Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Kagera River

The Kagera River is a transboundary waterway in East Africa that originates from perennial headwaters in the highlands of Burundi and Rwanda, flows northward and eastward for approximately 400 kilometers as the international boundary between Tanzania and Rwanda before turning into Tanzania and Uganda, and ultimately empties into Lake Victoria. Its primary tributaries include the Ruvubu River from Burundi and the Nyabarongo River from Rwanda, which together form the Kagera at their confluence near the Rwanda-Tanzania border. As the largest tributary feeding Lake Victoria, the Kagera represents the most distant headstream of the White Nile, extending the Nile's total length to over 6,650 kilometers from this upstream origin. The river's basin, covering about 59,000 square kilometers across Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda, sustains agriculture, fisheries, and hydropower while confronting environmental pressures such as soil erosion, deforestation, and invasive species proliferation.

Physical Geography

Course and Tributaries

The Kagera River forms at the of the Ruvubu River, originating in , and the Akagera River, which flows from Lake Rweru in fed by the . This occurs near Rusumo Falls on the Rwanda-Tanzania , where the river begins its main course. The Ruvubu and Nyabarongo constitute the primary tributaries supplying the Kagera's waters, with the Akanyaru River joining the Nyabarongo upstream. From Rusumo Falls, the Kagera flows northward and eastward through Tanzania for roughly 400 kilometers, traversing hilly terrain before approaching Lake Victoria. Along this path, the river delineates sections of the Tanzania-Uganda border in its lower reaches prior to entering Lake Victoria near Uganda's southwestern shore. Rusumo Falls marks a notable geographical feature, consisting of a cascade over Precambrian schists and quartz-phyllites on the international boundary. The river's trajectory through these regions highlights its role in defining transboundary landscapes across Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda.

Basin Extent and Topography

The Kagera River basin spans approximately 59,700 km² across four countries: (23% of the basin), (34%), (35%), and (8%). This transboundary area originates in the elevated regions of Burundi and Rwanda, where the river's headwaters emerge, and extends eastward and northward, ultimately draining into . The basin's scale supports significant hydrological contributions to the system, with the Kagera providing a major inflow to the lake. Topographically, the basin features diverse terrain, beginning in the highlands of its upstream reaches with elevations reaching up to around 2,000 meters above in the and Rwandan portions. These mountainous areas transition into plateaus and depressions as the river flows through and , descending to approximately 1,300 meters at its confluence with . Valleys and escarpments along the course facilitate erosion processes, leading to substantial that shapes downstream channels and depositional features. The upstream highlands promote rapid runoff and incision, while broader plateaus in mid-basin sections moderate flow gradients. Climatic influences in the are characterized by bimodal rainfall patterns, with annual ranging from 1,000 to 1,600 mm in the more humid western highlands, decreasing toward semi-arid conditions in eastern zones. This equatorial proximity ensures relatively consistent moisture, supporting the river's flow regime despite seasonal variations. High rainfall in upland areas drives consistent , preventing and enabling year-round water availability, though topographic relief amplifies local variability in and infiltration.

Hydrology

Flow Regime and Discharge

The Kagera River displays a flow regime with pronounced but moderated seasonal variations driven by the bimodal rainfall distribution in its , featuring wet periods from to May and to . This results in discharge peaks typically occurring in May, following maximum , and a secondary rise in late year, while dry seasons from to September yield lower flows. The regime is marked by a high component, contributing to relative stability compared to more flashy tributaries. At the Kyaka gauging station near the outlet to , long-term records indicate an average annual of 184 m³/s, equivalent to roughly 3.15 km³/year, accounting for approximately 10% of the lake's total inflow. Maximum instantaneous discharges reach 540 m³/s during flood events, with minima at 101 m³/s, yielding a low maximum-to-minimum ratio that underscores the river's sustained hydrological output. Gauging data from stations like Kyaka, operational since the , highlight flood vulnerabilities during intense rainy season , with seasonal forecasts anticipating elevated flows above normal in contributing rivers including the Kagera. Low-flow periods correlate directly with rainfall deficits, often dipping below 150 m³/s in dry months and posing risks to downstream water availability. Upstream factors, including land use intensification and nascent dam infrastructure such as the Rusumo Falls , are documented to modulate flow consistency in hydrological assessments, with potential reductions in peak magnitudes and shifts in timing that could dampen natural variability by up to 7% in abstracted volumes. These alterations, drawn from basin-wide modeling and records, contrast with historical unregulated patterns but remain limited in scope pending full dam commissioning.

Source Attribution and Nile Connection Debate

The remotest headstream of the is attributed to tributaries of the Kagera River, particularly the Ruvyironza River originating in 's highlands, which extends the total length to approximately 6,650 km when measured to the , surpassing paths originating directly from . This measurement prioritizes the longest continuous hydrological path over the lake's volumetric contribution, as river length conventionally traces the farthest upstream point contributing flow, rendering an intermediate reservoir rather than the ultimate source. Competing claims exist between the Ruvyironza () and Ruvubu (originating near ), with the former favored for its northerly headwaters yielding the maximal distance, though both challenge Victoria's primacy by adding over 400 km beyond the lake's southern shore. Historical hydrological surveys, including H.E. Hurst's 1926 measurements of Kagera discharge, provided early quantitative evidence of its dominance as Lake Victoria's largest inflow, underscoring the river's upstream extensions as integral to origins rather than peripheral. Subsequent expeditions in the early , building on Kandt's 1898 tracing of Kagera headwaters to Rwanda's , reinforced this through topographic mapping, though precise farthest-point delineation awaited refined instrumentation. Contemporary evaluations, informed by and field validations rather than explicit GPS traces in , affirm the Kagera pathway's precedence by integrating profiles and flow continuity, critiquing Victoria-focused attributions as artifacts of 19th-century biases that emphasized visible lake outflows over extended chains. This longest-path criterion aligns with causal hydrological realism, where remoteness derives from upstream distance and perennial flow linkage, not size or outlet prominence, though debates persist on exact prioritization due to border-spanning terrains in and .

Ecology and Biodiversity

Aquatic Species and Fisheries

The Kagera River supports a diverse assemblage of , with monitoring surveys documenting such as Labeo victorianus (ningu), a migratory cyprinid central to riverine fisheries, alongside cichlids, mormyrids, and siluriforms including Synodontis ruandae endemic to the basin. Empirical assessments indicate over 50 across the basin's river sections, though precise inventories vary by reach due to limited comprehensive sampling. Fisheries in the Kagera primarily target ningu, with historical stock productivity reflected in high catch rates; for instance, catches per at the river mouth averaged 13.6 in 1954 but plummeted to 0.5 by 1963, signaling early . This decline predates major climatic shifts emphasized in some narratives and correlates more directly with intensified unregulated harvesting and habitat alterations like encroachment, rather than alone. Subsequent monitoring reveals persistent low yields, with ningu populations showing reduced size at maturity (e.g., 22.1 cm fork length in Kagera samples) and skewed sex ratios from selective pressure. Stock assessments underscore that while migratory species like ningu once sustained viable yields supporting productivity, unregulated has outweighed benefits, eroding ; annual catches in connected Rwandan waters totaled around 70 metric tons in 1975 but reflect broader downward trends amid absent sustained . Limited empirical modeling, such as ELEFAN analyses on length-frequency , indicates exploitation rates exceeding sustainable levels for key , prioritizing over regeneration.

Riparian and Wetland Ecosystems

The riparian and wetland ecosystems of the Kagera River feature extensive emergent vegetation, including and hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata), which cover significant portions of wetland surfaces such as those in the Akagera system, comprising up to 29% each alongside open water bodies. These vegetation types form dense stands that stabilize riverbanks and create microhabitats for aquatic and semi-aquatic species. Kagera wetlands serve as critical buffers for flood attenuation through and , with papyrus-dominated systems exhibiting high capacity for hydrological due to their perennial inundation and root structures. Additionally, these ecosystems act as carbon sinks, sequestering substantial atmospheric CO₂ via rapid accumulation in , which supports long-term storage in organic soils. The river's consistent perennial flows, driven by tributaries, maintain these conditions across topographic gradients from upland riparian zones to lowland swamps, fostering diversity without reliance on seasonal variability. Empirical surveys identify these areas as biodiversity hotspots, harboring over 500 —including migratory waterfowl—9 amphibian taxa, and 34 reptile species, alongside large herbivores like hippopotamuses that graze on submerged and influence nutrient cycling through their activities. Amphibians and birds depend on the stable, perennial for and , with topographic variations enhancing faunal zonation from forested riparian corridors to open marshlands. Interdependence is evident in how architecture provides nesting sites and refugia, while faunal behaviors such as herbivory prevent by single plant species, maintaining ecological balance.

Economic and Human Utilization

Agriculture and Irrigation

The Kagera River basin underpins for approximately 16.5 million people, the majority of whom are rural smallholders dependent on and valley-bottom cultivation of staple crops including , beans, bananas, , , and potatoes, alongside cash crops like . These systems rely on the river's seasonal inundation of alluvial soils, which deposit nutrient-rich sediments to bolster fertility and enable mixed crop-livestock production with minimal external inputs. Irrigation remains limited across the basin's roughly 59,700 km², comprising small-scale swamp and river-diversion schemes that equip only a minor portion of , often focused on in Rwandan lowlands or in Tanzanian riparian zones. Notable examples include the Kagera Sugar Works scheme in Misenyi District, , which integrates river withdrawals with to irrigate thousands of hectares of year-round, enhancing productivity amid variable rainfall. Such interventions support by extending growing seasons, though they represent under 10% of potential in the riparian countries, per regional assessments. The river's reliable water flows mitigate risks for basin , yet expansion into wetlands and uplands for additional cropland has accelerated and , diminishing long-term fertility and prompting FAO-led efforts to integrate ecosystem restoration with farming practices.

and Dams

The Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project, situated on the Kagera River at the Rwanda-Tanzania border with involvement from , features an 80 MW run-of-the-river designed to generate shared equally among the three nations, with each receiving approximately 27 MW for integration into grids. Construction commenced in 2017 under the Initiative's framework, emphasizing development to enhance regional power supply amid growing demand in . Further upstream, the Akanyaru Multipurpose Project on the Akanyaru River—a major Kagera tributary along the Rwanda-Burundi —envisions a 52-meter-high with 14.5 MW hydroelectric capacity, alongside for 12,474 hectares and for over 614,000 people, storing 333 million cubic meters of water. This transboundary initiative, estimated at $190 million, aims to bolster and in the basin, though it remains in planning stages with mobilization efforts ongoing as of 2021. These developments have expanded output in the Kagera Basin, contributing to and by harnessing the river's steep gradients for reliable baseload power, as evidenced by the Rusumo project's role in broader Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Program goals. However, run-of-the-river designs like Rusumo minimize large-scale reservoirs but still introduce ecological trade-offs, including barriers to and localized sediment trapping that could alter downstream habitats, alongside potential displacement of riparian communities during construction. Claims of severe flow reductions lack basin-specific hydrological modeling data but underscore the need for transboundary to energy gains against verifiable impacts, without unsubstantiated projections of catastrophic disruption.

Fishing and Livelihoods

Fisheries in the basin sustain livelihoods for communities reliant on capture fishing, , and , contributing to income generation amid broader economic activities. In Tanzania's , which encompasses segments of the river, fisheries activities yielded over 4.72 billion Tanzanian shillings in revenue from 2018 to 2020, primarily through licensing and related fees. While precise employment data for the river itself remains limited, basin fisheries form part of the system, where approximately 200,000 individuals are directly engaged in operations. The sector historically benefited from exports, which peaked in the and generated substantial foreign exchange, including shipments to , before experiencing declines linked to overcapitalization, , and regulatory non-compliance rather than permanent ecological failure. In response to stock reductions, riparian populations have pursued diversification, notably into , promoted as a viable alternative to enhance incomes and mitigate dependence on wild catches. Aquaculture initiatives in the region enable farmers to achieve annual earnings up to 20 million Tanzanian shillings, underscoring human adaptability through improved practices and investment opportunities in the basin context. Management efforts, including co-management frameworks and size regulations for key , aim to restore without presuming inevitable collapse.

History and Exploration

Early Mapping and European Expeditions

The earliest European awareness of the Kagera River emerged during the 1857–1859 expedition led by and , sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society to trace the Nile's source. While Speke reached the southern shore of Lake Victoria in July 1858, local informants described a substantial river entering the lake from the west, which he later identified as the Kagera; this report aligned with indigenous geographical knowledge but remained unverified at the time due to expedition constraints and Burton's illness. The effort reflected systematic inquiry into hydrological connections, prioritizing topographic evidence over speculation. Speke's subsequent expedition with James Augustus Grant (1860–1863), again aimed at confirming the Nile's outlet from , provided the first direct European observation of the Kagera. On , 1862, reached its with near the Kitangule inlet, noting its strong current and breadth as evidence of a distant origin; he integrated local accounts from Waganda villagers to map its westward course, estimating it as a primary feeder rather than a minor stream. This sighting, documented through on-site sketches and measurements, advanced rudimentary mapping by linking the river to 's inflow dynamics, though full traversal was impeded by cataracts and hostile terrain. Further delineation occurred during Henry Morton Stanley's 1874–1877 trans-African journey, commissioned by the and Daily Telegraph. In March 1875, Stanley ascended the Kagera from its Victoria delta for approximately 50 miles, recording depths exceeding 80 feet and widths up to 1,000 feet, which underscored its volume as derived from highland catchments; he relied on native pilots for navigation while employing chronometric and barometric instruments for latitude-longitude fixes. These observations, transmitted via dispatches, refined early by quantifying the river's scale and refuting shorter claims through comparative data, driven by empirical verification of Nile headwater extents. Subsequent 19th-century traverses, such as Gustav Adolf von Götzen's 1894 crossing at Rusumo Falls, built on this foundation but marked the transition to formalized boundary surveys.

20th-Century Developments

In the post-World War II era, hydrological surveys of the , including tributaries like the Kagera, were conducted under British colonial oversight to assess and support downstream infrastructure such as the Owen Falls Dam completed in 1954, which influenced upstream flow data collection and source delineation claims amid emerging Nile water allocation debates. These efforts established baseline measurements of Kagera discharges, confirming its role as the longest headstream of the with an average annual flow contributing approximately 24% to Lake Victoria's inflow, though comprehensive basin-wide boundary mapping remained incomplete until . Following independence of riparian states—Burundi and Rwanda in 1962, Tanzania in 1961, and Uganda in 1962—initial transboundary management discussions in the 1960s emphasized flow monitoring stations and data exchange to quantify seasonal variations, with early records from the augmented by station upgrades in the Kagera catchment during the to address and patterns. By the mid-, political commitments led to the signing of the for the Establishment of the Organization for the Management and Development of the Kagera River Basin on 19 May 1978 by , , and , forming a multilateral body to coordinate development projects, including feasibility studies for and , and to harmonize environmental data across the 59,700 km² basin shared by four nations. Uganda acceded via amendment in 1984, expanding the framework to include joint investment planning despite regional instabilities. The organization's activities in the included preliminary assessments for multipurpose dams and basin-wide flow modeling, though progress was hampered by limited funding and conflicts, such as the 1978-1979 Kagera border crisis. Toward the late , participation in Nile riparian technical workshops facilitated enhanced hydrological monitoring, culminating in the 1999 launch of the Initiative's transitional mechanism, which incorporated Kagera-specific data-sharing protocols to promote equitable utilization beyond colonial-era treaties.

Role in Conflicts and Crises

Resource-Based Disputes

![Akagera map showing the transboundary Kagera River basin][float-right] Resource-based disputes in the Kagera River basin primarily arise from competition over water, grazing lands, and forests among riparian populations in Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Uganda. Cross-border migrations of pastoralists, driven by seasonal shortages and wetland degradation, frequently lead to clashes with settled agricultural communities and protected areas, as herders seek access to water and pasture during dry periods. These tensions reflect high rural dependency on natural resources, where basin inhabitants rely heavily on ecosystems for livelihoods, exacerbating conflicts when resources dwindle due to overuse. A notable example involves a persistent land dispute between and originating around 1956, when heavy rains altered the Kagera River's course, shifting fertile agricultural territory across the border. Local farmers on both sides claim ownership based on pre-shift cultivation, leading to recurring tensions and failed bilateral resolutions as of , with communities advocating for recognition of historical use against state boundary assertions. Pastoralist incursions into neighboring reserves and farms further fuel disputes, often rooted in population pressures and inadequate governance rather than solely ethnic divisions, as evidenced by patterns of resource encroachment independent of broader political narratives. Refugee influxes have intensified scarcity, particularly in Tanzania's , where arrivals from regional conflicts increased local populations by significant margins—such as the 1990s surges representing up to 20% growth in affected districts—accelerating , fuelwood shortages, and source that host-refugee relations and ignite land access conflicts. FAO assessments highlight how such demographic pressures compound , with basin-wide exploitation prompting pastoral movements that pit mobile herders against sedentary locals, underscoring failures in over inherent animosities.

Rwandan Genocide Events (1994)

During the Rwandan genocide from April 7 to July 19, 1994, Hutu extremists systematically killed an estimated 500,000 to 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu, often dumping bodies into rivers to conceal evidence and accelerate disposal. In particular, thousands of corpses were thrown into the Nyabarongo River, a major tributary of the Kagera, where floodwaters carried them downstream through Rwanda and Tanzania toward Lake Victoria. By mid-May 1994, reports documented hundreds of bodies per day clogging the Kagera near the Tanzanian border, with bloated remains visible amid the rapids and falls, highlighting the scale of centralized killing operations coordinated via state militias and propaganda that framed Tutsi as existential threats amid ongoing civil war with the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The Kagera's flow transported these primarily victims—along with some moderate opponents of the regime—over distances up to 60 miles, resulting in over 10,000 bodies washing ashore in Ugandan villages along by late May. Local communities, including fishermen, halted operations and resorted to mass burials in plastic-wrapped pits due to the overwhelming volume and decomposition risks, exacerbating public health crises though direct attribution remains debated amid broader strains. These downstream impacts underscored causal failures in ethnic mobilization: ideology, amplified by radio broadcasts and interim government directives, weaponized administrative structures for rapid extermination rather than mere tribal spontaneity, while state collapse post-presidential assassination enabled unchecked militias. As RPF forces advanced from , capturing territory and ending the by July, reprisal killings occurred against civilians and combatants, with documenting thousands of noncombatant deaths in RPF-held zones, though on a scale far below the systematic anti-Tutsi campaign and lacking equivalent intent evidence per findings. Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) observers noted the river bodies as early indicators of mass slaughter, yet bureaucratic delays—rooted in post-Somalia and definitional debates over "" versus "acts of "—prevented mandate expansion or reinforcements despite Roméo Dallaire's warnings of impending catastrophe. International inaction persisted even as and flows confirmed the toll, prioritizing evacuation over intervention until RPF military gains shifted dynamics.

Environmental Challenges

Degradation and Pollution Sources

The Kagera River has experienced significant changes driven by and , with and conversion of to farmland as primary contributors to . and analyses indicate substantial forest loss across riparian countries, including a 78% decline in Rwanda's natural forests since 1990 due to clearance for cultivation and fuelwood. In the Tanzanian portion of the , tree cover decreased by 7.1% from 2001 to 2024, equivalent to 47.9 thousand hectares, primarily from conversion to cropland and settlements. conversion to paddies and other has accelerated runoff and , with studies projecting further losses to amid rising demands for . Pollution sources in the Kagera include non-point agricultural runoff and point discharges from settlements, elevating loads in the river. Hydrochemical and isotopic analyses of the lower Kagera reveal nitrates predominantly from and , contributing 49% to 73% of at sampled sites, linked to rearing and inadequate management. These inputs, combined with use in upstream farming, have increased risks, though empirical monitoring shows spatially variable concentrations rather than basin-wide collapse. The 1994 caused a transient spike in organic contaminants as an estimated 10,000 bodies entered the Kagera and flowed into , posing immediate health hazards through decomposition products. Water quality impacts were short-term, with natural dilution and flow dynamics facilitating recovery by 1995, as evidenced by subsequent stabilization in downstream ecosystems despite ongoing pressures. Erosion from deforested slopes and cultivated uplands has elevated loads, with high noted in marshlands and tributaries due to mechanical and land clearance. This contributes to reduced storage in downstream reservoirs, such as those proposed for , where quartz-rich deposits exacerbate capacity loss over time, though basin-specific rates remain data-limited and tied to variable rainfall. Despite these trends, empirical data do not indicate irreversible hydrological disruption, as river flow persists amid economic diversification from intensified .

Conservation Initiatives and Transboundary Management

The Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Programme for the Kagera River Basin (Kagera TAMP), implemented by the of the (FAO) with funding from the from 2007 to 2015, targeted through sustainable land management (SLM) practices such as terracing, , and wetland restoration across , , , and . The initiative engaged local communities in adopting these measures, resulting in the rehabilitation of degraded landscapes and improved , with pilot sites demonstrating enhanced vegetation cover and reduced runoff into the river. Complementing national efforts, the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), formed in 1999 by riparian states including the Kagera-sharing countries, has promoted transboundary cooperation through joint diagnostic studies and cooperative frameworks for shared water resources. Key outcomes include the 2023 Kagera River Basin Transboundary Cooperative Framework, which outlines integrated management strategies encompassing aquifer monitoring, data sharing, and equitable utilization of surface and groundwater resources to mitigate scarcity risks. This has facilitated projects like the Rusumo Falls Hydropower Dam, operational planning since 2014 involving Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania, which balances energy generation with downstream flow assurances to prevent unilateral diversions. Despite verifiable advancements in and resource mapping, implementation has faced delays from sovereignty assertions and uneven enforcement capacities among states, as evidenced by persistent rates exceeding sustainable thresholds in ungoverned sub-catchments. Pragmatic bilateral arrangements, such as localized extraction protocols, have yielded more tangible results than broader multilateral commitments, underscoring the efficacy of targeted over expansive in transboundary settings. Ongoing under NBI frameworks continues to prioritize data-driven adjustments to address residual , with community-led fencing of springs protecting vital sources amid variable enforcement.

References

  1. [1]
    Major Rivers Of Uganda - World Atlas
    The Kagera River is a total of 249 miles (400 kilometers) in length and flows through Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. The river's source starts starts ...
  2. [2]
    What is the longest river in the world? It's surprisingly debatable
    Jul 10, 2023 · The largest tributary of Lake Victoria is the Kagera River, which has its headwater in Burundi. It is from there that the Nile is measured as ...
  3. [3]
    [PDF] In-Depth Case Study of the Nile River Basin - IW:LEARN
    Kagera River, which feeds Lake Victoria and is therefore a remote source of the Nile.31. Subsequently, UNDUGU (meaning “brotherhood” in Swahili) was formed ...
  4. [4]
    Changing Trends of Natural Resources Degradation in Kagera Basin
    The Kagera basin includes important environmental resources which are now under threat due to encroachment by humans [1]. Land degradation and biodiversity loss ...
  5. [5]
    [PDF] Kagera Basin System
    The Kagera aquifer may be the most prominent groundwater resource in the Kagera Basin which is known for its mountainous terrain, significant rainfall, flowing ...
  6. [6]
    Water Resources Conflict Management of Nyabarongo River and ...
    The main tributaries of the Kagera River are the Ruvubu River gathering the waters from Burundi and the Nyabarongo River flowing from Rwanda.
  7. [7]
    Akagera River Transport - Approved project | PIDA PAP 2
    The Akagera River, also known as the Kagera River, or Alexandra Nile, is an East African river which begins in Burundi from Lake Rweru and flows east along the ...
  8. [8]
    Kagera basin - GWP
    May 25, 2011 · Kagera basin. With 34% annual tributary flow, Kagera is the single largest river that drains into Lake Victoria.Missing: course origin features
  9. [9]
    Kagera River Basin Management Project | AGLI
    The basin area has insufficient water for household use and for grazing despite the abundant water sources found in the area. Wetlands have been overused and ...
  10. [10]
    [PDF] Development of a Kagera River Basin Transboundary Cooperative ...
    On the Nyabarongo River the range of levels reduces downstream from a maximum of 4.10 m at Kan- zenze to 1.20 m at Rusumo Falls. In the Lower Reach the ...<|separator|>
  11. [11]
    Kagera River Basin location. - ResearchGate
    The Kagera River Basin is shared by Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Tanzania and flow to The Lake Victoria and drains to Nile River as shown in Figure 1.
  12. [12]
    [PDF] 1 Background Information on Natural Resources in the Kagera River ...
    It encloses a total area of 59,700km2 spread over four countries: Burundi (23%), Rwanda (34%), Tanzania (35%, 20,765km2) and Uganda (8%).<|control11|><|separator|>
  13. [13]
    [PDF] Kagera Aquifer System - IGAD Water
    ... basin along the Congo-. Nile Ridge at the western part of the basin. This area has a humid climate with annual rainfall between 1000 to 1600 mm and average ...
  14. [14]
    [PDF] KIWMP ANNEX F - Nile Basin Initiative
    From a development point of view the Kagera basin has two specific positive features; the first is the nature of its perennial flows and the second is its ...
  15. [15]
    [PDF] the lake victoria basin
    The monthly flow series (Fig. 3.3) of the Kagera at Kyaka Ferry, or at Nyakanyasi some 80 km upstream, shows the high baseflow component of the Kagera flow, ...
  16. [16]
    [PDF] Flood and Catchment Management - NBCBN
    More rainfall comes in April causing the river to rise to maximum flow in May. Figure 3-6: Mean monthly rainfall distribution in Kagera river basin.
  17. [17]
    [PDF] 1 Meteorology / Hydrology - Ministry of Water and Environment
    Figure 1.31 Measured and modelled discharges in the Kagera River at Kyaka Fer- ry. ... The final discharge at the gauging station is represented by either the ...
  18. [18]
    [PDF] NILE BASIN SEASONAL HYDROLOGICAL OUTLOOK
    The water levels in the major riv- ers flowing into the Lake Victoria (Kagera, Mara,. Nzoia, Nyando, Sio, Katonga) were predicted to subside but remain higher ...
  19. [19]
    [PDF] IWRM-based Basin Development Plan
    impact on the Kagera River is estimated at 500 million m3/a, or 7% of the ... flow regime downstream of dams has been the most pervasive, and damaging ...
  20. [20]
    The Nile River and the Aswan High Dam
    The River Nile in Africa is the world's longest river. It is approximately 6650 km from the mouth of the Mediterranean Sea to its headwater sources, ...
  21. [21]
    Unique Facts Africa-The Nile - Sheppard Software
    the Ruvyironza — is taken as the beginning and followed to the Mediterranean, the Nile is approximately 6695 km (4160 miles) long.
  22. [22]
    What is the Source of the Nile, and How Can I Visit It?
    The Kagera River, which flows into Lake Victoria, is considered by many geographers to be the true source of the Nile. Originating in the highlands of Burundi ...
  23. [23]
    [PDF] A REVIEW OF THE HYDROLOGY OF LAKE VICTORIA AND THE ...
    Although Hurst measured the flow of the Kagera as early as. 1926, the estimates of the runoff of the rest of the Lake Victoria basin are described as -rough ...
  24. [24]
    Source of the River Nile – a Mystery? - Beyonder Travel
    Mar 21, 2020 · Interestingly, a German explorer Richard Kandt, in 1898, discovered the source of the Kagera river to the Nyungwe forest in Rwanda. Thus, we may ...Missing: headstream | Show results with:headstream
  25. [25]
    Source Of The Nile | Lake Victoria - insideafricadestinations.com
    The Ruvyironza River of Burundi (one of the tributaries of the Kagera) has been given as the most remote source of the Nile. The intricate system of rivers ...
  26. [26]
    After Winning the Gorilla War, Rwanda Eyes Source of the Nile
    Feb 4, 2014 · ... Kagera river to its longest point up in the Nyungwe forest. It is this point they declared to be "the longest source of the river Nile ...
  27. [27]
    Fish species observations from a monitoring survey of two Lake ...
    Feb 2, 2022 · Fish species observations from a monitoring survey of two Lake Victoria affluent rivers (Rivers Kagera and Sio) · Description · Data Records.
  28. [28]
    Reproductive Biology of Ningu, Labeo victorianus (Pisces
    Aug 9, 2025 · For example, fish catches per net from the mouth of river Kagera decreased from 13.6 in 1954 to 0.5 in 1963 (Rutaisire & Booth, 2005) . In Kenya ...
  29. [29]
    [PDF] Freshwater biodiversity in the Lake Victoria Basin - IUCN Portal
    Aug 22, 2017 · The species richness in the upper Kagera River valley region (e.g. Figure 4.5), along the border between Tanzania and Rwanda, is also ...<|separator|>
  30. [30]
    [PDF] OCCASIONAL PAPERS - AquaDocs
    per net (c.p.n.) data of the "ningu" fishery in the Nzoia and Kagera rivers since records were first made. Catch data for the Kageia river shows that up to 1951.
  31. [31]
    RWANDA (Contd.)
    Fisheries data ; No. of fishermen: 35 in 1975/76 (Kiss, 1977b) ; 105 recommended (Dunn, 1974) ; Total annual catch: 70 t in 1975 ; 70 t in 1975.
  32. [32]
    Population parameters of African Carp, Labeo victorianus ...
    Aug 31, 2025 · Electronic length frequency analysis (ELEFAN) software in Fish Stock Assessment Tools (FiSAT II) program was used to analyze data. Natural ...
  33. [33]
    Mapping and Monitoring the Akagera Wetland in Rwanda
    Apr 21, 2025 · After waterbodies that occupy 30% of the wetland's surface area, hippo grass and Cyperus papyrus are also predominant, representing 29.8% and 29 ...
  34. [34]
    Carbon and water cycles in tropical papyrus wetlands - AGRIS
    The objective of this study was to utilise Eddy Covariance (EC) techniques to measure the fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour between papyrus vegetation ...
  35. [35]
    Kagera swamps - keybiodiversityareas.org
    Kagera swamps (6987) Tanzania, Africa · Site overview · Site details · Habitats · Biodiversity elements triggering KBA criteria · Other species not triggering KBA ...Missing: River hotspots perennial flows
  36. [36]
    [PDF] A – Background and context - FAO Knowledge Repository
    The Kagera River is estimated to contribute 10% of the outflow from Lake. Victoria into the Nile, and is important for sustaining the flow of the Nile. The ...
  37. [37]
    FLOWING UNDERGROUND: Groundwater holds promise of closing...
    The main food crops include finger millet, maize, beans, bananas, cassava, and potatoes, in addition to fruits and vegetables, with coffee being a major cash ...
  38. [38]
    [PDF] Flood based farming systems in Africa - DREAM for Dry Lowlands
    During the rainy season, the fertile alluvial soils adjacent to the rivers are sowed with cereals, legumes, and gourds that are harvested just prior to the ...
  39. [39]
    [PDF] Transboundary Agro-Ecosystem Management Project for the Kagera ...
    Land use includes a range of diverse production systems: extensive and intensive livestock systems; cropping systems. – cereals associated with legumes and ...Missing: floodplains | Show results with:floodplains
  40. [40]
    Water-saving irrigation boosts land productivity in Rwanda - InfoNile
    Aug 28, 2023 · Of the 26 irrigation schemes identified, 13 schemes (4,627 ha out of 7,698 ha or 60%) are swamp-based schemes used for growing rice over two ...
  41. [41]
    The Hidden Lifeline Transforming Agriculture in Tanzania
    May 5, 2025 · The Kagera Sugar irrigation scheme in Misenyi District, for instance, uses a combination of river and groundwater to sustain sugarcane ...
  42. [42]
    [PDF] Irrigation Main Report - Nile Basin Initiative
    The area equipped for irrigation, currently slightly more than 13 million hectares, makes up just 6% of the total cultivated area. Eighty- five percent of ...
  43. [43]
    Transboundary agro-ecosystem management programme for the ...
    Sep 19, 2022 · The Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Project for the Kagera River Basin (Kagera TAMP) sought to curb land degradation and its negative impacts.
  44. [44]
    Home | Kagera
    The Project Goal is to adopt an integrated ecosystems approach for the management of land resources in the Kagera Basin that will generate local, national and ...
  45. [45]
    The Regional Rusumo Falls Hydroelectric Project (RRFHP) - Nelsap
    The project will develop renewable hydroelectric power as part of a broader program to support sustainable management of the Kagera River Basin and promote ...
  46. [46]
    Rusumo Falls Hydro Power Project - Rwanda Energy Group
    Rusumo falls Hydropower Project is planned to generate 80 MW and the power output will be shared equally by three countries.
  47. [47]
    How the Rusumo Falls hydropower project is impacting access to ...
    May 10, 2022 · ... Rusumo. It is estimated to produce about 80 MW of electricity on the Kagera River at the Rusumo Falls. Construction activities began in 2017 ...
  48. [48]
    Design optimization at the Rusumo Falls hydropower project
    The Rusumo Falls Hydropower Project is an 80 MW generating scheme developed as part of the Nile Basin Initiative/Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action ...
  49. [49]
    Akanyaru Multipurpose Water Resources Development Project
    Akanyaru River is part of the Kagera River basin that forms part of the Lake Victoria Basin. The proposed project is located along the transboundary Akanyaru ...
  50. [50]
    [PDF] AkAnyAru Multipurpose WAter resources DevelopMent project
    The Akanyaru project, on the Akanyaru River, will irrigate 12,474 ha, generate 14.5 MW hydropower, and supply water to 614,200 people. It includes a 52m dam.
  51. [51]
    the two countries will mobilize $190 million for the Akanyaru dam
    Mar 1, 2021 · The Akanyaru dam project will cost $190 million, store 333 million m3 of water, provide water for 614,200 people, and produce 14.5 MW of ...Missing: Kagera | Show results with:Kagera<|separator|>
  52. [52]
    [PDF] Rusumo dam-social challenge in Kagera River Basin
    By the year 2001, the World Commission on Dams brought into focus the debate on dam- related impacts on local economies, societal cultures, livelihoods security ...
  53. [53]
    Conserving Rivers and Their Biodiversity in Tanzania - MDPI
    Dec 11, 2019 · In this article, we highlight the importance of Tanzanian rivers and make a case for the conservation of the freshwater and terrestrial species that rely on ...
  54. [54]
    REVENUE FROM FISHING ACTIVITIES SURPASS TARGET - News
    Apr 7, 2020 · Over 4.72bn/- revenue was collected from fisheries activities in Kagera Region within a period of two years, Officer Incharge of Lake Victoria Surveillance ...
  55. [55]
    Tanzania: Over 4.72bn/-Revenue Collected From Fisheries ...
    Apr 9, 2020 · OVER 4.72bn/-revenue was collected from fisheries resources in Kagera Region within a period of two years, Officer in-charge of the Lake ...Missing: income | Show results with:income<|separator|>
  56. [56]
    Employment in the fisheries sector around Lake Victoria, pre-and...
    It is estimated that almost 200 000 people are directly employed in the fisheries, almost 600 000 are indirectly employed, and when dependants are included, ...
  57. [57]
    Havoc as Tanzania's Fish Exports Plummet - Water Journalists Africa
    Jun 5, 2024 · Official government figures by the Ministry of Finance reveal a sharp decline in exports of Nile Perch between 2019 and 2022. From about 25,000 ...
  58. [58]
    [PDF] Nile Perch Fishery Management Plan for Lake Victoria 2015 - 2019
    During the last decade, the fishery has faced serious problems of overcapitalisation and overfishing and high levels of non-compliance to regulations in the ...Missing: Kagera | Show results with:Kagera
  59. [59]
    Fighting poverty through fish farming - Daily News
    Oct 27, 2022 · The farmers could double their income through aquaculture following a scientific report that a farmer could earn up to 20m/- a year. Aquaculture ...<|separator|>
  60. [60]
    Why Aquaculture May Be Solution to Farmers' Woes in Kagera
    Nov 21, 2014 · Over 30 million people in Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) could greatly improve their livelihoods if they utilize the abundant investment ...<|separator|>
  61. [61]
    (PDF) Towards sustainable exploitation of Nile perch consequential ...
    Aug 7, 2025 · It is recommended to reduce the exploitation rate by 50% and to increase the size at first capture. Co-management is considered to be the most ...
  62. [62]
    [PDF] NILE PERCH FISHERIES MANAGEMENT PLAN III for LAKE ...
    Fish above 85 cm are more likely to be disposed through unregulated markets and processing factories compromising or diminishing product safety, value and.Missing: Kagera | Show results with:Kagera
  63. [63]
    The Discovery of the Source Of The Nile, by John Hanning Speke
    To-day we reached the Kitangule Kagera, or river, which, as I ascertained in the year 1858, falls into the Victoria N'yanza on the west side. Most ...
  64. [64]
    Henry Stanley Articles - Archive of American Journalism
    New York Herald/March 1, 1875. Horrors ... 1876 cont'd. A Beautiful People and Their Mountaintop Fortress New York Herald/August 11, 1876. On the Kagera River
  65. [65]
    The unsettling sources of the Nile - Geographical Magazine
    Jul 13, 2016 · For the Kagera is a significant river, as I saw for myself while crossing it in 1996. Indeed, the Kagera is much wider than the Victoria Nile ...
  66. [66]
    [PDF] The Nile - AWS
    After World War II, the British government commissioned a hydrological study of the Nile Basin. However, the study did not include the. Ethiopian portions of ...
  67. [67]
    Rainfall and Water Resources Variability in Sub-Saharan Africa ...
    Twentieth Century​​ River basin rainfall series and extensive river flow records are used to characterize and improve under- standing of spatial and temporal ...
  68. [68]
    Agreement | International Environmental Agreements (IEA ...
    Amendment Allowing The Accession Of Uganda To The Agreement For The Establishment Of An Organization To Manage And Develop The Kagera River Basin · International ...
  69. [69]
    The Kagera River and the Making of a Contested Boundary - jstor
    The first attempt was made by A.H. Cox, a late colonial author. He summarized the elements found in Buganda' s royal chronicles written by Apolo Kagwa in the ...
  70. [70]
    [PDF] Land Use and its Effects on Biodiversity in the Kagera River Basin
    As the soil fertility lowered they would have moved from the lower basin towards more fertile soils on the ridges of the Karagwe. Human settlement and land use ...Missing: deposition | Show results with:deposition
  71. [71]
    [PDF] Kagera River Basin Management Project
    The Kagera basin which lies within the four countries of Burundi, Rwanda,. Uganda and Tanzania, is characterized by low productive peasant agriculture.Missing: size | Show results with:size<|separator|>
  72. [72]
    [PDF] Land and Natural Resources Conflicts in Transboundary ...
    It is informative to note, Kagera Basin levels of dependency on natural related resources are very high, particularly among the rural poor, who rely on ...
  73. [73]
    Burundi-Rwanda: Tension increases in ongoing land dispute
    Jan 31, 2006 · A land dispute that resulted from a river changing its course due to heavy rains some 50 years ago continues to vex neighbouring agricultural communities.
  74. [74]
    [PDF] refugees and host communities in western Tanzania - UNHCR
    Kagera and Kigoma regions have a total Tanzanian population of nearly 2.5 million. The refugee influx therefore represented an overall population increase in ...
  75. [75]
    [PDF] Refugee-affected Areas - Tanzania - UNHCR
    The protracted presence of refugees in western Tanzania has led to de- forestation, scarcity of fuel re- sources, land degradation, destruc- tion of water ...Missing: influx | Show results with:influx
  76. [76]
    [PDF] LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES CONFLICTS IN ...
    It is informative to note, Kagera Basin levels of dependency on natural related resources are very high, particularly among the rural poor, who rely on ...
  77. [77]
    The Death Toll of the Rwandan Genocide: A Detailed Analysis for ...
    By subtracting the number of survivors from the estimated Tutsi population under the no-genocide scenario, we obtain an estimate of 500,900 Tutsi killed in the ...
  78. [78]
    Casualty Estimates in the Rwandan Genocide
    Jan 1, 2020 · 4 Scott Straus. The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006); Philip Verwimp, “Death and ...
  79. [79]
    Emigres Return to Fight In Rwanda's Backlands; Bodies Flow Over ...
    May 17, 1994 · A vivid rainbow arches over the churning cataract below the falls on the Kagera River. Bloated bodies bob and spin in the foam.
  80. [80]
    Bodies Clog Rwandan River: Officials Count Hundreds of Corpses ...
    May 1, 1994 · MWANZA, Tanzania, May 1, 1994 -- The meandering Kagera River has become a sea of bodies. The sudden rush of a quarter-million refugees from ...Missing: Lake Victoria
  81. [81]
    Genocide: Ideology and Organization - Human Rights Watch
    Organizers of the genocide used ideology to bring Hutu to fear and hate Tutsi. They then used the institutions of the state to transform the fear and hate.Missing: theory | Show results with:theory
  82. [82]
    Bodies From Rwanda Cast a Pall On Lakeside Villages in Uganda
    May 28, 1994 · At first, Ngoga Murumba was horrified. Now, after seven days spent pulling bodies from Lake Victoria, wrapping them in plastic and piling ...
  83. [83]
    Sorry, Wrong Country - Time Magazine
    Jun 6, 1994 · The corpses, swept as many as 60 miles by the rain-swollen Kagera River in Rwanda to the edges of Lake Victoria, are the latest evidence of ...
  84. [84]
    Uganda reburies Lake Victoria's Rwanda genocide victims - BBC
    Jun 25, 2010 · The last of three ceremonies to rebury victims of Rwanda's 1994 genocide who were washed up on the shores of Lake Victoria in Uganda has taken place.
  85. [85]
    [PDF] Theory and Evidence from the Rwandan Genocide
    The Rwandan Genocide was a nation-wide extermination campaign led by the country's government and members of the Hutu political elite against the Tutsi ethnic ...
  86. [86]
    The Rwandan Patriotic Front (HRW Report
    In their drive for military victory and a halt to the genocide, the RPF killed thousands, including noncombatants as well as government troops and members of ...
  87. [87]
    [PDF] The International Response to Conflict and Genocide - OECD
    Within a period of three months in 1994, an estimated five to eight hundred thousand people were killed as a result of civil war and genocide in Rwanda. Large ...Missing: outbreak | Show results with:outbreak
  88. [88]
    Bystanders to Genocide - The Atlantic
    Sep 1, 2001 · As the terror in Rwanda had unfolded, Clinton had shown virtually no interest in stopping the genocide, and his Administration had stood by as ...
  89. [89]
    [PDF] S/1994/1125 - Security Council
    Oct 4, 1994 · (b) Individuals from both sides to the armed conflict have perpetrated crimes against humanity in Rwanda;. (c) Acts of genocide against the ...
  90. [90]
    [PDF] Review of the Economic Impacts of Climate Change in ... - weADAPT
    Specifically, natural forests have declined by 78 per cent since 1990 and the country is also experiencing a loss of its agrodiversity and wetland biodiversity.
  91. [91]
    Kagera, Tanzania Deforestation Rates & Statistics | GFW
    From 2001 to 2024, Kagera lost 47.9 kha of tree cover, equivalent to a 7.1% of the 2000 tree cover area, and 18.7 Mt of CO₂e emissions. This does not account ...Missing: River basin 1990s satellite
  92. [92]
    Land use and land cover change and its implications in Kagera river ...
    The Kagera basin has experienced major land use/cover changes in tropical forests, woodlands, and savannas due to the incessant conversion of land to ...Missing: farming | Show results with:farming
  93. [93]
    Effects of conversion of wetlands to rice and fish farming on water ...
    This study assessed the water quality effects of conversion of valley bottom wetlands to agriculture in southern Rwanda.
  94. [94]
    (PDF) Tracking Nitrate Sources in the Lower Kagera River in the ...
    Apr 26, 2025 · MixSIAR analysis revealed important contributions from manure and sewage sources ranging between 49% and 73%. A boron analysis revealed manure ...
  95. [95]
    Tracking Nitrate Sources in the Lower Kagera River in the Lake ...
    These results consistently indicate that manure and sewage were the predominant sources of nitrate pollution across all sampled sites in the lower Kagera basin.<|control11|><|separator|>
  96. [96]
    Thousands of Rwanda Dead Wash Down to Lake Victoria
    May 21, 1994 · AIROBI, Kenya -- As many as 10,000 bodies from Rwanda's massacres have washed down the Kagera River into Lake Victoria in Uganda in the last ...Missing: impact 1994-1995
  97. [97]
    Sustainable management of wetlands in east Africa
    Geographically, Kagera River Basin covers an area of 59,700 km2 with a population of over 16.5 million people whose main livelihood is agriculture (Mkxonda 2021) ...
  98. [98]
    Plastic Pollution of Lake Victoria: Is Uganda burdened by waste from ...
    Dec 12, 2022 · Victoria the bodies of people who were massacred during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, which ultimately became a serious health hazard in Uganda.
  99. [99]
    [PDF] Detailed identification studies for potential large dams in the Kagera ...
    The marshland is characterized by waters highly loaded with suspended matter due to mechanical erosion from river banks, deforestation and environmental ...
  100. [100]
    [PDF] final.expert.opinion.on.kagera.basin2007.pdf - NVE
    Mar 15, 2022 · Daily rainfall, temperature and discharge data have been collected for establishing and calibrating a hydrological model for the catchment ...
  101. [101]
    Changing Trends of Natural Resources Degradation in Kagera Basin
    Although the west is partly forested, much of the basin has become intensively cultivated resulting in erosion and river sediment load from the high rainfall ...
  102. [102]
    Sustainable Land Management (SLM) in Practice in the Kagera Basin
    Nov 15, 2019 · Sustainable Land Management (SLM) in Practice in the Kagera Basin: Lessons Learned for Scaling Up at Landscape Level. By FAO.
  103. [103]
    Junction of land degradation, biodiversity loss and water resources ...
    Jul 26, 2013 · The Lake Victoria Basin is facing major ecological challenges stemming from unsustainable agriculture practices and deforestation, ...
  104. [104]
    The groundwater is slowly turning into a Lifeblood of the Kagera Basin
    May 5, 2025 · Dezideri calls on the government to build fences in all water sources in the Kagera River basin to protect them since other methods have failed.