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Jumping to conclusions

Jumping to conclusions is a cognitive bias characterized by the tendency to form judgments, make decisions, or draw inferences with undue certainty based on limited or insufficient evidence.^[1] This reasoning error often manifests as hasty generalizations, where individuals prematurely accept a conclusion without considering alternative explanations or gathering more data.^[2] In psychological literature, it is frequently classified as a cognitive distortion, particularly in cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) frameworks, where it reinforces negative thought patterns and contributes to emotional distress such as anxiety or miscommunication.^[3] The bias is commonly assessed through probabilistic reasoning tasks, such as the "beads task," in which participants must determine the origin of drawn beads from one of two jars with differing ratios (e.g., 85:15 versus 15:85), often reaching a decision after only one or two draws rather than continuing to collect evidence.^[1] Prevalence varies by population: it affects approximately 50% of individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and around 20% of the general population.^[1] It is associated with delusional beliefs at the group level in clinical populations, with individuals with current delusions showing greater JTC bias than the general population; however, a 2025 meta-analysis found no significant correlation between the degree of JTC and delusional ideation within groups, including those at risk for mental states.^[1]^[4] Jumping to conclusions is linked to broader cognitive processes, including overreliance on intuitive System 1 thinking—as described by Nobel laureate Daniel Kahneman—which generates quick, automatic judgments under uncertainty while ignoring absent information (a principle known as WYSIATI, or "what you see is all there is").^[5] It correlates with other thinking errors, such as overconfidence, belief in conspiracy theories (e.g., doubting the Apollo moon landings), and poor decision-making in uncertain scenarios like gambling tasks.^[6] Subtypes include mind reading (assuming others' thoughts without evidence, e.g., interpreting a lack of response as anger) and fortune telling (predicting negative outcomes, e.g., assuming failure in an upcoming event), both driven by emotional reasoning, past experiences, or mental heuristics that prioritize speed over accuracy.^[3] Interventions, such as metacognitive training, can mitigate the bias by encouraging deliberate evidence evaluation.^[6]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Jumping to conclusions is a cognitive distortion characterized by forming judgments or predictions based on incomplete or insufficient evidence, often leading individuals to assume the worst possible outcome without verifying the facts.^[7] This distortion manifests as an overreliance on intuition and emotional responses, where individuals bypass logical evaluation and draw hasty inferences that distort reality.^[2] In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) frameworks, it was first identified by psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck in the 1960s through his research on depressed patients, where he described it as "arbitrary inference"—reaching a specific conclusion without supporting evidence or in contradiction to it.^[7] Beck's seminal work, including his 1963 paper and 1979 book Cognitive Therapy of Depression, established this as one of the core systematic errors in thinking that contribute to emotional disorders. From a logical perspective, jumping to conclusions constitutes an informal fallacy in which a person reaches a premature determination without adequate reasoning or data, rendering the argument invalid due to insufficient evidentiary support.^[8] This fallacy involves drawing inferences from limited information, often ignoring alternative explanations or requiring further investigation, as outlined in argumentation theory where it underlies patterns of faulty proof standards.^[9] Key characteristics include an emotional bias that amplifies negative interpretations and a failure to seek disconfirming evidence, which perpetuates distorted beliefs.^[10] This bias connects to broader cognitive tendencies, such as confirmation bias, where individuals selectively interpret information to affirm preconceived notions rather than objectively assessing evidence.^[11]

Historical Context

The concept of jumping to conclusions has roots in ancient philosophy, particularly in Aristotle's examinations of reasoning and argumentation. In his Sophistical Refutations, Aristotle identified various forms of flawed inference, including those resembling hasty generalizations, where insufficient evidence leads to erroneous judgments, emphasizing the need for complete syllogisms to avoid such pitfalls in logic and rhetoric.^[12] Similarly, in Rhetoric, he cautioned against enthymemes that rely on unstated assumptions, which could precipitate premature conclusions in persuasive discourse.^[13] The idea gained traction in 19th- and early 20th-century psychology through Gestalt theorists, who explored perceptual errors arising from the brain's tendency to impose structure on incomplete sensory data. Max Wertheimer's 1912 work on apparent motion, for instance, demonstrated how the mind fills in gaps to create illusory continuity, highlighting organizational principles like proximity and closure that can lead to misperceptions if misapplied.^[14] This framework influenced later understandings of cognitive shortcuts in perception, laying groundwork for recognizing systematic errors in judgment beyond mere sensory illusions.^[14] In the 1960s, psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck formalized jumping to conclusions as a cognitive distortion within cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), observing it in patients with depression and anxiety who drew negative inferences from minimal evidence. Beck's seminal 1963 paper described such distortions as automatic thoughts that perpetuate emotional disorders, integrating them into therapeutic interventions aimed at challenging unfounded assumptions.^[7] By the 1970s, this evolved into structured CBT protocols, as outlined in Beck's 1979 manual, linking hasty inferences to maladaptive schemas in clinical populations.^[15] The 1970s and 1980s saw further evolution through cognitive science, with Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky's research on heuristics demonstrating how mental shortcuts like representativeness and availability prompt premature conclusions under uncertainty. Their 1974 paper "Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases" illustrated these processes, with later work extending to biases such as the conjunction fallacy.^[16] This work, building on earlier probabilistic models, underscored the prevalence of such errors in everyday reasoning. Post-2000 developments integrated these insights into behavioral economics, particularly through nudge theory, which addresses biases like hasty judgments by designing choice architectures to guide better decisions without restricting options. Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein's 2008 book Nudge exemplified this by drawing on Kahneman and Tversky's heuristics to propose subtle interventions, such as default settings, that mitigate impulsive inferences in policy contexts.^[17] This application has since informed public policy, emphasizing empirical testing of nudges to counteract cognitive pitfalls.^[17]

Psychological Foundations

Cognitive Mechanisms

Jumping to conclusions arises from cognitive heuristics that enable efficient but error-prone processing of information under uncertainty. The availability heuristic prompts reliance on readily accessible memories or examples, which may disproportionately influence judgments and lead to premature decisions based on incomplete or biased recall.^[18] Likewise, the representativeness heuristic drives evaluations by assessing how closely a situation matches a mental prototype, often neglecting statistical base rates and resulting in hasty inferences from superficial similarities.^[18] Emotional states intensify these heuristic-driven tendencies. Anxiety amplifies negative assumptions by enhancing the salience of potential threats in ambiguous scenarios, thereby accelerating the shift from limited data to firm conclusions.^[19] The aversion to uncertainty further propels this process, as individuals seek rapid closure to alleviate discomfort, prioritizing intuitive resolutions over systematic evidence gathering.^[20] Neurologically, prefrontal cortex dysfunction is associated with this bias, potentially impairing executive functions for careful deliberation and impulse control.^[21] Key experimental support comes from the Wason selection task, which reveals confirmation-seeking patterns where participants favor evidence supporting their hypotheses, fostering premature certainty without exhaustive verification.^[22] This aligns closely with confirmation bias, as both prioritize affirming data over disconfirming alternatives.^[18] Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to seek, interpret, and recall information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, often leading individuals to prematurely accept conclusions without adequately considering alternative evidence.^[23] This selective processing accelerates jumping to conclusions by reducing the motivation to gather disconfirming data, as people favor evidence that aligns with their initial assumptions.^[6] In experimental settings, such as probabilistic reasoning tasks, this bias has been shown to exacerbate hasty decisions in both healthy individuals and those prone to delusions.^[24] Anchoring bias occurs when individuals rely too heavily on an initial piece of information—the "anchor"—when making subsequent judgments, even if that information is arbitrary or irrelevant.^[25] This overreliance can foster fixed premature conclusions, mirroring jumping to conclusions by anchoring decisions to early inputs rather than adjusting based on additional evidence.^[26] Classic studies demonstrate that anchors influence estimates in tasks like numerical predictions, where participants insufficiently adjust from the starting point, leading to biased outcomes.^[25] The availability heuristic, or bias, involves judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, often overestimating probabilities for vivid or recent occurrences.^[27] Unlike jumping to conclusions, which stems from a general lack of evidential depth, availability bias arises from the memorability of information, yet it can contribute to hasty generalizations by prioritizing accessible mental representations over comprehensive data.^[6] Research by Kahneman and Tversky illustrates this in frequency judgments, where recall ease distorts probability assessments.^[27] Fundamental attribution error describes the propensity to attribute others' behaviors primarily to internal characteristics (e.g., personality) while underestimating external situational factors.^[28] As a social variant of jumping to conclusions, it involves rapid dispositional inferences without sufficient contextual evidence, often leading to erroneous judgments in interpersonal scenarios.^[28] Empirical work shows this error is pronounced in observer judgments, where situational influences are overlooked in favor of trait-based explanations.^[28] Jumping to conclusions distinctly emphasizes the speed and evidential insufficiency in forming judgments, differing from confirmation bias's focus on selective confirmation, anchoring's emphasis on initial reference points, availability's reliance on mental accessibility, and fundamental attribution error's interpersonal dispositional tilt.^[6] These distinctions, rooted in seminal work by Kahneman and Tversky on heuristics and biases, highlight how interconnected yet mechanistically unique these errors are in decision-making processes.^[25]

Forms and Subtypes

Hasty Generalization

Hasty generalization is a logical fallacy characterized by drawing broad conclusions from a limited or unrepresentative sample of evidence, often leading to overbroad claims that do not hold universally.^[29] This error occurs when insufficient instances are used to support a sweeping assertion, ignoring the need for adequate and diverse data to ensure validity.^[30] In logical terms, it represents an invalid form of inductive reasoning, where observations from a small or atypical set are extrapolated to an entire population or category.^[31] For instance, concluding that "all politicians are corrupt" after encountering one dishonest official exemplifies this fallacy, as the single case fails to represent the broader group.^[9] The psychological drivers of hasty generalization frequently stem from situational pressures that prioritize rapid judgment over thorough analysis. Under time pressure, individuals tend to rely on intuitive heuristics, accelerating the shift from specific observations to general rules without verifying representativeness.^[32] These factors align with broader mechanisms of jumping to conclusions, where cognitive stability overrides flexibility, particularly in uncertain environments.^[33] Historically, hasty generalization has been critiqued as a rhetorical fallacy in debates and inductive arguments, notably by John Stuart Mill in his 1843 work A System of Logic. Mill examined such errors in the context of scientific and everyday reasoning, warning against generalizations from inadequate inductions that mislead discourse and inquiry.^[34] In debates, this fallacy often appears when speakers invoke isolated examples to sway audiences, undermining sound argumentation as Mill described in his analysis of fallacious induction.^[12] Measurement of susceptibility to hasty generalization occurs through fallacy detection tools and critical thinking assessments, which evaluate reasoning accuracy. Educational tools like AI-based analyzers identify instances of this fallacy in text by scanning for unsupported broad claims.^[35] Standardized tests, such as the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST), include items assessing recognition of hasty generalizations amid other inductive errors, providing quantitative scores on fallacy avoidance.^[36] These instruments help gauge critical thinking proficiency by presenting scenarios requiring differentiation between valid inductions and hasty ones.^[37] Such evaluations link hasty generalization to everyday decision-making pitfalls, where unexamined assumptions can distort personal and professional judgments.

Mind Reading and Fortune Telling

Mind reading is a cognitive distortion characterized by assuming one knows the thoughts or feelings of others without any supporting evidence, often leading to negative interpretations of social interactions. For instance, an individual might think, "They must hate me because they didn't smile back," despite no indication of the other person's true emotions. This subtype of jumping to conclusions was identified by Aaron T. Beck as part of arbitrary inference in his foundational work on cognitive therapy.^[38] Fortune telling involves predicting negative future outcomes without basis, typically in a catastrophic manner, such as concluding, "This one mistake means I'll fail the entire project and lose my job." This distortion similarly falls under Beck's concept of arbitrary inference, where individuals draw unsupported conclusions about impending events.^[38] In cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), both mind reading and fortune telling are classified as forms of arbitrary inference, a key distortion outlined in Beck's inventories for assessing dysfunctional thinking. Clinical examples from Beck Institute resources include thoughts like "He's thinking that I don’t know the first thing about this project" for mind reading, and "I’ll be so upset, I won’t be able to function at all" for fortune telling, which are targeted in therapy through evidence examination.^[39] The primary difference lies in their focus: mind reading pertains to unverifiable assumptions about others' current internal states, whereas fortune telling concerns baseless predictions of future scenarios.^[38] Empirical research from the 1980s demonstrated the prevalence of these distortions in anxiety disorders, particularly linking arbitrary inferences to social phobia through heightened negative expectations in social-evaluative situations. Beck and Emery's 1985 analysis highlighted how such cognitive patterns maintain anxiety symptoms in social phobia, with studies showing their common occurrence among affected individuals.^[40] For example, a 1989 investigation into phobic disorders found elevated rates of cognitive distortions like arbitrary inference in clinical samples prone to social fears, underscoring their role in exacerbating anxiety.^[41]

Manifestations in Daily Life

Everyday Examples

Jumping to conclusions manifests frequently in everyday personal and social interactions, where individuals draw hasty inferences from limited evidence. In personal relationships, a common scenario involves misinterpreting a partner's silence as anger rather than fatigue; for example, one might assume a spouse is upset after a long day at work without considering exhaustion or stress as alternative explanations.^[42] This form of mind reading, a subtype of the bias, can strain emotional bonds by fostering unfounded resentment.^[3] In the workplace, employees often assume a colleague's email tone indicates criticism without seeking clarification, such as interpreting a concise response to a project update as disapproval or incompetence. This can lead to unnecessary defensiveness or conflict, as the sender might simply be busy or communicating efficiently.^[42] Such assumptions disrupt team dynamics and productivity when based solely on perceived negativity in written communication.^[43] Health anxieties provide another prevalent example, where individuals conclude that a minor symptom signals a serious illness after brief online searches; for instance, experiencing a persistent headache might prompt the immediate belief of a brain tumor, despite more benign causes like dehydration or tension.^[42] This escalation, often fueled by accessible but unverified information, heightens unnecessary worry and may prompt avoidable medical consultations.^[44] A 2008 study found that jumping to conclusions is relatively common in the general population, with approximately 20% of a non-clinical sample (n=200) exhibiting the bias on reasoning tasks assessing hasty decision-making.^[45] This prevalence underscores its role as a widespread cognitive shortcut in daily life, though rates vary by context and measurement (e.g., around 10% in some non-clinical controls on beads tasks).^[19]

Impact on Decision-Making

Jumping to conclusions, a cognitive bias characterized by forming judgments based on insufficient evidence, systematically impairs risk assessment at the individual level by prompting premature negative evaluations that deter engagement with potential benefits. For instance, individuals may avoid promising opportunities, such as purchasing a desirable property or pursuing a career advancement, after hastily inferring risks from minimal ambiguous cues, like isolated negative feedback about a neighborhood or colleague.^[19] This pattern is exacerbated in health-related contexts, where anxiety amplifies the bias, leading to avoidance behaviors such as skipping essential errands based on scant alarming information about potential threats like illness outbreaks.^[19] In organizational settings, the bias contributes to flawed decision-making processes, particularly in human resources, where hasty judgments during interviews—relying on superficial impressions rather than comprehensive evaluations—result in suboptimal hiring choices. Such errors are linked to elevated employee turnover, with research indicating that up to 80% of turnover stems from poor hiring decisions, often attributable to inadequate assessment protocols that permit rushed conclusions.^[46] This not only incurs financial costs but also disrupts team dynamics and productivity, as mismatched hires fail to integrate effectively. On a societal scale, jumping to conclusions facilitates the rapid dissemination of misinformation by encouraging individuals to accept and propagate unverified claims without scrutiny, thereby amplifying viral false accusations on platforms like social media. For example, premature beliefs in conspiracy theories or unfounded allegations can escalate into widespread social disruptions, as the bias drives quick sharing among receivers who overlook contradictory evidence.^[47] Related biases, such as confirmation bias, can compound these effects by reinforcing selective acceptance of misleading narratives. Quantitative analyses from decision theory research reveal that jumping to conclusions influences error rates in probabilistic judgments, with hasty decision-makers exhibiting reasoning errors in approximately 28% of responses overall, and 54% of those errors stemming directly from reliance on limited data.^[1] These errors are 3.2 times more prevalent among those prone to the bias compared to deliberate reasoners.^[1] Longitudinally, the bias perpetuates cycles of anxiety by sustaining negative reinforcement through uncontrollability beliefs, where premature conclusions about threats heighten distress and worry, maintaining generalized anxiety disorder symptoms over time. Interventions from cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), such as worry outcome journaling, have demonstrated efficacy in disrupting these cycles by promoting evidence-based reevaluation, reducing distress mediation effects at follow-up assessments (ab = 0.317, p = .005).^[48]

Cultural and Media Representations

In Comedy

Jumping to conclusions serves as a central comedic device in performance and writing, often manifesting through the "big misunderstanding" trope, where characters form hasty, exaggerated assumptions based on incomplete information, leading to absurd and escalating situations for humorous effect. This mechanic exploits the gap between expectation and reality, creating chaos that resolves in a punchline or reveal, as seen in sitcom plots where misheard conversations or ambiguous actions spiral into ridiculous conflicts. In such scenarios, the humor arises from the characters' overreactions to their flawed inferences, amplifying everyday cognitive shortcuts into farcical outcomes that mock human fallibility without requiring deep narrative investment.^[49]^[50] Historically, this trope traces back to early 20th-century vaudeville and slapstick traditions, where performers relied on rapid-fire misunderstandings to engage diverse audiences in short, accessible sketches. Vaudeville acts, popular from the 1880s to the 1930s, frequently built comedy around insolent situations stemming from linguistic or situational misinterpretations, evolving from European commedia dell'arte influences into American variety shows that prioritized physical and verbal gags for broad appeal. By the mid-20th century, these elements transitioned into stand-up routines, where comedians dissected paranoid or assumptive thinking to lampoon societal anxieties, as in George Carlin's 1970s bits that satirized conspiracy-laden conclusions drawn from everyday observations. This evolution allowed the device to adapt from stage antics to televised formats, maintaining its role in quick, relatable laughs.^[51]^[52] Notable examples abound in modern comedy, such as the sketches in The Office (2005–2013), where characters like Michael Scott routinely leap to erroneous judgments—misinterpreting colleague interactions as personal slights or corporate conspiracies—fueling episodes with layered awkwardness and eventual clarification. Stand-up artists continue this tradition; Jerry Seinfeld's observational routines often highlight how mundane assumptions derail social encounters, turning potential conflicts into punchy insights. These instances underscore the trope's versatility in both scripted and improvisational formats, where the absurdity of unfounded leaps provides immediate comedic payoff.^[53]^[54] The psychological appeal lies in the cathartic release from recognizing one's own relatable biases, exaggerated for laughter through the incongruity-resolution process: audiences build tension via the character's flawed logic, then experience relief upon the twist exposing the error. This mirrors daily mental shortcuts but heightens them for emotional distance, fostering empathy and amusement rather than frustration. Culturally, the trope varies; American humor often employs direct slapstick escalation from these assumptions, as in vaudeville-derived physical chases, while British styles favor ironic twists that underscore the folly with dry understatement, evident in shows like Monty Python where scripted mishearings lead to surreal, self-aware deflations.^[55]^[56]^[57]

In Literature and Film

In literature, jumping to conclusions often serves as a catalyst for dramatic tension and moral exploration, exemplified in William Shakespeare's Othello (1603), where the protagonist's hasty judgment fueled by jealousy leads to tragic consequences. Othello's unfounded suspicions about Desdemona's fidelity, manipulated by Iago, illustrate how perceptual biases can escalate into destructive actions, a theme Shakespeare uses to dissect the perils of unchecked emotion.^[58] In contrast, modern works like Gillian Flynn's Gone Girl (2012) subvert this trope by revealing the assumptions of characters and readers alike through unreliable narration and plot twists, challenging the reader's own propensity for premature judgments.^[59] Film adaptations and original screenplays similarly employ misassumptions to heighten suspense, as seen in Alfred Hitchcock's Suspicion (1941), where the protagonist Lina's growing doubts about her husband's intentions build psychological tension through ambiguous clues and subjective perspective. This narrative device underscores the fragility of trust in relationships, turning everyday interactions into sources of dread. Post-1950s cinema evolved toward greater psychological realism in depicting such biases, influenced by Freudian concepts of the unconscious, which encouraged filmmakers to explore internal motivations and perceptual distortions more deeply in character-driven stories.^[60] Thematically, jumping to conclusions drives conflict and character development in these narratives, often generating irony when revelations expose the error of initial assumptions, while critiquing broader societal biases such as gender roles or racial prejudices. In Othello, for instance, the haste in judgment perpetuates stereotypes, mirroring real-world prejudices. Film theory further analyzes how these portrayals reflect cognitive errors, aligning narrative structures with viewers' folk psychology to evoke empathy and self-reflection on perceptual limitations.^[61]^[62]

Consequences and Mitigation

Negative Effects

Jumping to conclusions, as a cognitive distortion, significantly exacerbates symptoms of depression and anxiety by reinforcing negative thought patterns that amplify emotional distress. Research demonstrates that individuals with depression display markedly higher levels of such distortions. In clinical populations treated with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), these distortions show strong correlations with symptom severity, serving as key predictors of depressive outcomes and explaining substantial variance in models of emotional disorders.^[63] On an interpersonal level, this bias erodes trust in relationships through unfounded assumptions about others' motives or behaviors, frequently sparking unnecessary conflicts and fostering emotional isolation. Misinterpretations driven by hasty judgments prompt defensive reactions, which can escalate minor disagreements into lasting relational rifts, ultimately diminishing social support networks essential for well-being.^[42]^[64] Societally, jumping to conclusions contributes to social divisions. This tendency also underlies policy errors, as incomplete data-gathering leads to reactive measures, such as those fueled by media-induced moral panics that distort public priorities and resource allocation.^[65] In legal contexts, it influences erroneous judgments, as cognitive shortcuts impair objective evaluation of evidence, leading to miscarriages of justice in high-stakes proceedings.^[66] Long-term analyses reveal persistent harms, with meta-analyses from the 2000s onward linking the jumping to conclusions bias to elevated error rates in high-stakes environments, particularly in clinical and delusional contexts where premature decisions correlate with adverse outcomes and reduced adaptive functioning. Recent systematic reviews (as of 2025) have nuanced the association with delusional ideation, suggesting weaker links than previously emphasized, which informs more targeted mitigation strategies.^[67]^[68]

Prevention Strategies

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) employs targeted techniques to counteract jumping to conclusions by fostering deliberate evaluation of evidence. Socratic questioning, a core CBT method, involves therapists guiding individuals through a series of probing questions to examine the validity of hasty assumptions, such as "What evidence supports this conclusion?" or "What alternative explanations exist?" This approach helps dismantle automatic judgments by promoting self-reflection and logical scrutiny.^[69] Similarly, maintaining evidence logs or thought records encourages users to document situations, initial conclusions, supporting facts, and counter-evidence, systematically revealing patterns of bias and building habits of verification. These tools, integral to CBT protocols for anxiety and psychosis, have been shown to enhance cognitive flexibility in clinical settings.^[70]^[71] Mindfulness practices, particularly meditation, aid in pausing automatic judgments by cultivating present-moment awareness, thereby interrupting the rapid formation of conclusions based on incomplete information. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that regular mindfulness training alters brain activity, leading to improved decision-making under ambiguity. For instance, brief focused-breathing sessions have been linked to improved decision-making under ambiguity in experimental settings.^[72]^[73] Critical thinking training programs emphasize structured verification steps to prevent hasty inferences, such as explicitly listing and evaluating alternative hypotheses before deciding. Educational interventions incorporating exercises like "consider the opposite" prompt participants to generate disconfirming evidence, fostering a habit of thorough analysis over intuition. These methods, often integrated into school curricula or professional development, promote long-term bias awareness through repeated practice.^[74]^[75] Technological aids, including post-2020 apps for bias checking and decision journaling, provide accessible tools for real-time reflection. Applications like those based on cognitive bias modification (CBM) protocols use prompts to log decisions, flag potential distortions, and track outcomes, helping users build metacognitive habits. For example, smartphone-based CBM interventions have demonstrated acceptability and preliminary efficacy in regulating emotional responses tied to biased reasoning.^[76]^[77] Randomized controlled trials indicate substantial efficacy of these strategies in reducing jumping to conclusions bias. A single-session metacognitive training intervention targeting the bias in psychosis patients yielded large effect sizes (Cohen's d = 0.96) in improving decision-making capacity, with bias reduction mediating gains in understanding and reasoning. Similarly, therapist-assisted computerized CBT programs focusing on jumping to conclusions modules showed significant enhancements in cognitive flexibility and anxiety reduction compared to treatment-as-usual.^[78]^[79]

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https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sby136