Kalku

A kalku (also spelled calcu), in Mapuche culture and mythology, is a sorcerer or witch who employs black magic and negative supernatural forces to cause harm, such as illness and misfortune, often at the behest of envious individuals.^[1] Typically female, kalkus are trained in their arts by other kalkus and derive their powers through dreams and visions, activating malevolent spirits known as wekufe.^[1] In contrast to the benevolent shamans called machi, who heal and ward off evil, kalkus are viewed as evildoers whose actions disrupt community harmony and are punishable by severe measures, including death or banishment in traditional Mapuche society prior to colonial reservations.^[1] Within Mapuche religious beliefs, which blend animism and polytheism, the kalku embodies the darker aspects of spiritual power, believed to manipulate ancestral and natural forces for personal or commissioned malice. Historical accounts from seventeenth- and eighteenth-century central-southern Chile reveal that accusations of being a kalku served as social and political tools, with ritual specialists like machi and diviners (dugul) identifying and confronting them to restore balance and protect the community. Sorcery, or kalkutun, was perceived as a primary cause of ailments and calamities, prompting widespread consultations with healers and reinforcing the kalku's role as a feared antagonist in Mapuche worldview. This perception persisted amid colonial influences, highlighting the enduring tension between benevolent and malevolent spiritual practices in Mapuche society.

Overview

Definition

In Mapuche mythology, a kalku (also spelled calcu) is defined as a sorcerer or witch who practices black magic and harnesses negative powers or forces to disrupt harmony and cause harm.^[2] This figure embodies malevolence within the spiritual framework, drawing on supernatural elements to manipulate events for destructive ends.^[3] The kalku's primary role positions it as an antagonist to benevolent spiritual entities and community well-being, employing sorcery primarily for personal gain, revenge, or to inflict suffering on others, such as through induced illness or misfortune.^[2] Unlike healers who promote balance, the kalku subverts social and cosmic order, often perceived as a threat to egalitarian ideals and collective health in Mapuche society.^[3] Kalku are usually female, though males can also take on the role and are frequently depicted through lenses of sexual ambivalence or deviation from normative masculinity, in contrast to the predominantly female machi who serve as positive spiritual intermediaries.^[3]^[1] This gender dynamic underscores the kalku's role as a counterpoint to affirming, community-oriented figures in Mapuche tradition.

Etymology

The term kalku derives from the Mapudungun language, the tongue of the Mapuche people, where it denotes a sorcerer or witch engaged in malevolent spiritual practices.^[4] In early colonial linguistic records, such as Luis de Valdivia's Vocabulario de la lengua de Chile (1606), the word appears as calcu, explicitly translated as hechicero (sorcerer or wizard), reflecting its core association with harmful magic like causing illness or misfortune.^[5] Phonetic variations emerged in Spanish-influenced texts due to orthographic adaptations, with spellings such as calcu, calcú, or calcus appearing in 17th- and 18th-century documents; for instance, Diego de Rosales's Historia general del Reino de Chile (1674) uses calcu to describe devil-pacting sorcerers, while Andrés Febrés's Arte de la lengua general de Chile (1765) renders it as calcu for both male (brujo) and female (bruja) witches.^[5] These adaptations highlight the influence of Spanish colonial phonology on recording indigenous terms, often accentuating the final vowel as calcú in later transcriptions to approximate Mapudungun pronunciation. The term's historical evolution in records begins in the early 17th century, coinciding with intensified Jesuit missionary efforts to document and interpret Mapuche spirituality; prior 16th-century accounts, like Alonso de Ercilla's La Araucana (1569), refer to similar figures generically as hechizeros (wizards) without using calcu, suggesting the word entered written colonial lexicon around 1606 via Valdivia's efforts to compile Mapudungun vocabulary for evangelization.^[5] By the 18th century, as seen in works by Bernardo de Havestadt (1777) and Juan Ignacio Molina (1782–1787), calcu had solidified as a standard descriptor for malevolent practitioners, distinct from benevolent healers, underscoring its entrenched role in colonial portrayals of Mapuche cosmology.^[5] Some linguistic analyses propose affinities with Quechua kawchu, a term for a soul-stealing sorcerer, indicating possible pre-colonial areal influences on Mapudungun terminology.^[4]

Role in Mapuche Belief System

Distinction from Machi

In Mapuche spirituality, the machi represent female shamans who serve as vital mediators between the community and the spiritual world, focusing on healing illnesses caused by supernatural forces, leading communal rituals such as the machitún to restore balance, and fostering harmony with the Ngen, the benevolent owner-spirits of natural elements like rivers and forests.^[1]^[6] Their practices emphasize collective well-being, drawing on knowledge of herbal medicine (lawen), divination through dreams and trances, and invocations of protective ancestral spirits to ward off malevolence and promote social cohesion.^[7]^[1] Kalku, in opposition, function as counterparts to the machi—often referred to in the masculine generic despite being predominantly female practitioners—who deliberately turn away from communal harmony to pursue personal gain, vengeance, or power through destructive sorcery.^[7] Unlike the machi, kalku harness their abilities for selfish ends, such as inflicting harm on rivals or accumulating wealth, thereby disrupting the cosmic equilibrium central to Mapuche worldview.^[1]^[7] This rejection of societal good positions them as antagonists within the spiritual framework, trained through secretive apprenticeships that emphasize isolation and antagonism toward protective forces. The core distinction lies in their structural opposition within Mapuche cosmology: machi utilize "white magic" aligned with benevolent entities, employing sacred altars known as rewe—often carved wooden poles symbolizing the world tree—for rituals of protection, purification, and community defense against illness or misfortune.^[1]^[7] In contrast, kalku employ secretive and malevolent practices for kalkutun (black magic) to amplify harm, often allying with wekufe as forces of chaos and negativity.^[1]^[6] This binary underscores the Mapuche emphasis on moral duality in spiritual practice, where machi embody restoration and kalku embody transgression.^[7]

Association with Wekufe

In Mapuche cosmology, the kalku establish alliances with wekufe, malevolent spirits that represent forces of chaos, illness, and disorder, directly countering the harmonious order upheld by the pillan, the supreme benevolent beings. These wekufe are classified into various types associated with earth, air, and water, often manifesting as hybrid or deformed entities that serve as agents of harm under the direction of evil chiefs like mapu-rei fücha and kude.^[8] The kalku, functioning as sorcerers or witches, collaborate with wekufe to wield negative powers, positioning themselves as disruptors of social and cosmic balance.^[8] Central to this association are interactions between kalku and wekufe, through which the sorcerers summon and bargain with these spirits to amplify their abilities in sorcery. Kalku collaborate with wekufe to inflict disease, death, and misfortune on others.^[3] Wekufe, residing in the evil realms of anka wenu (upper evil world) and minche mapu (underworld), embody the antithesis to the good in wenu mapu, the upper world of the pillan, thus reinforcing the dualistic structure of Mapuche spiritual worldview where kalku actively harness maleficence for personal or destructive ends.^[8] This partnership underscores the kalku's role as counterparts to benevolent practitioners, who align instead with protective ngen spirits.^[3]

Powers and Practices

Magical Abilities

In Mapuche traditional beliefs, kalku derive their supernatural powers from associations with wekufe, malevolent spirits that enable access to destructive forces through the kalku's service. These alliances allow kalku to wield black magic aimed at harming individuals or communities, often motivated by envy or hired requests. The powers are not innate but acquired through training, dreams, and visions, distinguishing kalku from benevolent shamans like the machi.^[9]^[10] A primary ability of the kalku is causing illness and death by dispatching wekufe to afflict targets with supernatural ailments, such as sudden fevers, paralysis, or wasting diseases that mimic natural causes but are perceived as magical attacks. This sorcery extends to casting curses that bring misfortune, including crop failures or family discord, by manipulating the essence of the victim through objects like hair. Kalku also employ spells to control natural elements, such as summoning destructive storms or winds to ravage lands and livestock, leveraging wekufe associated with climatic chaos.^[9]^[11]^[10] In folklore, shape-shifting represents another key power, allowing kalku to transform into animal forms for stealthy predation or travel; notably, advanced kalku can become the chonchon, a vampiric flying head that detaches from the body to drain blood from sleeping victims or spy undetected. Invisibility spells further aid these endeavors, rendering the kalku unseen while performing nocturnal sorcery against communities. These calcu spells—ritual incantations invoking wekufe—facilitate such transformations and concealments, though they require precise execution.^[12]^[9] Despite their potency, kalku powers carry inherent limitations tied to the wekufe alliances, as the spirits demand ongoing loyalty and offerings; betrayal or failure to uphold the agreement can cause the magic to backfire, inflicting illness or madness on the kalku themselves. This precarious balance underscores the double-edged nature of their abilities, where the servant risks becoming the victim of the very forces they command.^[9]

Rituals and Invocations

Kalku conduct their ceremonies in secrecy, primarily during nighttime hours to evade detection and harness the potency of darkness, often featuring manifestations such as dancing lights or spectral animals that signal spiritual engagement. These rituals can extend all night and involve invocations to malevolent entities, aiming to channel disruptive energies for sorcery.^[13] In beliefs, a central element of these nocturnal rites involves offerings to wekufe spirits, such as bodily substances from victims, to secure their allegiance or appease their chaotic forces. Such offerings underscore the kalku's role in negotiating with underworld entities from minche mapu, using these to bind spirits in contracts for harm.^[13] Invocations during these ceremonies employ chants directed at wekufe, accessing forbidden spiritual domains. Kalku further incorporate prohibited herbs, such as poisonous varieties mixed with personal items like nails or hair to form fuñapuwe potions, which are ritually prepared and administered to amplify curses or illnesses through supernatural means.^[13] These herbal invocations enable the kalku to direct targeted misfortunes while maintaining ritual secrecy. To safeguard against counteractions by machi healers, kalku employ protective amulets, such as red wool strings tied around limbs, which serve as barriers against benevolent spiritual interventions or retaliatory spells. These measures reflect the ongoing rivalry, ensuring the kalku's invocations yield powers like inducing spiritual afflictions without immediate reprisal.^[13]

Cultural and Historical Context

Depictions in Folklore

In Mapuche oral traditions, Kalku frequently appear as malevolent figures in folktales who inflict plagues on entire villages or orchestrate abductions to feed their supernatural allies, the wekufe. These stories portray Kalku employing dark sorcery to cause widespread illness, often interpreted as contagious diseases resulting from the consumption of human blood and flesh by their spirit servants, thereby sowing terror and discord within communities. Resolution typically comes through the heroic intervention of a Machi, the benevolent shaman, who performs curative rituals to expel the malevolent forces and restore health to the afflicted.^[14]^[15] Nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Chilean ethnographers documented Kalku as societal outcasts, marginalized individuals shunned for their association with forbidden magic and moral deviance. Tomás Guevara, in his ethnographic collections, described encounters with suspected Kalku in remote areas like mountains, where they were feared for their ability to outpace ordinary people or wield curses that demanded protective rituals, such as nightly bathing, from the community. These accounts emphasize the Kalku's isolation, driven by their reliance on harmful practices that positioned them outside social norms and alliances.^[15] Symbolically, Kalku in Mapuche myths embody greed and the profound imbalance in nature, representing forces that prioritize personal desires—such as envy or vengeance—over communal harmony and ecological equilibrium. Their actions disrupt the reciprocal balance between humans, spirits, and the land, often manifesting as greed-fueled sorcery that harms the vulnerable while sparing the wealthy who can afford protections. This portrayal underscores the Kalku's role as disruptors of the Mapuche worldview, where individual avarice leads to collective suffering and the perversion of natural order.^[15]^[16]

Influence on Modern Interpretations

In the 21st century, the Kalku has seen revival within Mapuche activism, where the figure symbolizes colonial oppression and the erosion of communal values through exploitative practices. Contemporary Mapuche interpret kalku as those who commodify sacred knowledge for personal gain, paralleling the historical and ongoing impacts of colonization that prioritize individual wealth over collective harmony.^[17] This metaphorical use strengthens activist narratives against land dispossession and cultural assimilation, with machi invoking kalku imagery in ceremonies to denounce state and corporate entities as malevolent forces disrupting social balance.^[18] Post-2000 Chilean literature and media have reimagined the Kalku in contemporary narratives, adapting the archetype to explore modern tensions between tradition and urbanization. In the 2020 animated film Nahuel and the Magic Book, directed by Germán Acuña, the Kalku appears as a raven-controlling antagonist pursuing a mystical book in a present-day Chiloé fishing community, merging mythological elements with themes of personal growth amid environmental and cultural threats.^[19] Likewise, Claudio Montoya Luengo's 2024 novel La Condena del Kalku presents the sorcerer in a fantastical yet relatable framework of epic fantasy and magical realism, using ancestral motifs to critique power imbalances in today's society.^[20] Since the 1990s, academic analyses have examined the Kalku as a psychological archetype in indigenous frameworks, embodying the shadow aspects of ambivalence, greed, and social disruption within Mapuche worldview. Ana Mariella Bacigalupo's 2005 study portrays the Kalku as a figure of moral and sexual ambiguity, reflecting internal community conflicts exacerbated by modernization and serving as a psychological caution against individualism that undermines collective identity.^[17] These interpretations contribute to indigenous psychology by highlighting how traditional symbols like the Kalku address mental and social health in decolonizing contexts.^[18]