year's end, straining infrastructure and prompting internal EU divisions.[26] Hungary completed a border fence with Serbia on September 15, redirecting flows through the Balkans to Austria and Slovenia, while Greece registered over 800,000 at islands like Lesbos amid overwhelmed facilities.[31] An EU plan for migrant quotas in September faced resistance from eastern states, and a November 29 EU-Turkey agreement pledged €6 billion to stem flows in exchange for border controls, though implementation lagged.[32] Asylum approval rates varied, with Sweden granting 51% and Hungary 0.4% initially, highlighting disparities in vetting rigor.[33]| Country | First-Time Asylum Applications (2015) |
|---|---|
| Germany | 476,000[26] |
| Sweden | 162,000[33] |
| Hungary | 174,000 (mostly transit)[26] |
| Austria | 88,000[26] |
| Italy | 83,000[26] |
Political Developments
Elections and Leadership Changes
In Israel, legislative elections held on March 17 resulted in Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's Likud party securing 30 seats in the 120-seat Knesset, ahead of the Zionist Union alliance's 24 seats, enabling Netanyahu to form a right-wing coalition government despite pre-election polls suggesting a closer contest.[34] This outcome extended Netanyahu's tenure amid domestic debates over security and economic policies.[35] Nigeria's presidential election on March 28-29 marked a historic shift, with Muhammadu Buhari of the All Progressives Congress (APC) defeating incumbent Goodluck Jonathan of the People's Democratic Party (PDP) by 53.0% to 44.0% of the vote, achieving the first peaceful transfer of power from a ruling party to opposition in the country's democratic history.[36] Buhari's victory, certified by the Independent National Electoral Commission, reflected widespread dissatisfaction with Jonathan's administration over security failures against Boko Haram and economic mismanagement.[37] The United Kingdom's general election on May 7 saw the Conservative Party, led by David Cameron, unexpectedly secure an outright majority with 331 of 650 Commons seats and 36.9% of the vote, up from a hung parliament in 2010, while Labour obtained 232 seats.[38] This result allowed Cameron to continue as prime minister without coalition partners, fulfilling pledges on economic austerity and an EU referendum, though turnout was 66.1%.[39] Turkey held parliamentary elections on June 7, where President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's Justice and Development Party (AKP) lost its absolute majority, winning 258 of 550 seats with 40.9% of the vote, as the pro-Kurdish HDP surpassed the 10% threshold.[40] A snap election followed on November 1, restoring AKP dominance with 317 seats and 49.5% of the vote, amid heightened security concerns and campaign tensions, solidifying Erdoğan's influence despite his non-partisan presidential role.[41] Canada's federal election on October 19 delivered a majority for Justin Trudeau's Liberal Party, capturing 184 of 338 seats with 39.5% of the vote, ousting Conservative Prime Minister Stephen Harper after a decade in office and reversing earlier polling deficits.[42] Trudeau's win emphasized promises of middle-class tax cuts and infrastructure investment, with the Conservatives dropping to 99 seats.[43] Poland's parliamentary elections on October 25 gave the Law and Justice (PiS) party an absolute majority in the Sejm with 235 of 460 seats and 37.6% of the vote, the first such outcome since 1989, leading to Beata Szydło's appointment as prime minister replacing Ewa Kopacz.[44] PiS's platform focused on social welfare expansion and judicial reforms, while the Civic Platform lost 133 seats.[45] Myanmar's general election on November 8 resulted in Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) achieving a supermajority, winning 255 of 330 contested House of Representatives seats and over 80% of total parliamentary seats, rejecting the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party.[46] This paved the way for NLD dominance in government formation, though constitutional limits barred Suu Kyi from the presidency, with Htin Kyaw elected in 2016.[47] In Argentina, the presidential runoff on November 22 ended 12 years of Peronist rule as Mauricio Macri of the Cambiemos coalition defeated Daniel Scioli with 51.3% to 48.7% of the vote, becoming the first non-Peronist president in over a decade.[48] Macri's center-right victory signaled rejection of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's policies, including currency controls and subsidies.[49] Spain's general election on December 20 fragmented the vote, with Mariano Rajoy's People's Party (PP) retaining the most seats at 123 of 350 in Congress but falling short of a majority, as newcomers Podemos and Ciudadanos gained 69 and 40 seats respectively, ushering in nine months of negotiations and interim government.[50] The Socialists took 85 seats, ending the prior two-party dominance.[51]Major Policy Agreements and Crises
In July 2015, Greece faced an acute phase of its ongoing sovereign debt crisis, culminating in a national referendum on July 5 where 61.3% of voters rejected proposed bailout terms from the European Commission, European Central Bank, and International Monetary Fund, which included further austerity measures and structural reforms.[52] The rejection led to temporary capital controls and bank closures, exacerbating economic contraction, with GDP shrinking by 0.9% in the second quarter.[52] Following negotiations, a third bailout program was agreed on July 12, providing €86 billion in financial assistance over three years starting August 19, contingent on stringent fiscal reforms, privatization, and pension cuts to address a public debt-to-GDP ratio exceeding 180%.[53] [52] On July 14, 2015, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was finalized between Iran and the P5+1 group (United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, China, Germany, and the European Union), imposing restrictions on Iran's nuclear activities in exchange for phased relief from international sanctions.[54] Key provisions limited Iran's uranium enrichment to 3.67% for 15 years, capped its enriched uranium stockpile at 300 kilograms, and redesigned the Arak reactor to prevent plutonium production, with International Atomic Energy Agency verification ensuring compliance.[55] Iran agreed to reduce its installed centrifuges by two-thirds and forgo rebuilding its heavy-water reactor for at least 15 years, aiming to extend the breakout time for a nuclear weapon from months to at least one year.[55] The deal faced domestic opposition in the U.S. Congress, where critics argued it did not sufficiently dismantle Iran's nuclear infrastructure and could fund regional aggression, though it was endorsed by the UN Security Council via Resolution 2231 on July 20.[56] The Paris Agreement on climate change was adopted on December 12, 2015, at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris by 195 nations, establishing a framework for limiting global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to cap it at 1.5°C.[57] Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, it applied uniform obligations to all parties through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for emissions reductions, reviewed every five years, alongside provisions for climate finance from developed to developing countries totaling $100 billion annually by 2020.[58] The agreement emphasized adaptation, loss and damage mechanisms, and transparency in reporting, entering into force on November 4, 2016, after ratification by sufficient parties.[58] Skeptics noted the non-binding nature of NDCs and reliance on voluntary compliance, potentially limiting enforceable outcomes despite widespread initial support.[59]Economic Developments
Global Financial Markets
The global financial markets in 2015 were marked by heightened volatility, driven by commodity price collapses, currency shocks, sovereign debt tensions, and equity selloffs in emerging markets. Major stock indices in developed economies ended the year with modest or flat returns amid these pressures: the S&P 500 rose 1.38%, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined slightly by 2.23%, and the [Nasdaq Composite](/page/Nasdaq Composite) gained about 5.73%, reflecting uneven performance across sectors with energy and materials lagging due to falling oil prices.[60] [61] Globally, a selloff began in June, triggered by China's equity turbulence, leading to sharp declines; for instance, on August 24, the Dow Jones fell over 1,000 points at open before recovering partially.[62] A pivotal early event was the Swiss National Bank's abandonment of its euro peg on January 15, which had capped the Swiss franc at 1.20 per euro since 2011 to combat deflationary pressures. The franc surged up to 30% against the euro in minutes, causing turmoil in forex markets, losses for carry trades, and billions in hedge fund damages, as the SNB cited unsustainable intervention costs exceeding 20% of Swiss GDP in foreign reserves.[63] [64] This shock highlighted vulnerabilities in currency interventions amid diverging European Central Bank (ECB) easing. China's stock market experienced a severe bubble burst starting in June, with the Shanghai Composite Index plummeting over 30% by mid-July after a 150% rally from mid-2014 fueled by margin lending and retail speculation. Government responses included trading halts on over 1,400 stocks, share buybacks by state funds, and a six-month lockup on major shareholders' holdings, which stabilized prices temporarily but raised concerns over market distortions and hidden leverage risks from shadow banking.[65] [66] The episode contributed to global risk aversion, devaluing the yuan by nearly 2% in August and amplifying selloffs in commodities and emerging equities.[1] The Greek sovereign debt crisis intensified in summer, culminating in capital controls imposed on June 28 amid bailout negotiations, limiting withdrawals to €60 per day to stem bank runs. Greece missed a €1.6 billion IMF payment on June 30—the first by a developed economy—before securing a third €86 billion EU-IMF bailout on August 20, conditional on austerity and reforms, averting eurozone exit but deepening recession with GDP contracting further.[67] [68] This episode pressured European banks and peripherals, though ECB liquidity measures contained contagion. Commodity markets faced a protracted downturn, led by oil: West Texas Intermediate crude averaged $48.66 per barrel, down 53% from 2014, due to U.S. shale oversupply, OPEC's refusal to cut output, and weakening demand from China and Europe.[69] Brent crude hit an 11-year low near $36 in December, hurting energy exporters like Russia and Venezuela while boosting importers, though the strong U.S. dollar—up 8% on a trade-weighted basis—exacerbated declines in dollar-denominated assets.[70] Central banks diverged in policy: the ECB expanded quantitative easing in January, while the U.S. Federal Reserve, citing improving labor markets (unemployment at 5%), raised its federal funds rate on December 16 by 25 basis points to 0.25-0.50%, the first hike since 2006, signaling normalization after years of zero rates.[71] [72] This move, anticipated but delayed by global risks, strengthened the dollar further and set expectations for gradual tightening, influencing emerging market outflows. Overall, 43 central banks eased policy, underscoring fragmented global recovery.[73]Trade and Economic Policies
In 2015, the conclusion of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) negotiations marked a significant advancement in multilateral trade policy, with trade ministers from 12 Pacific Rim countries—Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, and the United States—reaching agreement on October 5 after over five years of talks. The deal aimed to eliminate or reduce tariffs on industrial goods and agricultural products, address non-tariff barriers, and establish rules for services, investment, and intellectual property, potentially covering 40% of global GDP.[74][75] Implementation required ratification, but the accord reflected efforts to counterbalance rising economic influence from non-participating nations like China through harmonized standards and market access.[76] The World Trade Organization's Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), adopted in 2013, saw heightened focus in 2015 on its prospective implementation, with the WTO's annual report estimating that full adherence could reduce global trade costs by up to 14% and boost merchandise exports from developing countries by over 20% through streamlined customs procedures, expedited goods release, and enhanced border cooperation.[77] Provisions emphasized transparency, risk management, and assistance for least-developed countries, though challenges included capacity-building needs and varying national timelines for commitments.[78] In Europe, Greece's third bailout program, valued at €86 billion and initiated on August 19 under Eurozone auspices with IMF participation, imposed stringent economic policies including fiscal consolidation, structural reforms in labor markets, pension systems, and privatization to address chronic deficits and debt exceeding 180% of GDP. This followed a July 5 referendum rejecting prior creditor terms by 61%, yet led to capital controls and bank closures earlier that summer amid fears of Grexit.[53][52] The program prioritized debt sustainability through primary surpluses targeting 3.5% of GDP by 2018, though critics noted its procyclical austerity exacerbated recessionary pressures.[79] China's central bank devalued the yuan by approximately 2% on August 11, with further adjustments totaling nearly 3% over subsequent days, shifting toward greater market influence on the exchange rate to align with a basket of currencies and support export competitiveness amid slowing domestic growth. This policy adjustment, intended to facilitate renminbi internationalization, raised global concerns over subsidized exports and potential currency wars, as it effectively lowered Chinese goods' prices abroad while increasing import costs domestically.[80][81] Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) talks between the EU and US progressed incrementally, with a December joint statement highlighting advances in tariff reductions, regulatory cooperation, and small business access, though disputes over investor-state dispute settlement and data flows persisted without a final deal.[82] The U.S. 2015 Trade Policy Agenda under President Obama emphasized these plurilateral efforts alongside services trade pacts like TiSA to expand market opportunities.Scientific and Technological Advances
Key Discoveries and Innovations
NASA's New Horizons spacecraft conducted the first close-up flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015, passing within 12,500 kilometers of the dwarf planet's surface and revealing detailed geological features including nitrogen ice plains, mountain ranges, and a hazy atmosphere.[83] The mission transmitted high-resolution images and data over subsequent months, confirming Pluto's dynamic surface with evidence of cryovolcanism and ongoing geological activity despite its distance from the Sun.[83] On September 14, 2015, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) detected the first direct evidence of gravitational waves from the merger of two black holes approximately 1.3 billion light-years away, confirming a key prediction of general relativity.[84] This event, GW150914, involved black holes of about 36 and 29 solar masses coalescing into a 62-solar-mass black hole, releasing energy equivalent to three solar masses in gravitational radiation.[84] The detection opened a new era in astronomy by enabling observation of spacetime ripples, inaccessible to traditional electromagnetic methods.[84] Advancements in CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology accelerated in 2015, with demonstrations of efficient, targeted genome modifications in various organisms, earning recognition as a runner-up for Science magazine's Breakthrough of the Year.[2] Researchers also discovered a previously unknown network of lymphatic vessels in the meninges of the mouse brain, challenging prior assumptions about central nervous system immunity and waste clearance.[2] In biology, the description of Homo naledi, a new species of archaic human based on fossils from the Rising Star Cave in South Africa, highlighted potential mosaic evolution with primitive and modern traits dating to about 236,000–335,000 years ago.[85] Technological innovations included the World Economic Forum's identification of neuromorphic computing chips mimicking brain architecture for efficient AI processing as an emerging technology.[86]Environmental and Climate Developments
In 2015, global surface temperatures reached a record high, averaging 0.90°C above the 20th-century baseline according to NOAA data, surpassing the previous record set in 2014. This anomaly was the largest in the 136-year instrumental record, with land temperatures 1.33°C above average. The warmth was amplified by a strong El Niño event that emerged in the equatorial Pacific, releasing stored ocean heat into the atmosphere and contributing to extreme weather patterns worldwide. Independent analyses from NASA and other datasets confirmed the ranking, attributing the surge to both the El Niño oscillation and the underlying long-term warming trend driven by greenhouse gas accumulations.[87][88] The 2015-2016 El Niño, one of the strongest on record, exacerbated droughts across regions like Ethiopia, where severe conditions led to water rationing and famine risks, and fueled an expansion of global drought areas, reducing vegetation growth and carbon uptake. In the western United States and Canada, it intensified historic droughts and a severe wildfire season, with increased forest fires releasing additional carbon dioxide. Tropical cyclone activity was disrupted, with fewer Atlantic hurricanes but stronger impacts in the Pacific, while atmospheric CO2 concentrations saw the largest one-year increase ever recorded, reaching 400 ppm. These effects highlighted El Niño's role in modulating short-term climate variability atop anthropogenic influences.[87] On May 24, Pope Francis issued the encyclical Laudato Si', addressing environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change as symptoms of deeper human ecological imbalances, including consumerism and technological dominance over nature. The document critiqued disproportionate burdens on the poor from environmental harm and called for integral ecology linking care for creation with social justice, urging global action beyond mere technological fixes. It referenced scientific consensus on human-induced warming while emphasizing moral imperatives, influencing discussions ahead of international climate talks.[89] The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) convened from November 30 to December 12 in Paris, where 195 parties adopted the Paris Agreement on December 12. The accord committed nations to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, pursuing efforts for 1.5°C, through nationally determined contributions (NDCs) submitted periodically for ratcheting ambition. Unlike prior protocols, it applied to all countries without binding emission targets, relying on transparency, review, and voluntary enhancements, with provisions for loss and damage mechanisms and climate finance from developed to developing nations. Entry into force required ratification by 55 parties representing 55% of emissions, achieved in 2016. Critics noted its non-binding nature limited enforceability, yet it marked a shift toward universal participation.[57][90]Social and Cultural Shifts
Legal Rulings and Rights Changes
On June 26, 2015, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that the Fourteenth Amendment requires all states to license and recognize same-sex marriages, effectively legalizing them nationwide in a 5-4 decision. The majority opinion, authored by Justice Anthony Kennedy, held that denying same-sex couples the right to marry violated due process and equal protection clauses, extending prior rulings like United States v. Windsor. Dissenters, including Chief Justice John Roberts, argued the decision usurped democratic processes and redefined marriage without constitutional basis. This overturned bans in 13 states and standardized recognition across the U.S., impacting approximately 1,000 same-sex couples who married daily post-ruling.[91] In Ireland, a referendum on May 22, 2015, amended the Constitution to permit same-sex marriage, with 62% approval, marking the first national vote worldwide to enact such a change. The Thirty-fourth Amendment took effect on November 29, 2015, after legislative passage, granting same-sex couples equal marital rights including adoption and inheritance. Proponents cited evolving social norms, while opponents raised concerns over family structure and parental rights. The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) on October 6, 2015, invalidated the European Commission's 2000 Safe Harbour Decision in the Schrems case, ruling it inadequate for protecting EU citizens' personal data transferred to the U.S. due to insufficient safeguards against government surveillance programs like PRISM.[92] The decision emphasized that national data protection authorities could suspend transfers independently, enhancing privacy rights under Directive 95/46/EC.[92] It disrupted transatlantic data flows for thousands of companies, prompting negotiations for successor frameworks like Privacy Shield.[93] The United Kingdom enacted the Modern Slavery Act on March 26, 2015, consolidating offenses related to human trafficking, forced labor, and servitude into a single framework with penalties up to life imprisonment. The law introduced civil remedies for victims, including Independent Child Trafficking Guardians, and required large firms to report supply chain slavery risks annually from 2016. It addressed an estimated 13,000 potential victims in the UK, drawing from international standards like the UN Palermo Protocol while critics noted enforcement challenges in global chains.[94] In the U.S., the Supreme Court in Glossip v. Gross on June 29, 2015, upheld Oklahoma's use of midazolam in lethal injections, rejecting Eighth Amendment challenges despite evidence of prolonged suffering in prior executions.[95] The 5-4 ruling shifted the burden to inmates to prove alternative methods, preserving capital punishment in 31 states amid debates over its deterrent value and error rates. No U.S. states abolished the death penalty in 2015, with 28 executions performed.[96]Public Controversies and Movements
The Black Lives Matter movement intensified in 2015, focusing on police violence against African Americans through nationwide protests. Key events included the death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore police custody on April 19, which sparked riots and led to charges against six officers, though most were later acquitted or charges dropped.[97] In November, protests erupted over the shooting of Jamar Clark in Minneapolis, resulting in the shutdown of the Mall of America on December 23.[98] The movement influenced presidential campaigns, prompting candidates like Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders to address systemic racism in policing during meetings with activists.[99] On January 7, the Islamist attack on the Charlie Hebdo offices in Paris killed 12 people, including cartoonists, in retaliation for satirical depictions of Muhammad.[18] The assault, carried out by Saïd and Chérif Kouachi, triggered the "Je suis Charlie" solidarity movement, with millions marching worldwide in support of free speech, though it also fueled debates over Islamophobia and self-censorship in media.[18] Related attacks, including the Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege on January 9 that killed four Jews, heightened European concerns about jihadist threats.[18] The European migrant crisis dominated public discourse, with 1.3 million asylum applications in the EU, Norway, and Switzerland, primarily from Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq.[26] Over 1 million arrived by sea, straining resources and prompting protests both welcoming refugees—such as in Germany under Chancellor Angela Merkel's "Wir schaffen das" policy—and opposing mass influxes due to security and cultural integration fears.[25] The crisis exacerbated divisions, with Eastern European nations resisting EU quotas and border fences erected in Hungary.[26] University campuses in the US saw waves of protests against perceived racial insensitivity and demands for diversity reforms. At the University of Missouri, student activism in November over incidents like swastikas drawn in feces led to the resignation of system president Tim Wolfe and chancellor R. Bowen Loftin.[100] Similar actions spread to Yale, where a viral email defending cultural costumes prompted faculty-student confrontations over "safe spaces," and other institutions, highlighting tensions between free expression and microaggression policies.[100] The June 17 Charleston church shooting by Dylann Roof, who killed nine African American parishioners at Emanuel AME Church, reignited controversy over Confederate symbols. Roof's manifesto and photos with the flag prompted South Carolina Governor Nikki Haley to call for its removal from state capitol grounds, achieved on July 10 after legislative votes.[101] The debate extended nationally, leading retailers like Walmart and Amazon to stop selling Confederate merchandise, with proponents viewing it as heritage and opponents as a racist emblem.[102] Undercover videos released by the Center for Medical Progress starting July 14 alleged Planned Parenthood profited from fetal tissue sales, sparking congressional investigations and Republican efforts to defund the organization.[103] Planned Parenthood denied illegality, asserting discussions involved legal reimbursements for donations, while analyses found videos edited to mislead; no federal charges resulted against the group, but filmmakers David Daleiden and Sandra Merritt faced felony indictments in Texas and California.[104] [105] The November 13 Paris attacks by ISIS operatives killed 130 and injured over 350, amplifying public fears of Islamist terrorism and linking to migration debates, as attackers included European nationals radicalized abroad.[106] The assaults at the Bataclan theater and other sites prompted France to declare a state of emergency and influenced European opinion toward stricter borders and counter-terror measures.[106]Demographics and Society
World Population Statistics
In 2015, the global population reached 7.3 billion people, according to estimates from the United Nations Population Division.[107] The annual growth rate stood at approximately 1.18 percent, adding about 83 million individuals that year.[107] This marked a continuation of decelerating growth from prior decades, driven by declining fertility rates and varying regional dynamics, with the global total fertility rate at 2.5 children per woman.[107] Population distribution remained heavily concentrated in Asia, which accounted for 60 percent of the world total at 4.393 billion people, followed by Africa at 16 percent with 1.186 billion.[107] Europe held 10 percent (738 million), while Latin America and the Caribbean comprised 9 percent (634 million); Northern America and Oceania together made up the remaining 5 percent, with 358 million and 39 million residents, respectively.[107] Africa exhibited the fastest regional growth at 2.55 percent annually during the 2010-2015 period, reflecting higher fertility and youthful demographics compared to slower-growing regions like Europe.[107]| Major Area | Population (millions) | Percentage of World Total |
|---|---|---|
| Asia | 4,393 | 60% |
| Africa | 1,186 | 16% |
| Europe | 738 | 10% |
| Latin America and Caribbean | 634 | 9% |
| Northern America | 358 | 5% |
| Oceania | 39 | <1% |
Notable Births
Princess Charlotte Elizabeth Diana of Wales was born at 08:34 BST on 2 May 2015 at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, weighing 8 lb 3 oz (3.71 kg), as the second child and only daughter of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge.[108] Her birth, announced via an official bulletin on an easel outside Buckingham Palace, marked her as fourth in line to the British throne at the time, generating widespread media coverage due to the continued popularity of the British royal family.[108] Saint West, the second child and first son of American celebrities Kim Kardashian and Kanye West, was born on 5 December 2015 at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, arriving five weeks premature via cesarean section.[109] The birth followed a high-profile pregnancy complicated by placenta accreta, and the child's name, chosen by his father, drew significant tabloid attention amid the parents' reality television fame and music industry prominence.[110] Maxima Chan Zuckerberg, commonly known as Max, the first child of Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg and physician Priscilla Chan, was born in late November 2015 in the San Francisco Bay Area.[111] The couple publicly announced her arrival on 1 December 2015 via Zuckerberg's Facebook post, pledging to donate 99 percent of their shares in the company to philanthropy in her honor, which amplified media interest given the parents' wealth and technological influence.[112] Other births garnering attention included Pauline Sinclair, daughter of actor Vin Diesel, born on 16 March 2015 and named posthumously after the late actor Paul Walker, reflecting Diesel's film franchise connections.[113] Additionally, the quintuplet daughters of reality television participants Adam and Danielle Busby—Blayke's sisters Ava Lane, Olivia Marie, Hazel Grace, Riley Paige, and Parker Kate—were delivered via cesarean on 8 April 2015 in Houston, Texas, marking the first set of all-girl quintuplets in the United States and subject to ongoing media documentation.[113] These cases highlight how parental celebrity status often confers early notability to offspring, though individual achievements remain limited given their age as of 2025.Notable Deaths
In 2015, the world lost several influential figures across entertainment, literature, science, and sports, whose contributions shaped cultural and intellectual landscapes.- Leonard Nimoy (1931–2015), American actor renowned for portraying Spock in the Star Trek franchise, died on February 27 at age 83 from end-stage chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a condition exacerbated by his history of smoking.[114][115]
- Terry Pratchett (1948–2015), British fantasy author best known for the Discworld series, which sold over 100 million copies, died on March 12 at age 66 from posterior cortical atrophy, a rare variant of Alzheimer's disease diagnosed eight years earlier.[116][117]
- B.B. King (1925–2015), American blues guitarist and singer dubbed the "King of the Blues" for hits like "The Thrill Is Gone" and his signature guitar Lucille, died on May 14 at age 89 from natural causes including small strokes linked to Type 2 diabetes; initial claims of poisoning by family members were ruled out by coroners.[118][119]
- Christopher Lee (1922–2015), British actor famed for horror roles including Count Dracula in Hammer Films and Saruman in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, died on June 7 at age 93 from heart failure and respiratory issues following hospitalization.[120]
- Oliver Sacks (1933–2015), British-American neurologist and author of bestsellers like The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, which humanized neurological disorders through case studies, died on August 30 at age 82 from metastatic ocular melanoma diagnosed nine years prior.[121]
- Yogi Berra (1925–2015), American baseball catcher and manager who won 10 World Series with the New York Yankees and became known for philosophical malapropisms like "It ain't over 'til it's over," died on September 22 at age 90 from natural causes.[122]