Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate was the third major Islamic caliphate, established in 750 CE through a revolution that overthrew the Umayyad dynasty and ruled until the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE.[1][2][3] Named after Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of Muhammad, the dynasty claimed descent from the Prophet's family to legitimize its rule, drawing support from Persian and Shi'a elements disillusioned with Umayyad Arab-centrism.[1][4] Under caliphs like al-Mansur, who founded Baghdad as the new capital in 762 CE, and Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasids centralized administration through a Persian-influenced bureaucracy, expanding trade networks and fostering urban growth that made Baghdad a metropolis rivaling contemporary Constantinople.[1][2] The caliphate's peak in the eighth and ninth centuries marked a period of intellectual flourishing, with state-sponsored translation movements preserving and synthesizing Greek, Indian, and Persian texts in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, exemplified by the House of Wisdom in Baghdad.[5][6] Despite these cultural and economic advances, the Abbasids faced persistent challenges from provincial governors asserting autonomy, sectarian tensions between Sunni orthodoxy and Mu'tazilite rationalism under al-Ma'mun, and growing dependence on Turkish mamluk troops, which eroded central authority and sparked civil wars like the fratricidal conflict between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun.[3][7] By the tenth century, the caliphate fragmented into semi-independent dynasties such as the Buyids and Seljuks, reducing caliphs to figureheads while real power shifted to military sultans, setting the stage for the empire's ultimate collapse under external invasions.[7][4]History
Abbasid Revolution and Umayyad Massacres (747–750)
The Abbasid Revolution stemmed from accumulated grievances against Umayyad governance, including favoritism toward Arab elites, burdensome taxation on non-Arab Muslims (mawali), and accusations of impiety and nepotism that alienated Persian and eastern provincial populations.[8] The Abbasids, tracing descent from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (uncle of Muhammad), leveraged clandestine da'wa networks to propagate a message of restoring rightful rule to the Prophet's kin, ambiguously appealing to both Sunni and Shi'i supporters without explicitly endorsing Alid claims.[9] In June 747 (129 AH), Abu Muslim al-Khurasani, a enigmatic figure of possible Persian or non-Arab origin, raised the black banner of rebellion in Merv, the capital of Khurasan, rallying local discontented mawali, Zoroastrian converts, and Arab settlers against the Umayyad governor Nasr ibn Sayyar.[8] Abu Muslim's forces swiftly captured key fortresses, defeating Umayyad loyalists in skirmishes and consolidating control over eastern Iran by early 749 through disciplined organization and exploitation of tribal rivalries.[9] Advancing westward, the Abbasid army under commanders like Qahtaba ibn Shabib seized Wasit and reached Kufa in September 749, where Abu al-Abbas ibn Muhammad (later al-Saffah, "the blood-shedder") was publicly proclaimed caliph on November 28, 749, marking the formal transfer of legitimacy.[10] The revolutionary momentum culminated in the Battle of the Zab River on January 25, 750, where approximately 100,000 Abbasid troops, bolstered by Khurasani cavalry and Syrian defectors, routed Caliph Marwan II's 120,000-man Umayyad army near Mosul; harsh winter conditions and low morale precipitated the Umayyad collapse, with Marwan fleeing southward.[11] Damascus fell to Abbasid forces in April 750, and Marwan was hunted down and killed in Busir, Egypt, on August 6, 750, ending Umayyad resistance in the core caliphal territories.[12] To eradicate potential claimants, al-Saffah ordered the systematic massacre of Umayyad kin, most notoriously at a feigned reconciliation banquet in 750 where assembled princes—numbering around 80 to 90—were slaughtered by Abbasid guards under Abdallah ibn Ali, their bodies trampled by horses to conceal identities.[13] This "Banquet of Blood" exemplified the revolution's ruthless consolidation, eliminating nearly the entire Umayyad royal house except for Abd al-Rahman I, who evaded capture and later founded the Emirate of Cordoba in al-Andalus.[14] Such targeted violence, while securing Abbasid primacy, underscored the causal role of dynastic elimination in stabilizing post-revolutionary rule amid lingering loyalties.[15]Early Consolidation and Expansion (750–786)
Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah, the first Abbasid caliph, reigned from 750 to 754 and focused on initial stabilization following the defeat of the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab River in early 750.[10] He relocated the administrative center from Damascus to Kufa in Iraq, a move that shifted power eastward and aligned with Abbasid support bases among Persian and Iraqi populations.[16] Al-Saffah's brief rule emphasized eliminating Umayyad remnants and rewarding key allies, such as appointing Abu Muslim as governor of Khorasan to maintain control over eastern provinces.[8] Upon al-Saffah's death in 754, his brother Abu Ja'far al-Mansur ascended as caliph, ruling until 775 and undertaking systematic consolidation of Abbasid authority. Al-Mansur suppressed internal threats, including executing the influential general Abu Muslim in 755, which sparked revolts in Khorasan led by figures like Sunpadh but were ultimately quelled by Abbasid forces.[17] To centralize power and escape the factionalism of Kufa, al-Mansur founded the round city of Baghdad (Madinat al-Salam) in 762, importing over 100,000 workers and architects to construct its walls, palaces, and infrastructure, establishing it as the new capital by 766.[18][19] This urban project not only symbolized Abbasid permanence but also facilitated administrative efficiency through proximity to trade routes and agricultural heartlands. Al-Mansur's reign saw limited territorial expansion but reinforced borders, with forces dispatched to Cappadocia in 757 to counter Byzantine incursions and continued pushes into Central Asia to secure Khorasan against local unrest.[20] Administrative reforms under al-Mansur laid foundations for a more bureaucratic state, including streamlined taxation and provincial governance to extract resources effectively from diverse regions. Successor al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) built on this by creating specialized diwans for military, chancery, and tax affairs, while appointing qadis to enforce judicial uniformity, fostering internal peace and economic recovery.[21] Al-Mahdi's policies promoted stability, with revolts diminishing and trade flourishing, though military efforts focused on border raids against Byzantium rather than major conquests.[22] Al-Hadi (r. 785–786), al-Mahdi's eldest son, held a brief tenure marked by efforts to curb Alid challenges, decisively crushing a revolt led by Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Fakhkh in 786, thereby preserving Abbasid dominance amid succession preparations for his brother Harun al-Rashid.[10] This period overall transitioned the caliphate from revolutionary chaos to structured governance, prioritizing loyalty enforcement and infrastructural investment over aggressive expansion.Peak under Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun (786–833)
Harun al-Rashid's reign from 786 to 809 marked the Abbasid Caliphate's height of political stability and military strength, with effective suppression of internal revolts and expansionist campaigns against the Byzantine Empire. In 806, Harun launched a major invasion of Asia Minor, deploying an army of 135,000 men that sacked cities including Heraclea, forcing Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I to renew annual tribute payments of 30,000 gold dinars, 7,000 robes, and seven slaves.[23] These victories secured the northern frontiers and bolstered Abbasid prestige, while diplomatic exchanges with Charlemagne, including gifts like an elephant named Abul-Abbas, highlighted the caliphate's global influence.[24] Economically, Baghdad's population approached 500,000 by 800, driven by thriving trade routes linking China, India, and Europe, alongside agricultural productivity from irrigation systems in Mesopotamia.[25] Harun's policies fostered cultural patronage, laying groundwork for scholarly institutions, though his era emphasized administrative centralization over doctrinal innovation. The caliph divided the empire between heirs al-Amin in Baghdad and al-Ma'mun in Khurasan to prevent fragmentation, but this sowed seeds of conflict. Upon Harun's death in 809, civil war erupted between the brothers, culminating in al-Amin's siege and execution in 813, after which al-Ma'mun consolidated power from Merv before relocating to Baghdad in 819.[26] This Fourth Fitna strained resources but ultimately unified the caliphate under al-Ma'mun, who maintained territorial extent spanning from the Atlantic to the Indus by the 820s.[27] Al-Ma'mun's rule from 813 to 833 advanced intellectual and scientific endeavors, notably through the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, which he expanded into a major translation and research center employing scholars from diverse backgrounds to render Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic. This initiative spurred advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, with figures like al-Khwarizmi developing algebra during this period.[28] [29] However, al-Ma'mun's enforcement of Mu'tazilite rationalism via the mihna inquisition from 833 required jurists to affirm the Quran's created nature, leading to persecution of traditionalists like Ahmad ibn Hanbal and highlighting tensions between state-sponsored theology and orthodox scholarship.[30] Militarily, al-Ma'mun continued Byzantine campaigns, capturing key fortresses in Anatolia and briefly occupying Crete in 827, though these gains proved temporary amid growing provincial autonomy.[29] The era's prosperity masked underlying fiscal pressures from prolonged wars and reliance on Turkish slave soldiers, presaging later instability.Crisis of Succession and Samarra Anarchy (833–861)
Following the death of Caliph al-Ma'mun on 9 August 833 during a campaign against the Byzantines, his half-brother Abu Ishaq Muhammad, known as al-Mu'tasim, ascended the throne without significant opposition, marking the beginning of a shift toward greater reliance on non-Arab military forces.[31] Al-Mu'tasim, who had previously served as governor in Egypt and commanded troops under al-Ma'mun, expanded the caliphal army by incorporating thousands of Turkish slave soldiers (mamluks), numbering around 4,000 initially, to counterbalance the influence of Arab and Persian factions that had grown restive.[32] This policy addressed immediate threats, such as suppressing revolts in the provinces, but sowed seeds of future instability by empowering a foreign military elite loyal primarily to the caliph personally rather than the dynasty or empire.[33] Tensions escalated in Baghdad between the Turkish troops and the local populace, culminating in violent clashes that prompted al-Mu'tasim to relocate the capital northward. In 836, he founded Samarra on the Tigris River, approximately 130 kilometers north of Baghdad, constructing a vast new city with palaces, mosques, and military barracks to isolate his Turkish regiments from urban unrest and facilitate control over the army.[34] The move distanced the caliphal court from Baghdad's established bureaucracy and merchant class, fostering administrative detachment while Samarra's planned layout—spanning over 100 square kilometers—reflected ambitions for a fortified, regimented seat of power.[35] Al-Mu'tasim's reign (833–842) saw military successes, including the sack of Amorium in 838 against the Byzantines, but his death on 5 January 842 from illness passed the throne to his son, al-Wathiq, amid continued entrenchment of Turkish influence.[31] Al-Wathiq (r. 842–847) inherited a system where Turkish commanders held sway over key provinces and the central army, estimated at over 100,000 troops by mid-century, with Turks comprising the elite core.[36] His rule maintained the mihna (inquisition) enforcing Mu'tazilite doctrine on the createdness of the Quran, suppressing dissent among traditionalist scholars like Ahmad ibn Hanbal, while focusing on internal stability rather than expansion.[37] Al-Wathiq's death on 10 August 847, reportedly from overindulgence, led to the accession of his brother Ja'far, known as al-Mutawakkil, who initially consolidated power by executing potential rivals among the heirs.[38] Al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) reversed prior religious policies, abolishing the mihna in 848, restoring orthodox Sunni positions, and persecuting Mu'tazilites and Shi'a groups, including orders to raze the tomb of Husayn in Karbala around 850.[39] He further deepened dependence on Turkish soldiers, granting them vast estates (iqta') in Iraq and appointing them to high commands, which amplified factional rivalries among Turkish generals like Wasif and Bugha.[40] Plans to relocate the capital back to Baghdad or curb Turkish privileges alienated the military elite, who viewed it as a threat to their autonomy and access to caliphal patronage. On 11 December 861, al-Mutawakkil was assassinated in his Samarra palace by Turkish guards, with complicity from his son al-Muntasir, precipitating the Samarra Anarchy—a decade of rapid caliphal turnover driven by unchecked military factions.[41] This event exposed the fragility of Abbasid authority, as the caliph's personal reliance on Turkic mamluks had eroded institutional checks, enabling soldiers to dictate successions and plunder resources unchecked.[33]Fragmentation and Regional Dynasties (861–945)
The period from 861 to 945 marked a profound weakening of central Abbasid authority, as provincial governors transformed their positions into hereditary rulerships, establishing regional dynasties that maintained nominal allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad while exercising de facto independence. This fragmentation stemmed from the fiscal and military crises of the preceding Samarra era, where reliance on Turkish slave soldiers and decentralized tax collection empowered local emirs to withhold revenues and field private armies.[42] In the eastern provinces, Persian-origin dynasties arose, challenging Abbasid oversight and fostering a revival of Iranian administrative traditions.[43] In Khorasan, the Tahirid dynasty, appointed as governors by Caliph al-Ma'mun in 821, ruled semi-autonomously until 873, basing their power in Nishapur and collecting local taxes without remitting them to Baghdad.[44] Of Persian dehqan origin but Arabized and Sunni, the Tahirids represented the first post-conquest Persian Muslim dynasty to govern independently, maintaining Abbasid legitimacy through prayer in the caliph's name while suppressing revolts like that of Babak al-Khurramdin.[45] Their decline came with the rise of the Saffarids, founded in 861 by Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar, a coppersmith from Sistan who built an army of local toughs and Daylamites to conquer neighboring regions.[46] Ya'qub defeated the Tahirids in 873, capturing their capital and extending control over Fars and parts of Khorasan, though his ambitions to march on Baghdad were thwarted by Abbasid forces under al-Muwaffaq in 879.[46] Parallel to these developments, the Samanids emerged in Transoxiana, initially as local lords rewarded for aiding the Abbasids against rebels; by 874, Ismail ibn Ahmad secured Bukhara, establishing a dynasty that ruled until 999 and restored order in the east through efficient Persian bureaucracy.[43] The Samanids checked Saffarid expansion, defeating Amr ibn Layth in 900 near Balkh, and promoted Sunni orthodoxy while patronizing Persian language and culture, marking the beginning of the "Iranian Intermezzo."[43] In the west, the Tulunid dynasty in Egypt, founded by the Turkish mamluk Ahmad ibn Tulun in 868, achieved full autonomy by 878, conquering Syria and amassing wealth from the Nile's trade without forwarding tribute to the caliphate.[47] Ibn Tulun's rule, lasting until 884, featured military reforms and monumental architecture, such as the mosque named after him in Fustat, but the dynasty collapsed in 905 under Abbasid reconquest led by Muhammad al-Mahdi.[47] These dynasties eroded Abbasid fiscal bases, as emirs like the Saffarids and Tulunids diverted iqta revenues and iqta lands to sustain personal loyalties, exacerbating Baghdad's dependence on irregular Turkic troops.[42] Rebellions, including the Zanj slave uprising from 869 to 883, further strained resources, though al-Muwaffaq's victories temporarily stabilized Iraq.[48] By 945, the cumulative autonomy of these powers culminated in the Buyid Daylamites' entry into Baghdad, reducing the caliph to a figurehead, though this event closed the era of competitive regional fragmentation under loose Abbasid suzerainty.[42]Buyid and Seljuq Domination (945–1118)
In 945, Ahmad ibn Buya, known as Mu'izz al-Dawla, led Buyid forces into Baghdad amid ongoing instability following the Anarchy at Samarra, deposing Caliph al-Mustakfi and installing al-Muti as a puppet ruler.[49] The Buyids, a Daylamite Iranian dynasty professing Twelver Shiism, assumed de facto control over the caliphate's administration, military, and revenues while allowing the Abbasid caliphs to retain nominal religious authority and Sunni orthodoxy.[50] Mu'izz al-Dawla's brothers, Imad al-Dawla and Rukn al-Dawla, governed adjacent regions in western and northern Iran, respectively, establishing a tripartite rule that fragmented Buyid authority but stabilized Iraq temporarily.[51] Buyid dominance persisted through internal divisions and external pressures, with emirs like Adud al-Dawla (949–983) achieving peak influence by controlling from Shiraz to Baghdad and patronizing scholarship, including the translation of Greek works into Arabic.[52] Despite their Shiite affiliation, Buyids avoided imposing sectarian policies on the Sunni majority, maintaining the caliphate's legitimacy as a symbol of Islamic unity; however, their rule exacerbated fiscal strains through heavy taxation and reliance on Daylamite and Turkish mercenaries, contributing to economic decline in core territories.[53] By the early 11th century, Buyid power waned due to succession disputes and invasions by Ghaznavids and Seljuqs, culminating in the weakening of the last effective Baghdad emir, al-Malik al-Rahim.[51] The Seljuq Turks, a Sunni Oghuz confederation, ended Buyid control in 1055 when Sultan Tughril Beg, responding to Caliph al-Qa'im's plea for aid against Shiite dominance, captured Baghdad, imprisoned al-Malik al-Rahim, and received the title of sultan from the caliph, formalizing a protector-puppet relationship.[54] Tughril's intervention restored Sunni preeminence, purging Buyid officials and integrating Turkish ghulams into the caliphal guard, while the Seljuqs expanded across Persia, Iraq, and Anatolia, defeating Byzantine forces at Manzikert in 1071 under Alp Arslan.[55] Vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1092) centralized administration through the iqta land-grant system, fostering bureaucratic efficiency and madrasa networks to propagate Sunni Ash'arism against Shiism and Ismaili influences.[52] Seljuq rule over the Abbasids peaked under Malik Shah (1072–1092), whose vizierate under Nizam al-Mulk coordinated vast revenues and military campaigns, but his assassination triggered fratricidal wars among successors like Barkiyaruq and Muhammad I, fragmenting the sultanate into rival principalities.[56] Caliphs such as al-Muqtadi (1075–1094) occasionally maneuvered against sultans, exploiting divisions, yet real power remained with Seljuq atabegs and emirs controlling Baghdad's environs.[54] By 1118, the accession of Caliph al-Mustarshid marked the onset of caliphal resurgence, as Seljuq infighting allowed Abbasid assertions of autonomy, ending the era of direct domination.[52]Brief Revival and Mongol Sack of Baghdad (1118–1258)
Following the fragmentation of Seljuq authority in Iraq after the death of Sultan Mahmud II in 1131, Abbasid Caliph al-Mustarshid (r. 1118–1135) initiated efforts to reclaim temporal power by withholding recognition from Seljuq sultans and mobilizing forces against them, including a campaign against Sultan Mas'ud that culminated in clashes near Baghdad in 1135.[57] Al-Mustarshid's assertion of independence was short-lived, as he was assassinated later that year, likely by agents of Mas'ud or rival amirs, allowing brief Seljuq reprisals but ultimately weakening their grip on the caliphate.[58] Al-Muqtafi (r. 1136–1160), succeeding after a brief interregnum under al-Rashid (r. 1135–1136), marked the onset of substantive revival by assembling a personal army, defeating Seljuq forces at the Battle of Qatrabat al-Ray (1141), and extending Abbasid control over Mosul, Tikrit, and Wasit, thereby restoring direct rule in core Iraqi territories for the first time since the 9th century.[58] This military resurgence enabled al-Muqtafi to appoint loyal viziers and extract tribute from regional powers, though his ambitions against the Zengid Atabeg of Mosul led to a failed siege in 1157 and his own death amid ongoing conflicts.[59] Subsequent caliphs al-Mustanjid (r. 1160–1170) and al-Mustadi (r. 1170–1180) consolidated these gains amid Seljuq infighting, maintaining Baghdad's autonomy while navigating alliances with local Turkish amirs. The zenith of this revival occurred under al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225), who leveraged diplomatic maneuvers to undermine remaining Seljuq and Khwarazmian influences, forging pacts with Ayyubid rulers in Syria and promoting caliphal suzerainty through investitures and the futuwwa brotherhoods, which served as ideological and paramilitary networks to bolster Abbasid legitimacy across Iran and Iraq.[57] Al-Nasir's forces clashed successfully with Khwarazmshah Muhammad II in 1217, preserving Abbasid prestige, but his death triggered succession disputes and gradual erosion of authority under al-Zahir (r. 1225–1226), al-Mustansir (r. 1226–1242), and the ineffectual al-Musta'sim (r. 1242–1258), whose reliance on weak viziers like Ibn al-Alqami left the caliphate vulnerable to external threats.[60] The revival's abrupt termination came with the Mongol invasion led by Hülegü Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of Möngke Khan, who in 1257 demanded al-Musta'sim's submission and the dismantling of Baghdad's fortifications; the caliph's defiant refusal, compounded by internal disarray, prompted a massive Mongol host of approximately 150,000 to advance from Persia.[61] The siege commenced on January 29, 1258, with Mongol trebuchets and sappers breaching the city's outer walls by February 4 despite fierce resistance from 50,000 defenders, leading to a negotiated surrender on February 10 after Hülegü feigned clemency.[62] The ensuing sack, lasting from February 13 to 20, saw Mongol troops systematically plunder and burn Baghdad, destroying the House of Wisdom's libraries—resulting in the loss of innumerable manuscripts—and diverting the Tigris River with ink from the ruined texts; contemporary accounts estimate 200,000 to 1,000,000 civilian deaths from massacres, starvation, and drowning of resistors, with the city's population plummeting from over 1 million to under 100,000.[63] Al-Musta'sim, initially spared, was executed on February 20 (or March 20 per some chronicles) by being rolled in a carpet and trampled by horses to avoid spilling royal blood, a method rooted in Mongol custom; this cataclysm not only obliterated Abbasid political and cultural centrality in Baghdad but also severed irrigation canals, causing long-term agricultural collapse in Mesopotamia.[61][62]Nominal Continuation in Cairo (1261–1517)
Following the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 and the death of Caliph al-Mustaʿsim, Mamluk Sultan Baybars I sought to restore Abbasid legitimacy to bolster his regime's standing as defenders of Sunni Islam against Mongol incursions and lingering Crusader threats. In June 1261, Baybars identified and installed Ahmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh (al-Mustanṣir), a purported Abbasid survivor whose lineage was vetted by scholars, as caliph in Cairo after performing bayʿah (oath of allegiance) to him.[64][65] Al-Mustanṣir's brief tenure ended in late 1262 when he perished during a Mamluk-backed expedition against Ilkhanid forces in Iraq, highlighting the caliphs' occasional ceremonial military roles but underscoring their dependence on sultanic support.[64] The Cairo Abbasids functioned as nominal figureheads under Mamluk overlordship, retaining symbolic religious authority—such as issuing investiture patents (tawqīʿ) to sultans and leading Friday prayers—while wielding no administrative, fiscal, or military power.[66] This arrangement legitimized Mamluk rule, portraying the sultans as caliphal delegates in governance and jihad, particularly after victories like the 1260 Battle of ʿAyn Jālūt. Caliphs resided in Cairo's Citadel or affiliated mosques, supported by stipends from the sultans, and their investitures served diplomatic purposes, such as endorsing Mamluk campaigns or alliances.[67] Over 256 years, 18 caliphs were invested, often through rapid successions triggered by deaths, depositions, or sultanic preferences, with individuals largely interchangeable as the office's prestige outlasted personal influence.[66]| Caliph | Reign (CE) | Key Notes |
|---|---|---|
| al-Mustanṣir | 1261–1262 | Installed by Baybars; died in anti-Mongol campaign.[64] |
| al-Ḥākim I | 1262–1302 | Longest-reigning; ceremonial role solidified.[64] |
| al-Mustaʿkafī I | 1302–1340 | Issued investitures amid Bahri Mamluk stability.[64] |
| al-Wāthiq I | 1340–1341 | Brief tenure during Black Death era.[64] |
| al-Ḥākim II | 1341–1352 | Continued symbolic functions.[64] |
| al-Muʿtaḍid I | 1352–1362 | Under Qalāwūnid sultans.[64] |
| al-Mutawakkil I | 1362–1377 | Multiple restorations amid Mamluk infighting.[64] |
| al-Muʿtaṣim | 1377 | Short-lived; deposed.[64] |
| al-Wāthiq II | 1383–1386 | Burji era transition.[64] |
| al-Mutawakkil I (restored) | 1389–1406 | Endured political turbulence.[64] |
| al-Mustaʿīn | 1406–1414 | Briefly acted as sultan in 1412; deposed.[64] |
| al-Muʿtaḍid II | 1414–1441 | Symbolic amid Circassian Mamluk dominance.[64] |
| al-Mustaʿkafī II | 1441–1451 | Issued diplomatic endorsements.[64] |
| al-Qāʾim | 1451–1455 | Deposed by sultan.[64] |
| al-Mustanjiḏ | 1455–1479 | Long reign under Burji sultans.[64] |
| al-Mutawakkil II | 1479–1497 | Ceremonial decline.[64] |
| al-Mustaṃṣik | 1497–1508 | Multiple shifts.[64] |
| al-Mutawakkil III | 1508–1517 | Last caliph; transported to Istanbul post-conquest.[64] |