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Jibal

Jibal (Arabic: جبال, plural of jabal meaning "mountain") was a historical geographical term used in early Islamic times to denote the western part of Persia, encompassing the central Zagros mountain chain, including the regions of Kurdistan and Lorestān, and roughly corresponding to ancient Media.^[1] This area was bounded to the north by the Safid Rūd River and the Alborz Mountains, to the south by Khūzestān, to the west by the Mesopotamian plain, and to the east by the Great Desert.^[1] The region held significant strategic importance during the Arab conquests of the 7th century CE, with key towns such as Dinavar (captured in 642 CE), Qarmisin (640 CE), Hamadān (639/641 and 644–45 CE), Qazvin (644–45 CE), Isfahan (642/644 CE), and Ray (639–645 CE) serving as bases for military campaigns under Caliphs ʿOmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb and ʿOthmān.^[1] These settlements, including Dinavar and Nahāvand, were designated as maḥāll (quarters) affiliated with the Arab garrison cities of Kūfa and Baṣra, facilitating the integration of the conquered territories into the expanding Islamic caliphate.^[1] Jibal's position along the vital Iraq-Khorasan highway, connected via routes through Ḥulwān and Ray, further underscored its role as a conduit for trade, migration, and military movement between Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau.^[1] By the 11th century, the term "Jebāl" had largely been supplanted by ʿErāq-e ʿAjam ("Persian Iraq"), reflecting evolving administrative nomenclature under the Buyid and Seljuq dynasties, and it fell into obsolescence following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, which reshaped the region's political landscape.^[1] Despite this, Jibal's legacy endures in the study of early Islamic geography and the historical delineation of Persia's mountainous heartland.^[1]

Etymology and Name

Origin of the Name

The name "Jibāl" (جبال), often rendered as al-Jibāl, derives directly from the Arabic word "jabal," meaning "mountain," with "jibāl" serving as its plural form to describe a rugged, elevated landscape.^[1] This linguistic choice aptly captures the region's defining feature: the central Zagros mountain range, which forms a formidable barrier of highlands separating the Iranian plateau from the Mesopotamian lowlands to the west.^[1] The term first appears in early Islamic historical texts during the Umayyad period (7th–8th centuries CE), where it denotes the conquered highland territories distinct from the alluvial plains of Iraq.^[1] Accounts of the Arab conquests, such as those detailing the subjugation of Dinavar in 642 CE, Qarmisin around 640 CE, Hamadān between 639–645 CE, Isfahan in 642–644 CE, Qazvin in 644–645 CE, and Ray between 639–645 CE, employ "Jibāl" to refer to these areas as a cohesive mountainous zone.^[1] Primary sources like al-Balādhurī's Futūḥ al-Buldān and al-Ṭabarī's Taʾrīkh al-Rusul wa-l-Mulūk provide these earliest attestations, using the name to highlight the tactical and administrative challenges posed by the terrain during expansion.^[1] While rooted in the pre-Islamic Persian designation "Media" (Māh or Māda), an ancient toponym for the core area encompassing parts of the western Iranian plateau, the Arabic "Jibāl" simplified the nomenclature by prioritizing topographic characteristics over historical or ethnic connotations.^[1] This adaptation reflected the Arab geographers' emphasis on physical geography in provincial designations, a convention that persisted into the early Abbasid era.^[1]

Evolution of Designations

The designation "Jibal," reflecting its mountainous terrain, saw its most prominent usage during the 9th and 10th centuries under Abbasid administration, when it served as a standard term for the western Persian highlands in key geographical works.^[2] Early Arab geographers like al-Yaʿqūbī, in his Kitāb al-boldān (ca. 891 CE), described Jibal as encompassing cities such as Dinavar, Hamadān, Isfahan, and Ray, emphasizing its role as a distinct province between the Caspian region and Mesopotamia.^[2] Similarly, al-Istakhrī's Ketāb masālek al-mamālek (ca. 950 CE) detailed Jibal's routes, cities, and economic features, portraying it as a core Iranian region with a focus on its internal divisions and connectivity to neighboring areas.^[2] This period marked the peak of the term's application, as Abbasid-era scholars systematically mapped the Islamic world, solidifying Jibal's identity in administrative and descriptive literature. By the 12th to 14th centuries, the name Jibal gradually gave way to "ʿErāq ʿAjamī" (Persian Iraq), a designation that emerged to differentiate the Persian highlands from ʿErāq ʿArab (Arab Iraq, or Mesopotamia) amid shifting political boundaries.^[3] This transition accelerated during the Seljuk era (11th–12th centuries), when sultans governed both regions from capitals like Hamadān and Isfahan, prompting geographers and chroniclers to adopt the paired terminology for clarity; for instance, Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī's Moʿjam al-boldān (early 13th century) attributes the change directly to Seljuk administrative practices.^[3] In Mongol-period sources, such as Ḥamd Allāh Mostawfī's Nozhat al-qolūb (ca. 1340 CE), Jibal had largely faded from use, with the author referring exclusively to ʿErāq ʿAjamī as comprising nine tūmāns (administrative districts) yielding significant revenues, underscoring the term's entrenchment in post-Abbasid Persian historiography.^[3]

Geography

Location and Extent

Jibal, known in Arabic as al-Jibāl (the mountains), was a historical province in the early Islamic period encompassing the core area of western and central Iran, approximately coterminous with the ancient region of Media.^[1] This mountainous terrain, from which the name derives, formed the central part of the Zagros mountain chain, including areas now associated with Kurdistan and Lorestān.^[1] The province's boundaries were somewhat ill-defined and subject to fluctuation during the early Islamic era, but generally spanned from the Alborz Mountains and the Safidrud River in the north to the lowland regions bordering Khuzestan in the south.^[1] To the west and southwest, it extended to the point where the Zagros Mountains met the Mesopotamian plain, marking its interface with Iraq, while the northwestern edge approached the territories of Azerbaijan.^[1] In the east, the fringes of the Great Desert (Dasht-e Kavir) served as a natural limit.^[1] In terms of spatial scope, Jibal included several key urban centers that defined its administrative and economic heartland, such as Dinavar, Qarmisin (later Kermanshah), Hamadan, Qazvin, Isfahan, and Ray.^[1] These locations roughly correspond to modern Iranian provinces including Hamadan, Isfahan, Tehran (encompassing ancient Ray), Qazvin, and portions of Markazi, with extensions into adjacent areas of Kurdistan and Lorestān.^[1] The overall extent covered a significant portion of western Persia, later referred to as ʿErāq-e ʿAjam (Persian Iraq).^[1]

Topography and Climate

The Jibal region is dominated by the central portion of the Zagros Mountains, a vast fold-and-thrust belt characterized by rugged highlands and intermontane plateaus that form its defining topographic features.^[1] Elevations in this area commonly reach up to 4,000 meters, with peaks such as those in the Dena range exceeding 4,400 meters, creating steep escarpments and deeply incised valleys that have historically shaped settlement patterns and connectivity.^[4] Fertile valleys, such as those surrounding Hamadan and Rayy, nestle between these highlands, providing arable land amid the otherwise challenging terrain.^[5] This mountainous landscape, which gave the region its name meaning "mountains" in Arabic, also experiences significant seismic activity owing to its position along the convergent boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates, resulting in frequent earthquakes that influence local geology and human adaptation.^[1]^[6] Rivers like the Qareh Su in the western sectors carve through the plateaus, feeding into broader drainage systems and supporting limited but vital riparian zones in an otherwise arid setting.^[7] These waterways, along with seasonal streams, contribute to the erosion that has sculpted the Zagros folds over millions of years, forming a mosaic of basins and ridges.^[8] The climate of Jibal varies markedly with elevation and proximity to the mountain flanks, exhibiting a semi-arid Mediterranean pattern in lower elevations with dry summers and wetter winters.^[9] In the lowlands and plateaus, summers are hot, often exceeding 35°C, while winters bring cold snaps dipping to -10°C or lower in the highlands, where frost and snow are common from November to March.^[9] Annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 600 mm in the uplands, concentrated in winter and early spring due to Mediterranean cyclones affecting the western slopes, which supports seasonal agriculture in valleys despite the overall aridity in eastern sectors where precipitation falls below 200 mm.^[9] This climatic variability, intensified by mountain-induced winds, underscores the region's environmental diversity and its role in historical resource distribution.^[9]

History

Formation in the Early Islamic Period

The Arab conquest of the region corresponding to Jibal began soon after the Muslim armies overran Iraq during the caliphate of ʿOmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb (r. 634–644) and the early years of ʿOthman b. ʿAffān (r. 644–656), integrating it into the expanding Islamic domain. Key victories included the capture of Dinavar in 642, Qarmisin shortly after 640, Hamadān (initially around 639 or 641, finalized by 644–645), Isfahan in 642 or 644, Qazvin in 644–645, and Ray between 639 and 645. These campaigns, documented by early historians, subdued the remnants of Sassanid resistance and established Arab control over the mountainous terrain.^[1] Initially, the conquered territories were administered as part of the larger Jund of Iraq, with revenues directed to support Arab warriors in garrisons at Kufa and Basra for ongoing eastern expansions. Sub-districts such as Māh al-Kufa (centered at Dinavar and Nehavand) and Māh al-Basra were created to manage fiscal obligations and military logistics, reflecting the ad hoc integration of Persian lands into the Rashidun and early Umayyad systems. Permanent Arab settlements emerged, including estates granted to tribal leaders like Abu Dulaf near Karaj, which helped consolidate authority amid local complexities.^[1] By around 700 CE, under Umayyad rule, Jibal was formalized as a distinct administrative district, centered on Ray and linked to the vital Iraq-Khorasan highway via Hulwan, facilitating trade and troop movements. This reorganization transitioned the region from its Sassanid-era designation as Media—a core province of ancient Iranian heartlands—to a structured Islamic territorial unit.^[1] Jibal's strategic position proved crucial during the Abbasid Revolution (747–750 CE), where local Persian populations, including mawālī (non-Arab clients), provided vital support against Umayyad oppression, fueled by grievances over discriminatory taxes and Arab-centric policies. Abbasid commander Abū Moslem al-Khorāsānī led forces westward from Marv through Ray and Jibal into Iraq, leveraging this regional backing to decisively overthrow the Umayyads. In the revolution's aftermath, early governors were appointed directly from the new Abbasid seat in Baghdad, embedding Jibal firmly within the caliphal administration and underscoring its evolution into a key Islamic province.^[10]^[1]

Abbasid Provincial Era

During the Abbasid era, Jibal solidified its status as a distinct province, or iqlim, by the mid-8th century, encompassing the mountainous regions of western and central Iran, including key cities such as Rayy, Isfahan, and Hamadan. This administrative consolidation followed the initial integration of the area into the caliphate's structure after the Arab conquests, with governance often linked to nearby provinces like Azerbaijan for strategic oversight. Rayy emerged as the primary capital due to its central location on trade routes connecting the Iranian plateau to Mesopotamia and the Caspian region, facilitating control over fertile valleys and passes that were vital for defense and commerce; it retained this role until the early 10th century, when shifting power dynamics began to erode direct Abbasid authority.^[11] Jibal experienced significant unrest during this period, exemplified by rebellions that challenged caliphal control, such as the uprising initiated by Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar in 861 CE, which began in Sistan but expanded westward toward Iraq, threatening Abbasid holdings beyond Jibal as part of his broader campaigns against local governors by the late 860s. These disturbances, including earlier Khurramiyya revolts in the 770s and 780s that reached Rayy, highlighted the province's volatile socio-religious landscape, where movements drawing on Abu Muslim's legacy and local Persian sentiments often erupted among farmers and urban populations. By the 930s, Jibal's integration into the Daylamite sphere marked a pivotal shift, as the Buyid dynasty, originating from the Caspian Daylam region, captured Rayy in 934 CE and established dominance, subordinating the area to their control while nominally acknowledging Abbasid suzerainty.^[12]^[11]

Rule by Local Dynasties

Following the weakening of Abbasid central authority in the mid-9th century, the Dulafid dynasty emerged as semi-autonomous governors of Jibal, serving as vassals to the caliphs from 861 to 898 CE.^[13] This Arab family, originating from the Tayy tribe, was initially appointed by Caliph al-Mu'tasim in 833 CE but gained hereditary control over the region known as al-Igharayn (the two fiefs), encompassing areas around Karaj, Isfahan, and Hamadan.^[13] Under rulers like Abu Dulaf al-Qasim (r. 247–282 AH/861–895 CE), the Dulafids managed tax collection and military affairs with minimal oversight from Samarra or Baghdad, marking an early phase of local autonomy amid broader provincial rebellions.^[13] Their rule ended in 897/898 CE with the death of the last ruler, Abu Layla al-Harith, in battle, though Dulafid influence lingered through coinage and alliances until full integration into succeeding powers.^[13] The Buyid dynasty, of Daylamite Iranian origin, extended their conquests into Jibal starting in 934 CE, establishing dominance over the northern regions including Rayy and Hamadan until 1055 CE.^[14] Led by figures such as Rukn al-Dawla Hasan (r. 335–366 AH/946–976 CE), who made Rayy his capital, the Buyids displaced remnants of Dulafid and Samanid authority, unifying much of western Iran under Shi'i-influenced rule while exerting control over the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad from 945 CE onward.^[14] Their governance emphasized military administration through Daylamite troops and fostered cultural patronage in cities like Rayy, but internal divisions among Buyid branches weakened their hold by the early 11th century.^[14] In parallel, the Kakuyid dynasty, also Daylamite, arose in southern Jibal around 1008 CE as initial governors under Buyid suzerainty, centering their power in Isfahan under Ala' al-Dawla Muhammad (r. ca. 1008–1041 CE).^[15] The Kakuyids expanded by annexing Hamadan in 1023 CE and defeating local coalitions at Nahavand in 1028 CE, maintaining independence until becoming Seljuk tributaries after 1041 CE, with residual rule in areas like Yazd persisting until 1141 CE.^[15] The arrival of the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century precipitated the dissolution of Buyid and Kakuyid authority in Jibal, integrating the region into their vast empire by mid-century. Tughril Beg captured Rayy in 1042 CE and Isfahan in 1050–1051 CE, ending Kakuyid independence and Buyid control in the north, while his successor Alp Arslan consolidated Jibal as a core province with Hamadan under Seljuk atabegs. This conquest shifted power dynamics toward Sunni Turkish administration, though local Iranian elites retained influence in governance. By the 13th century, Mongol invasions under Hulagu Khan in 1256–1258 CE further fragmented Seljuk holdings, destroying key cities like Hamadan and leading to the absorption of Jibal into the Ilkhanate, a Mongol polity that ruled western Iran until 1335 CE and incorporated surviving local dynasties into broader imperial structures.^[16]

Administration

Governance under the Caliphates

Under the Umayyad Caliphate, the region of Jibal was initially administered as part of the broader province of Iraq, with governors appointed directly from Damascus to oversee tax collection and maintain order amid local Persian and Arab populations. As the caliphate expanded, Jibal emerged as a distinct administrative unit by the late 7th century, reflecting the need for localized control over its mountainous terrain and diverse ethnic groups.^[17] The Abbasid Caliphate formalized a hierarchical structure for Jibal's governance, with governors (known as amirs or walis) appointed by the caliph and reporting to the central administration in Baghdad or, during the Samarra period (836–892 CE), to the temporary capital at Samarra.^[18] These governors, often drawn from Arab military elites or trusted families, managed provincial affairs including revenue, security, and justice, while submitting regular reports and remittances to the caliphal court to ensure loyalty and fiscal accountability.^[13] For instance, Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809 CE) appointed Abu Dulaf al-Qasim of the Dulafid family as governor of Jibal, granting him iqta' fiefs in exchange for military service and tax exemptions in designated areas.^[13] Later, Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902 CE) reasserted direct control over Jibal, dispatching troops to suppress local unrest and restore Abbasid authority.^[18] The Dulafids continued as hereditary governors through much of the 9th century, exemplifying how the caliphs balanced central oversight with semi-autonomous provincial leadership to stabilize the eastern frontiers.^[13] Tax collection in Jibal followed the centralized diwan al-kharaj system, a bureaucratic office established under the early Abbasids to assess and gather land taxes (kharaj) from agricultural lands, ensuring a steady flow of revenue to the imperial treasury.^[19] Provincial officials under the governor coordinated with diwan agents to survey lands, levy rates based on crop yields, and remit funds to Baghdad, often adapting assessments to Jibal's varied terrain of fertile valleys and arid highlands.^[19] This structure, inherited and refined from Umayyad practices, prioritized efficiency while incorporating local Persian administrative expertise to minimize revolts over fiscal burdens.^[19] Militarily, Jibal was integrated into the Abbasid provincial jund framework, functioning as a defensive district with garrisons stationed in key cities like Rayy and Hamadan to counter Byzantine raids from the northwest and quell internal uprisings by Kharijites or Zoroastrian holdouts.^[18] These forces, comprising Arab, Persian, and later Turkic troops under the governor's command, were funded through the diwan al-jund and played a critical role in securing trade routes and borders, as seen during al-Mu'tadid's campaigns to reclaim the province from semi-independent warlords.^[18] Rayy, as the provincial hub, hosted a permanent garrison that facilitated rapid response to threats, underscoring Jibal's strategic importance in the caliphate's eastern defenses.^[17] The judicial system in Jibal relied on qadis appointed by the caliph or governor to apply Sharia principles in urban centers, resolving disputes over property, contracts, and family matters through formalized courts often held in mosques.^[20] In rural districts with strong Persian traditions, qadis integrated elements of customary law (urf) alongside Islamic rulings, allowing for hybrid practices in inheritance and land tenure to accommodate Zoroastrian and local communities without undermining caliphal authority.^[20] This pragmatic approach, evident from the 8th century onward, helped legitimize Abbasid rule by blending Arab-Islamic norms with indigenous legal customs, though qadis remained accountable to provincial governors for oversight.^[20]

Administrative Divisions and Cities

Jibal was administratively organized into several kura (districts), grouped into four main areas inherited and adapted from Sassanian precedents: the northern district encompassing Rayy and Qazvin as gateways to the Caspian and central Asian territories; the central Hamadan district, including Nihavand, for local governance and oversight of surrounding rural areas; the Isfahan district in the southeast; and the western Kirman-shahin district including Kirmanshah. This structure allowed for efficient tax collection and judicial administration under Abbasid oversight.^[17] Among the notable cities, Rayy stood as the primary administrative hub, featuring fortified walls, multiple gates, and suburbs that supported its role in provincial coordination. Its suburbs included villages each containing over 10,000 men (per Ibn Hawkal), underscoring its status as one of the most populous urban centers in the region during the 9th century.^[17] Hamadan, ancient Ecbatana, functioned as a vital military outpost, with extensive walls spanning 12,000 paces and strategic positioning on rivers like the Gavmaha.^[17] Isfahan emerged as a prominent urban center, boasting a circuit of walls measuring 21,000 paces and organized into distinct quarters, facilitating regional administration.^[17] Governors for these cities and districts were typically appointed directly by the caliph in Baghdad to ensure loyalty and control. The province's infrastructure emphasized connectivity, with major roads linking Jibal to the imperial core. The Great Khurasan Road formed the backbone, running from Baghdad through Hulwan, Kirmanshah, Hamadan, and Rayy before extending to Khorasan, enabling swift troop movements and official travel. Additional routes connected to Qazvin in the north and Isfahan in the south, forming a network of caravan paths. The Abbasid barid postal system operated along these roads, with stations (manāzil) stationed at intervals for couriers to relay messages and intelligence between the province and the capital. This system, managed centrally, ensured reliable communication across Jibal's districts.^[21]

Economy

Agricultural and Pastoral Activities

The agriculture of Jibal relied heavily on irrigation systems in its fertile valleys, where qanats—underground aqueducts channeling water from mountain aquifers—and seasonal rivers supported cultivation in areas such as the Hamadan plain.^[22] These methods enabled the growth of staple grains like wheat and barley, alongside fruit orchards producing pomegranates and grapes, which thrived in the region's temperate climate and alluvial soils. The Hamadan plain, in particular, benefited from qanats originating in the Alvand Mountains, a practice dating back to the Achaemenid era but continued under Islamic rule to sustain intensive farming despite the area's semi-arid conditions.^[22]^[23] Pastoral nomadism complemented settled agriculture in Jibal's highlands, where Kurdish and Lur tribes practiced seasonal herding of sheep and goats, leveraging the rugged terrain for grazing. These mobile communities produced wool, dairy products, and meat, which were exchanged in local markets, forming a vital part of the rural economy alongside farming. The tribes' transhumant patterns—moving livestock to higher pastures in summer and lower valleys in winter—reflected adaptations to the province's varied topography, ensuring resilience in marginal lands unsuitable for large-scale crops.^[24] Crop yields in Jibal's irrigated lands underpinned the provincial economy, with kharaj land taxes reflecting their productivity; for instance, assessments in Qom, a key district within Jibal, exceeded 3 million dirhams by the late 9th century, though actual collections averaged around 80% of estimates due to factors like water dependency and variable harvests. Rates varied by crop—3 to 15 dirhams per jarīb for grains like wheat and barley—highlighting the fertile yet vulnerable nature of these water-reliant fields. This taxation system, measured via land surveys (misāḥa), underscored agriculture's role as the economic backbone, funding Abbasid administration while tying rural prosperity to effective irrigation maintenance.^[25]

Trade and Resources

Jibāl played a crucial role in the Abbasid economy as a conduit for overland trade along branches of the Silk Road, particularly the Iraq-Khorasan highway that traversed the region from Ḥolwān in the west through Rayy to the east, connecting Mesopotamia with Central Asia, China, and routes extending to India.^[1] Rayy, as the northeastern hub of Jibāl, facilitated the exchange of locally produced textiles and agricultural goods—such as grains and fruits—for imported spices, silks, and porcelains from eastern markets, underscoring its position as a vital commercial node.^[26]^[27] Isfahan, another major urban center in the province, supported internal commerce through its expansive markets, where merchants from surrounding areas gathered to trade regional products.^[1] The region's natural resources bolstered its economic significance, with iron and copper deposits in the Zagros Mountains exploited for metallurgical production; for instance, iron ore from areas near Hamadān and Rayy was processed into tools, weapons, and decorative items, contributing to specialized crafts.^[28] Timber from the northern Alborz forests, adjacent to Jibāl's boundaries, supplied construction materials and fuel, while salt extraction from the fringes of the Dasht-e Kavir desert provided an essential commodity for preservation and trade.^[29]^[30] Jibāl's trade activities generated substantial revenue for the Abbasid treasury via tariffs on caravans and the ushr tithe on agricultural output used in commerce, with the province's fiscal contributions supporting military campaigns and imperial administration.^[31] Rayy functioned as a key minting center, striking silver dirhams that circulated widely across the caliphate, exemplifying the region's integration into the broader monetary system.^[32]

Society and Culture

Demographics and Languages

During the Abbasid era in the 9th century, the region of Jibal, encompassing parts of western Iran including the Zagros Mountains and major urban centers like Rayy and Isfahan, supported a substantial population reflecting a mix of indigenous Iranian groups and Arab settlers introduced following the Muslim conquests, with urban areas exhibiting higher density due to their roles as administrative and economic hubs. Rayy, serving as the provincial capital, and Isfahan were particularly populous, hosting tens of thousands of residents each and attracting migrants through trade and governance opportunities.^[33]^[1] The ethnic composition of Jibal featured a Persian majority in the cities, where settled communities engaged in agriculture, craftsmanship, and administration. Nomadic groups, including Lurs and Kurds, predominated in the mountainous areas, maintaining pastoral lifestyles that influenced regional social structures through tribal alliances and seasonal migrations. Arab settlers, primarily from garrisons established after the 7th-century conquests, integrated into rural estates and urban life, forming a minority but significant element that facilitated cultural exchanges. These dynamics shaped a diverse society, with Persians dominating urban elites while mountain groups preserved semi-autonomous traditions. Urban centers like Rayy and Isfahan also served as hubs for Persian scholarship and literature, contributing to the development of New Persian language and culture under Abbasid patronage.^[1]^[34]^[35] Linguistically, Jibal was characterized by predominantly Northwestern Iranian dialects, known collectively as Fahla or Pahlawi in Arabic sources, spoken by the local Persian, Lur, and Kurdish populations. These dialects reflected the region's Median heritage and persisted in everyday use among rural and nomadic communities, with variants such as Southern Tati in areas around Qazvin. Arabic served as the administrative lingua franca under Abbasid rule, employed in official documents, courts, and scholarship, though it coexisted with the Iranian vernaculars rather than fully supplanting them. This bilingual environment underscored Jibal's position as a bridge between Arab-Islamic governance and indigenous Iranian traditions.^[35]

Religious Composition

During the Abbasid era, the region of Jibal was predominantly inhabited by Sunni Muslims, as the caliphate promoted Sunni orthodoxy across its provinces, including administrative centers like Hamadan and Rayy.^[36] Zoroastrian communities persisted in rural areas of Jibal into the 9th century, though their numbers declined due to gradual conversions encouraged by social and economic pressures under Muslim rule; by the late 10th century, significant Zoroastrian populations still remained in the province. With the rise of the Buyid dynasty in the 10th century, Shia influences grew in Jibal, as the Buyids—initially Zaydi and later Twelver Shia—controlled the region from their base in Rayy starting in 943, patronizing Shia scholars and rituals without strictly imposing their faith on the Sunni majority to avoid unrest.^[37] Christian minorities, particularly Nestorians, and Jewish communities were present in urban areas, where they contributed to local economies as dhimmī populations.^[38] Religion played a key role in governance, with mosques serving as central community hubs for education, justice, and social gatherings under both Abbasid and Buyid administrations. Conversions to Islam were incentivized through relief from the jizya poll tax imposed on non-Muslims, facilitating the integration of Zoroastrian, Christian, and Jewish populations into the Islamic framework over time.^[39]

Legacy

Transition to Later Names

The term "Jibal," denoting the mountainous highlands of western Iran, began to wane in usage after the Seljuk conquests of the 11th century, as the region fragmented into semi-autonomous atabegates and local principalities under Turkish rulers.^[11] This political decentralization, marked by the division of former Buyid territories among Seljuk appointees like the Eldiguzids in Azerbaijan and the Salghurids in Fars, eroded the unified administrative identity associated with "Jibal."^[11] Amid this fragmentation, the designation "Iraq Ajami" (Persian Iraq) gained further prominence in geographical sources from the 11th-12th centuries to refer to the Persian highlands, distinguishing them from the Arab-dominated lowlands of Iraq Arabi. Key factors included intensified cultural Persianization, with Seljuk courts promoting New Persian as an administrative and literary language, and the need to delineate Iranian territories from Arab Iraq in response to nomadic incursions and dynastic rivalries.^[11] By the Ilkhanid era in the 14th century, "Jibal" had been entirely supplanted by "Iraq Ajami" in official and travel literature, signifying the region's full integration into broader Persianate administrative frameworks under Mongol rule. Ibn Battuta, traversing the area in the 1330s, refers to the province as Iraq al-Ajam, the contemporary name for the region formerly known as al-Jibal, highlighting its ancient Media roots while noting the contemporary shift. Historical chronicles and fiscal records further illustrate this evolution, with Seljuk-era texts like those of Imad al-Din al-Isfahani occasionally blending terms, while Ilkhanid tax registers and waqf documents consistently employ "Iraq" variants for revenue collection in the highlands, abandoning "Jibal" entirely by the mid-14th century.^[11]

Historical Significance

Jibal served as a pivotal cradle for the revival of Persian culture during the 10th and 11th centuries, particularly under the patronage of the Buyid and Kakuyid dynasties. The Buyids, who controlled much of Jibal from the 930s with Ray as their capital, fostered a renaissance in arts and sciences, transforming the region into a vibrant intellectual hub. Rulers like Rokn al-Dawla and ʿAżod al-Dawla promoted the use of Persian in courtly affairs and literature, reviving Iranian traditions and kingship symbols such as the title šāhānšāh, which underscored a burgeoning Persian identity amid Abbasid Arab dominance.^[14] This era saw the establishment of libraries and scholarly circles in Ray, contributing to the early development of New Persian literature until disruptions like the 1029 sacking by Ghaznavid forces. The Kakuyids, succeeding the Buyids in southern and western Jibal from around 1008, continued this legacy by sheltering philosophers like Avicenna, for whom ʿAlāʾ al-Dawla commissioned the Dāneš-nāma-ye ʿalāʾi, and patronizing poets such as Moʿezzi, thereby integrating Deylamite heritage into the broader Persian cultural revival.^[15] Their support for madrasas, mosques, and irrigation in areas like Yazd further advanced scientific and literary pursuits, influencing the Islamic world's intellectual landscape.^[15] The region's strategic position in central Iran positioned Jibal as a critical buffer zone in medieval power dynamics, particularly as Abbasid authority waned in the 9th and 10th centuries. Jibal's mountainous terrain and central location helped local Iranian dynasties like the Buyids maintain autonomy, indirectly stabilizing the caliphate's eastern territories against nomadic incursions from Central Asia and preventing deeper threats into core Islamic lands.^[40] This role extended to shaping broader medieval balances, where Jibal's control over key routes between Iraq and Khurasan allowed dynasties to mediate between Arab, Turkish, and Persian forces. The Mongol invasions of the 13th century further highlighted its vulnerability and importance; Hülegü Khan's campaigns from 1256 devastated Jibal's cities, including the destruction of Isfahan and Hamadan, which disrupted qanat irrigation systems and depopulated settled areas, yet also facilitated the integration of the region into the Ilkhanate, altering long-term geopolitical alignments in the Iranian plateau.^[41]^[42] In contemporary times, Jibal forms the core of central Iran, encompassing provinces like Isfahan and Tehran, where its historical legacy endures through preserved archaeological sites. The ruins of Rayy, an ancient capital within Jibal dating back to Parthian times and a major Islamic-era center, exemplify this heritage, featuring pre-Islamic mounds like Cheshmeh Ali and Sasanian structures that highlight the region's continuous cultural significance from antiquity through the medieval period.^[43] Recent excavations, including the 2024 discovery of a Sialk III period skeleton at Cheshmeh Ali (as of November 2024), continue to reveal prehistoric layers.^[44] These sites, amid ongoing preservation efforts, underscore Jibal's enduring impact on Iranian identity and global historical narratives.

References

[1]
JEBĀL - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 2008 · JEBĀL, in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia.
[2]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/jebal
[3]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/eraq-e-ajami
[4]
[PDF] World map of al-Istakhri DATE: 1193 AUTHOR - Cartographic Images
Al-Balkhi and al-Istakhri were both patronized by the Samanid rulers of Persia, and the emphasis is very much on the Iranian area. According to Karen Pinto due ...Missing: Ya' qubi
[5]
Zagros Mountains, Iran - The Geological Society
The Zagros Mountains are a belt of deformed rocks in southeastern Iran, part of the Alpine-Himalayan chain, formed by plate collisions, with peaks between 3000 ...
[6]
Urbanization and Irrigation of the Iranian Plateau - jstor
The region thus defined enters history as Media. At the beginning of the Islamic period it is known simply as Jibal (The Mountains), and later as Persian Iraq ...
[7]
[PDF] The modernization of an Iranian city : the case study of Kermanshah
began a project to obtain drinking water eventually from the Qareh-Su River. (Beaumont, 1974). (Fig. 4.5). In 1966, 16,633 housing units from a total of ...
[8]
CLIMATE - Encyclopaedia Iranica
The Zagros area is an exception in that it belongs to Troll and Paffen's climate type IV 1, the dry-summer Mediterranean climates with humid winters.
[9]
ʿABBASID CALIPHATE - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Under the ʿAbbasids, it was the Khorasanian guards of the caliphs who had the dominant place in the army; and Persian officials and secretaries, as well as ...
[10]
[PDF] THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN - ketab3
... history of the. Islamic oecumene. Since the overwhelming majority of the sources are in Arabic, and more concerned with general Islamic affairs than with.
[11]
https://ketab3.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/the_cambridge_history_of_iran__volume_4-from-the-arab-invasion-to-the-saljuqs.pdf
[12]
The Dulafid Governors of Jibāl and their Coinage - jstor
2 With Hārūn al- Rashīd's assignment of Abū Dulaf al-Qāsim as governor of Jibāl his centre became īghārs (al-īghārayn), or fiefs, a tax-free area granted to ...
[13]
BUYIDS - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Āl-e Būya), dynasty of Daylamite origin ruling over the south and western part of Iran and over Iraq from the middle of the 4th/10th to the middle of the 5th/ ...Missing: Jibal | Show results with:Jibal<|separator|>
[14]
KĀKUYIDS - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Dec 15, 2010 · KĀKUYIDS [KAKWAYHIDS], a dynasty of Deylamite origin that ruled in western Persia, in Jebāl and Kurdistan about 1008-51 as independent ...Missing: Dulafid Seljuk Mongol
[15]
MONGOLS - Encyclopaedia Iranica
A branch of Čengiz Khan's family, known as the Il-khans, ruled in Iran until 754/1353; and two of the dynasties which subsequently governed in the western ...Missing: Jibal | Show results with:Jibal
[16]
[PDF] The Lands Of The Eastern Caliphate - Cristo Raul.org
to come to an end. The present work is also the complement of Baghddd under t/te Abbasid Caliphate published in 1900, and carries forward the geographical ...
[17]
From Triumph to Tribulation (833–990) (Chapter 4) - The Abbasid ...
Apr 28, 2021 · An experienced soldier, al-Muʿtadid restored direct Abbasid control over al-Jibal in western Iran, and appointed his son and designated ...
[18]
[PDF] Observations on the Diwan al-Kharaj and the assessment of taxes in ...
Tax incomes in Umayyad Syria included kharaj and jizya taxes, and sulh treaties. Some tax lists exist, and the 'wazifa' was a fixed tax for a period.Missing: Jibal | Show results with:Jibal
[19]
Judicial System: Islam to 19th Century
Sep 15, 2009 · The qāżi usually held court in the main mosque or at his house (Mez, p. 215). To have better control over the judiciary, the Abbasids appointed ...Missing: qadi | Show results with:qadi
[20]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/judicial-and-legal-systems-iv-judicial-system-from-the-advent-of-islam-through-the-19th-century/
[21]
Hamedan, a tale of ancient origins and qanat legacy - Iran Daily
The historical records leave no doubt that Hamedan has always enjoyed plenty of qanats and springs and its urban organization was under the influence of water ...
[22]
BARLEY - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Since those times, barley has been throughout history one of the two staple crops in the Iranian world, as a constant staple but subordinate to wheat, and is ...
[23]
ʿAŠĀYER - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Nevertheless, the principal occupation of the nomadic tribes is sheep and goat breeding. Their income, wealth, and power all depend on its vicissitudes ...Missing: Jibal | Show results with:Jibal
[24]
FISCAL SYSTEM iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Taxes were payed in installments (Qomī taxpayers preferred monthly payments) and entered into a register as they came in (avāraj and rūz-nāmaj). A balance was ...
[25]
Isfahan | Silk Roads Programme - UNESCO
Commerce has always been central to the growth of Isfahan, to the extent that the Safavid Shah Abbas I (1588-1629) effectively re-routed the Silk Road through ...
[26]
Map of the Silk Road at Its Height in the Late 8th Century
Feb 4, 2025 · This map illustrates the Silk Road in the late 8th century, a vast network connecting Tang China, Central Asia, the Islamic world, and Europe.<|separator|>
[27]
ĀHAN - Encyclopaedia Iranica
The Islamic period. Information on iron in Iran in this period is extensive (for a thorough survey, see Allan, Persian Metal Technology, pp. 66-100).
[28]
MINING IN IRAN ii. MINERAL INDUSTRIES - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Jul 20, 2005 · Traditionally, some small, but rich deposits of iron, lead, copper, sulphur, and red oxide as well as some other minerals had been mined, often ...
[29]
Kavir Desert | Map & Facts - Britannica
Oct 17, 2025 · Kavīr Desert, great salt desert of north-central Iran. Located in a basin southeast of the Elburz Mountains, it is approximately 240 miles (390 km) wide.
[30]
[PDF] J:\mesopotamia\Abbasid Collpase-7.wpd - Projects at Harvard
May 2, 2017 · This work was managed by an irrigation ministry, the diwan al-Kharaj. It employed engineers, land surveyors, supervisors of water levels ...
[31]
1649. Abbasid silver dirham, al-Rayy 147 AH - Khalili Collections
Abbasid silver dirham, al-Rayy 147 AH. Item No: 1649. Acc No: AR0297. Ruler: temp. al-Mansur (754-775 AD). Dynasty: Abbasid Caliphate. Denomination:.
[32]
Islamic Iran | Asia Society
In the ninth and tenth centuries urbanization on an unprecedented scale changed the character of the country. Numerous cities arose with populations at least in ...<|separator|>
[33]
Arab Ethnonyms ('Ajam, 'Arab, Badū and Turk): The Kurdish Case as ...
the first section deals with the Kurds. It includes a general section on the conditions of the inhabitants of Jibál. The second section.
[34]
[PDF] the rise of the new persian language
Apr 13, 2020 · Page 9. PRE-3RD/9TH-CENTURY LITERARY LANGUAGES. Indeed from the 2nd/8th century onwards, the principal cultural language of Iran was Arabic ...
[35]
[PDF] A History of Shiʿi Islam - OAPEN Library
Buyid capital, as the guest of the local Buyid ruler Rukn al-Dawla (r. 366–387/977–997). He also produced seminal works on the doctrine of the twelve imams ...
[36]
[PDF] Chapter Twenty-one Abbasid Civilization and the Culture of Islam
The Abbasids identified and employed men - usually Nestorian Christians - who were fluent in ... Jewish or Christian scriptures. The califs had many.
[37]
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/101408/9780755613151.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[38]
Buyid dynasty | Founder, History, & Facts - Britannica
Oct 10, 2025 · Buyid dynasty, (945–1055), Islamic dynasty of pronounced Iranian and Shiʿi character that provided native rule in western Iran and in IraqMissing: Seljuk | Show results with:Seljuk
[39]
Iran - Mongol Invasion, Persian Empire, Middle East | Britannica
A second Mongol invasion began when Genghis Khan's grandson Hülegü Khan crossed the Oxus in 1256 and destroyed the Assassin fortress at Alamūt. With the ...Missing: Jibal | Show results with:Jibal
[40]
Iran - INVASIONS OF THE MONGOLS AND TAMERLANE
The Mongol invasion was disastrous to the Iranians. Destruction of qanat irrigation systems destroyed the pattern of relatively continuous settlement.
[41]
Rayy | Iran, Map, History, & Facts - Britannica
Nov 1, 2025 · During the reign of the Muslim caliph al-Mahdī in the 8th century, the city grew in importance until it was rivaled in western Asia only by ...Missing: Jibal Abbasid