Kedah State Legislative Assembly
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly (Malay: Dewan Undangan Negeri Kedah) is the unicameral legislature of Kedah, a northern Malaysian state bordering Thailand and the Andaman Sea, consisting of 36 elected members representing single-member constituencies throughout the state's 12 districts.[1][2][3] Its primary functions include enacting laws on state matters such as land, agriculture, and Islamic affairs under Malaysia's federal structure, debating executive policies, and approving the state budget, while the assembly's majority determines the appointment of the Menteri Besar (chief minister) who leads the executive council.[4][5] The assembly, presided over by a Speaker elected from its members, convenes in Alor Setar, Kedah's capital, and operates under the oversight of the Sultan of Kedah as head of state, with sessions typically held multiple times annually to address legislative business.[6][7] Currently, Speaker Zubir Ahmad, appointed in September 2023, chairs proceedings, while Menteri Besar Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor heads the government formed by Perikatan Nasional (PN), which secured a simple majority in the August 2023 state election amid competition from Pakatan Harapan and Barisan Nasional coalitions.[6][7][3] Kedah's assembly has historically reflected the state's rural Malay-majority demographics and agricultural economy, with frequent shifts in control between Islamist-oriented parties like PAS and ruling coalitions, notably PN's retention of power in 2023 after a prior narrow victory in 2020 that ousted Pakatan Harapan.[1] This dynamic underscores Kedah's role as a political bellwether in Peninsular Malaysia's northern corridor, where assembly decisions influence local development priorities like paddy farming subsidies and flood mitigation, though federal constraints limit fiscal autonomy.[8]History
Establishment in the Pre-Independence Era
The Kedah State Council, the direct institutional predecessor to the modern State Legislative Assembly, was established in 1905 under Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah (r. 1881–1943), marking the transition from absolute monarchical rule to a consultative legislative body in the sultanate.[9][10] This reform introduced a council comprising the Sultan, senior state officials such as the Raja Muda and Bendahara, and appointed members, primarily Malay elites, to deliberate on administrative, fiscal, and legislative matters, thereby diluting the Sultan's unilateral authority amid pressures for administrative modernization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[9] The council's formation predated British formal protectorate status in 1909, originating instead from internal initiatives influenced by Siamese overlordship and regional governance trends, with records of resolutions and enactments commencing that year.[11] Operations of the State Council were suspended during the Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945, after which it was briefly revived in 1945–1946 under British Military Administration before a hiatus until 1948, aligning with Kedah's integration into the Federation of Malaya. In this post-war phase, the council retained its advisory and legislative roles, handling enactments on land, taxation, and local governance, with membership still largely appointed and dominated by Malay aristocracy to preserve traditional structures.[10] By the early 1950s, as Malaya approached independence, the council's framework informed the state's 1950 constitution promulgated by Sultan Badlishah, which formalized executive and legislative separation while maintaining monarchical oversight. The State Council's evolution culminated in its replacement by the Kedah State Legislative Assembly in 1959, following Malaya's independence in 1957, though its pre-independence legacy established the foundational mechanisms for representative governance in Kedah, emphasizing elite consensus over broad electoral participation. This period reflected causal dynamics of colonial indirect rule and internal adaptation, where external influences prompted institutional changes without fully supplanting indigenous authority until federal constitutional reforms.[10]Post-1963 Developments and Reforms
Following the formation of the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963, the Kedah State Legislative Assembly integrated into the federal parliamentary system, retaining its unicameral structure and 28 elected seats as established under the state's pre-independence constitution. The assembly's legislative powers were circumscribed by the Eighth Schedule of the federal constitution, focusing on state-listed matters such as Islamic law, land tenure, and agriculture, while ceding broader authority to the federal level.[12] The first state election after Malaysia's formation occurred concurrently with federal polls on 25 April 1964, where the Alliance coalition secured 24 of the 28 seats, enabling it to form the government and maintain policy continuity amid the transition to federal oversight.[13] In the wake of the 13 May 1969 racial riots, the assembly was suspended alongside federal parliament under emergency declarations until February 1971, during which the state executive council exercised limited powers under federal emergency ordinances. Elections resumed on 24 August 1974 following the Election Commission's 1973 redelineation report, which recalibrated constituency boundaries across Peninsular Malaysia to address population shifts and malapportionment but preserved Kedah's 28-seat total; Barisan Nasional, the rebranded Alliance, captured 23 seats in the contest.[14][13] Subsequent reforms emphasized periodic delimitation under Article 113 of the federal constitution and the 13th Schedule, culminating in a major expansion prior to the 1995 election, when the number of constituencies increased to 36 to accommodate demographic growth and enhance proportional representation.[13] This adjustment reflected broader federal efforts to balance urban-rural electoral weights, though it drew criticism for potential gerrymandering favoring rural Malay-majority areas, as noted in analyses of post-redelineation outcomes.[15] Procedural developments included updates to standing orders for debate and committee functions, aligning with federal parliamentary practices established in the 1970s to improve legislative efficiency.Composition and Operations
Number of Seats and Constituencies
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly is a unicameral body consisting of 36 seats, each representing a single-member state constituency (known as a Dewan Undangan Negeri or DUN seat). These constituencies are delineated by the Election Commission of Malaysia (SPR) to ensure representation across the state's districts, including mainland areas like Alor Setar and rural regions, as well as the offshore Langkawi archipelago. The current boundaries were established following the nationwide redelineation exercise completed in 2018, which adjusted voter distributions but maintained the total of 36 seats for Kedah.[16][17] The constituencies are officially numbered N.1 to N.36 and grouped under Kedah's 15 federal parliamentary constituencies for electoral administration. For instance, N.1 (Ayer Hangat) and N.2 (Kuah) fall within the Langkawi federal seat, while others like N.28 (Alor Mengkudu) align with urban centers in the Padang Terap and Kubang Pasu areas. This structure ensures proportional geographic coverage, with no changes to the seat count reported as of the 2023 state election, which filled all 36 positions.[17][18]Current Composition as of 2025
The 15th Kedah State Legislative Assembly, convened following the state election on 12 August 2023, comprises 36 elected members representing single-member constituencies.[19] As of October 2025, no by-elections or verified defections have altered the initial post-election distribution, maintaining Perikatan Nasional (PN) in control with a supermajority.[20] Perikatan Nasional secured 33 seats in the 2023 election, enabling it to form the state government under Menteri Besar Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor.[19] The coalition's component parties hold the following: Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS) with 21 seats, Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU) with 11 seats, and Gerakan with 1 seat.[21] Pakatan Harapan (PH), the primary opposition coalition, won the remaining 3 seats, comprising 2 from Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) and 1 from Democratic Action Party (DAP).[21] Barisan Nasional (BN) and independent candidates failed to secure any seats.[21]| Coalition/Party | Seats |
|---|---|
| Perikatan Nasional (Government) | 33 |
| PAS | 21 |
| BERSATU | 11 |
| Gerakan | 1 |
| Pakatan Harapan (Opposition) | 3 |
| PKR | 2 |
| DAP | 1 |
| Total | 36 |
Seating Arrangement and Procedures
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly chamber accommodates 36 members on benches arranged to face the presiding officer's chair, with seating allocations determined by the Speaker to separate government and opposition members. Members enter and exit the chamber orderly, avoiding unnecessary crossing of the central floor space. Prohibited activities include reading newspapers or unrelated materials, smoking, and eating during sessions.[22] Debate procedures require members to stand at their assigned seats and await the presiding officer's (Tuan Speaker or deputy) recognition before speaking, directing all remarks to the chair. Only one member addresses the assembly at a time, with the officer calling the first observed if multiple rise. Speeches must remain relevant to the agenda, eschewing repetition, irrelevance, offensive language, personal attacks, or unsubstantiated allegations; the officer may intervene to enforce brevity or topicality, including time limits during extended discussions. Interruptions occur solely for points of order or concise clarifications, approved by the chair.[22] Members must observe silence and attentiveness during others' contributions, obeying the officer's rulings without challenge. Persistent disruption prompts warnings, cessation orders, or expulsion for the session's remainder; repeated offenses may lead to suspension. These conduct rules ensure orderly proceedings, mirroring broader Malaysian parliamentary traditions adapted for state-level operations.[22]Powers and Functions
Legislative Authority
The legislative authority of the Kedah State Legislative Assembly, known as Dewan Undangan Negeri Kedah, derives from the Constitution of Malaysia, which assigns states the power to enact laws on matters enumerated in List II of the Ninth Schedule, encompassing areas such as land tenure and acquisition, agriculture and forestry, local government, and Islamic law pertaining to personal and family matters for Muslims resident in the state.[23] This authority excludes federal matters under List I and concurrent subjects under List III, where federal legislation prevails in cases of conflict, ensuring the assembly's enactments align with national supremacy as outlined in Article 75 of the Constitution.[24] Bills, or rang undang-undang, are typically introduced by the state executive led by the Menteri Besar, undergo preparation and gazettal by the assembly secretariat, and proceed through debate in three readings during the assembly's sessions, which occur three times annually including an official opening.[25] Upon passage by a simple majority vote of members present, the bill receives royal assent from the Sultan of Kedah, after which it is gazetted as a state enactment and takes effect, with the assembly's secretariat responsible for documenting proceedings, including audio records, to facilitate oversight and public access.[26] Notable examples of enactments include the Administration of Islamic Law (Kedah Darul Aman) Enactment 2008, which governs Syariah court procedures and family law applications, and the Syariah Criminal Offences (Kedah Darul Aman) Enactment 2014, addressing hudud and qisas offences under state Islamic jurisdiction.[27] [28] In August 2024, the assembly passed the Syariah Court Enactment (Kedah Darul Aman) Bill 2024 to establish a state Shariah Supreme Court and a supplementary expenditure bill for fiscal provisions, demonstrating ongoing exercise of authority in religious administration and budgeting within constitutional bounds.[29]Oversight of Executive and Budgetary Role
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly holds the state executive accountable through parliamentary mechanisms inherited from the Westminster model, including oral and written questions directed at the Menteri Besar and executive council members during assembly sittings, as well as the formation of select committees to scrutinize government actions.[30][5] These tools enable members to probe policy implementation, administrative decisions, and potential mismanagement, fostering transparency in executive operations. The assembly's authority derives from its constitutional role in representing state interests against unchecked executive power, though practical efficacy depends on the ruling coalition's majority, which often limits opposition-led scrutiny.[31] A key oversight body is the Public Accounts Committee (Jawatankuasa Kira-Kira Wang Negeri), which examines annual audit reports from the state auditor on government financial expenditures, identifying irregularities and recommending corrective actions to the full assembly.[5][31] For instance, the committee reviews compliance with budgetary allocations and holds public hearings where executive officials must respond to findings, as evidenced in its historical tabling of reports on state accounts for years like 2002 and 2004.[32] Delays in tabling these reports have occasionally hindered timely accountability, underscoring limitations in the process despite its mandate to ensure fiscal discipline.[31] In terms of budgetary role, the assembly must approve the annual state budget and supplementary supply bills presented by the Menteri Besar, controlling the executive's access to public funds through debate, amendments, and voting.[33] This approval process occurred for Kedah's 2023 budget of RM1.059 billion, tabled on October 30, 2022, and the 2024 budget of RM1.241 billion, tabled on November 26, 2023, both involving assembly deliberation to authorize expenditures amid projected deficits of 13.92% and similar fiscal pressures.[34][35] Rejection of supply bills could precipitate a government crisis, reinforcing the assembly's leverage over executive priorities, though in practice, majority support typically ensures passage.[36] Additionally, the assembly can initiate motions of no confidence against the Menteri Besar, potentially leading to resignation, cabinet reshuffles, or assembly dissolution if passed, as permitted under state constitutional conventions mirroring federal practices.[30] This ultimate check has been invoked in Malaysian state politics, including Kedah's shifting coalitions post-2020, highlighting its role in enforcing executive responsiveness to legislative will.[37] Overall, while formal powers exist, oversight effectiveness in Kedah has faced criticism for inconsistent committee follow-through and limited public access to proceedings, contributing to variable transparency scores in national assessments.[33][38]Electoral Processes
Electoral System and Constituency Delimitation
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly employs a first-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral system, under which each of the state's 36 single-member constituencies elects one assemblyman.[39] [15] Qualified voters—Malaysian citizens aged 18 and older who are registered with the Suruhanjaya Pilihan Raya Malaysia (SPR)—cast a single vote for a preferred candidate in their assigned state constituency (denoted as N.01 to N.36).[40] The candidate securing the highest number of votes, regardless of majority, wins the seat outright, with elections typically held concurrently with federal polls or as mandated by the state assembly's dissolution, not exceeding five years from the prior election.[15] This plurality-based system favors concentrated support in specific areas and has historically amplified the seat share of coalitions with efficient vote distribution, as observed in Malaysian state contests.[41] Constituency delimitation for Kedah falls under the SPR's mandate, as stipulated in Article 113 of the Federal Constitution and detailed in the Thirteenth Schedule, which requires periodic reviews—ideally every decade—to adjust boundaries based on updated census data. The process evaluates factors including elector numbers (targeting reasonable equality, with allowances for rural-urban disparities up to 15% deviation), community or political interests, and convenient geography, but implementation has drawn scrutiny for malapportionment, where rural constituencies often carry disproportionate weight compared to urban ones due to slower population growth adjustments.[42] For instance, Kedah's constituencies exhibit variance in voter sizes, with some rural districts having fewer than 20,000 electors versus over 40,000 in urbanized areas like Alor Setar, a pattern critics attribute to rulings favoring incumbent coalitions through gerrymandering tactics.[43] The current configuration of 36 constituencies originated from the 2003 redelineation exercise, which expanded from 28 seats to accommodate population growth post-2000 census, and was retained through subsequent reviews in 2016 without Kedah-specific alterations.[44] [21] No comprehensive redelineation has occurred since the 2022 federal election boundaries were gazetted, though ongoing demographic shifts—Kedah's population reached approximately 2.25 million by 2023—may prompt future revisions to address inequities, as urged by electoral reform advocates emphasizing one-person-one-vote parity.[42] SPR proposals require parliamentary approval after public objections periods, ensuring transparency but often prolonging outdated maps that influence electoral outcomes.Historical Election Outcomes
The first election for the Kedah State Legislative Assembly occurred on 19 August 1959, coinciding with the inaugural post-independence federal polls, where the Alliance Party captured 22 of 25 seats, leaving 3 for Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS), securing a commanding majority.[13] Subsequent elections in 1964 and 1974 reinforced Alliance/BN dominance, with 22 seats in 1964 (PAS 3) and a clean sweep of 25 seats in 1974 following redistricting and constituency adjustments.[13] PAS made inroads in 1969, winning 7 seats to BN's 18 amid rising Islamist sentiment in northern Malaysia, though BN retained control.[13] BN continued to govern through the 1970s and 1980s, fending off PAS challenges: 19-6 in 1978, 20-5 in 1982, and 19-6 in 1986, reflecting UMNO's organizational strength and rural Malay voter base.[13] The 1990 election narrowed BN's edge to 17-8 over PAS, but it held power until 1999, when PAS surged to 11 seats against BN's 14 in a 25-seat assembly, exploiting Reformasi discontent post-Asian Financial Crisis; BN clung to a slim majority via alliances.[13] Recovery followed in 2004 with BN winning 26 of 36 seats (PAS 10), bolstered by expanded constituencies and economic stabilization narratives. Patterns persisted in 2008 (BN 14, opposition including PAS 11 in 36 seats) and 2013 (BN 21, PAS 4 in 36 seats), underscoring BN's resilience despite national headwinds. Shifts marked the 2010s onward. In the 2018 concurrent state-federal election across 36 seats, Pakatan Harapan (PH) secured 18 seats (via PKR, Bersatu, Amanah, and DAP candidates), ousting BN (3 seats) and edging PAS (15 seats) to form government under Menteri Besar Mukhriz Mahathir, driven by anti-corruption pledges and federal momentum.[45] PH's tenure ended prematurely in 2020 due to defections, enabling Perikatan Nasional (PN, comprising Bersatu and PAS) to assume control without a poll. The 2023 state election, held separately on 12 August across 36 seats, saw PN triumph with 33 seats (PAS dominating rural strongholds), relegating PH-BN to 3, affirming PN's appeal amid economic grievances and Malay unity appeals. Voter turnout exceeded 76%, with PN's victory attributed to incumbency and opposition disarray.[46][21]| Election Year | Seats | Governing Coalition Seats | Primary Opposition Seats | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1959 | 25 | Alliance: 22 | PAS: 3 | Alliance majority post-independence.[13] |
| 1969 | 25 | BN: 18 | PAS: 7 | PAS gains amid ethnic tensions.[13] |
| 1999 | 25 | BN: 14 | PAS: 11 | Narrow BN hold during Reformasi.[13] |
| 2004 | 36 | BN: 26 | PAS: 10 | BN rebound post-expansion. |
| 2013 | 36 | BN: 21 | PAS: 4 | BN strengthens pre-Najib scandals. |
| 2018 | 36 | PH: 18 | PAS: 15; BN: 3 | PH wave topples BN federally.[45] |
| 2023 | 36 | PN: 33 | PH-BN: 3 | PN consolidates northern Islamist base.[46] |
Election Pendulum and Swing Analysis
The election pendulum for the Kedah State Legislative Assembly arranges the 36 constituencies by the margin of victory for the winning party over the runner-up, providing insight into the vulnerability of seats held by the incumbent Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition, which secured 32 seats in the 12 August 2023 election.[20] Margins are calculated as the difference in vote share between the winner and runner-up, approximated from reported winner percentages under a two-party preferred framework, given the dominance of PN versus Pakatan Harapan-Barisan Nasional (PH-BN) contests in most seats. The most marginal PN-held seats include Lunas (margin approximately 6%, with PN at 53% vote share), Derga (approximately 13.4%, PN at 56.7%), and Kulim (approximately 20%, PN at 60%). These seats, often in semi-urban or mixed-ethnicity areas, required relatively modest swings of 3-7% to flip, contrasting with safe rural strongholds like Sungai Limau (PN at 84.9%, margin over 69%) and Tokai (84.4%, margin over 68%), where swings exceeding 30% would be needed.[47]| Marginal PN Seats (Ascending Margins) | Constituency | Winner Vote % | Approx. Margin % |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tightest | Lunas (N.34) | 53.0 | 6.0 |
| Derga (N.11) | 56.7 | 13.4 | |
| Gurun (N.22) | 61.4 | 22.8 | |
| Bukit Selambau (N.25) | 60.1 | 20.2 | |
| Kulim (N.35) | 60.0 | 20.0 |
Leadership
Speakers Roll of Honour
The Yang di-Pertua Dewan Undangan Negeri Kedah, or Speaker of the Kedah State Legislative Assembly, presides over proceedings, enforces standing orders, and represents the assembly in ceremonial capacities. The position has been held by 15 individuals since the assembly's establishment in 1959 following Malaysia's independence, typically elected from among assembly members aligned with the ruling coalition at the time of appointment.[53] Notable Speakers include:| No. | Name | Term | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | Dato' Paduka Haji Badruddin Amiruldin | 1999–2004 | Served during Barisan Nasional administration; also held federal parliamentary roles.[54] [55] |
| - | Datuk Dr. Abdul Isa Ismail | c. 2008–2013 | Appointed under Pakatan Rakyat state government; passed away in 2020 due to kidney failure.[56] |
| - | Datuk Md Rozai Shafian | 2013–2018 | Non-member appointment; previously assemblyman for Sungai Tiang (1999–2004); died in 2024 at age 69 from internal complications.[57] [58] [59] |
| - | Datuk Ahmad Kassim | 2018 | Elected amid post-election deadlock following Pakatan Harapan's 2018 victory.[60] |
| 14 | Juhari bin Bulat | 2020–2023 | Appointed 25 August 2020 as assemblyman for Ayer Hangat; previously deputy speaker from 2018.[61] [62] |
| 15 | Zubir bin Ahmad | 2023–present | Elected unopposed 24 September 2023 to resolve post-election disputes; assemblyman for Kuah and Perikatan Nasional (BERSATU) member.[53] [63] |
Selection and Role of Menteri Besar
The Sultan of Kedah appoints the Menteri Besar from among the members of the State Legislative Assembly who, in the Ruler's judgment, is likely to command the confidence of the majority of the Assembly members, as stipulated in Article 37(2)(a) of the Kedah State Constitution.[64] This appointment occurs following state elections or upon the vacancy of the office, such as due to resignation, dismissal, or loss of confidence. The appointee must be an elected Assembly member and is formally sworn in before the Sultan, as exemplified by the 2023 reappointment of Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor on August 14 after his coalition secured a majority.[65] [66] By constitutional convention, the Menteri Besar is the leader of the party or coalition holding the most seats in the Assembly, ensuring alignment with the electoral mandate. The officeholder serves at the Sultan's pleasure but remains accountable to the Assembly; failure to maintain majority support can lead to dismissal or a request for Assembly dissolution to trigger new elections, without automatically dissolving the legislature otherwise.[64] As head of government, the Menteri Besar chairs the State Executive Council (Majlis Mesyuarat Kerajaan Negeri), which comprises appointed Assembly members and advises the Sultan on executive functions related to state matters under the Ninth Schedule of the Federal Constitution, such as land administration, agriculture, and local governance.[67] The Menteri Besar directs policy implementation, proposes state legislation for Assembly approval, and oversees the state civil service, while being collectively responsible to the Assembly for executive actions.[68] The role emphasizes fiduciary duty to the Ruler and electorate, with the Menteri Besar nominating Executive Council members for royal assent, typically reflecting coalition composition to sustain governance stability.[69]Recent Developments
2023 State Election Results
The 2023 Kedah state election occurred on 12 August 2023 to elect the 36 members of the 15th Kedah State Legislative Assembly.[70] Perikatan Nasional (PN), an opposition coalition comprising Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS), Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (Bersatu), and Malaysian Chinese Association splinter Gerakan, retained control of the state government by securing a supermajority of 33 seats.[21] This outcome represented a significant consolidation of PN's hold on Kedah, following their initial capture in the 2022 general election, amid contests from the unity government alliance of Pakatan Harapan (PH) and Barisan Nasional (BN).[52]| Coalition/Party | Seats Won | Seats Contested |
|---|---|---|
| Perikatan Nasional (PN) | 33 | - |
| PAS | 21 | 21 |
| Bersatu | 11 | 12 |
| Gerakan | 1 | 3 |
| Pakatan Harapan (PH) | 3 | - |
| PKR | 2 | 10 |
| DAP | 1 | 2 |
| Barisan Nasional (BN) - UMNO | 0 | 15 |
| Independents | 0 | 10 |
Post-Election Governance and Policies
Following the August 2023 state election, the Perikatan Nasional (PN) coalition retained control of the Kedah State Legislative Assembly with 32 seats, enabling Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor to continue as Menteri Besar and lead a stable executive focused on economic revitalization amid federal-state tensions. The administration emphasized fiscal prudence and sector-specific growth, tabling a RM1.241 billion budget for 2024 with projected revenues of RM748 million, marking a 1.77% increase from the prior year, though resulting in a 13.92% deficit to fund development priorities. Key allocations included RM10.8 million in RM2,000 special cash assistance for 5,600 state civil servants, alongside dedicated funding for tourism promotion.[73][74] A cornerstone policy was the launch of Visit Kedah Year 2025, aimed at boosting tourism through over 150 events across the state, targeting 7 million visitors—up from an initial 6.5 million goal—to leverage Kedah's beaches, heritage sites, and islands like Langkawi for sustainable revenue generation. This initiative built on early successes, with 1.5 million tourist arrivals recorded in the first quarter of 2025 alone, supported by promotional collaborations and infrastructure upgrades. The government also pursued investment attraction, realizing RM4.2 billion in approved investments in Q1 2025 and RM20.38 billion overall by mid-year, positioning Kedah as a key destination for manufacturing and Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER) projects, including integrated connectivity initiatives.[75][76][77] To diversify revenue, the PN administration set a target of RM1 billion in annual state collections over the next three years by tapping untapped sources such as land premiums and fees, while advancing exploration of rare earth elements (REE) mining as a strategic resource, urging federal standard operating procedures for implementation. Regional cooperation featured prominently, with Kedah joining Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu in a joint company under the SG4 framework to pool resources for economic development, particularly REE extraction and equitable wealth distribution among PN-led northern states. These efforts reflected a pragmatic approach to addressing Kedah's rice-bowl agriculture dependencies and youth outmigration, though outcomes remained contingent on federal funding approvals, including recent infrastructure support for public housing.[78][79][80]Controversies and Criticisms
Political Defections and Instability
In May 2020, amid the national political crisis following the collapse of the Pakatan Harapan federal government, the Kedah State Legislative Assembly underwent a pivotal shift due to defections by two Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) assemblymen, Azman Nasrudin (Lunas) and Robert Ling Kui Ee (Sidam).[81][82] These lawmakers withdrew support from the PH coalition on 12 May, declaring allegiance to Perikatan Nasional (PN), which elevated PN's representation to 19 seats in the 36-seat assembly.[82] This floor-crossing deprived Menteri Besar Mukhriz Mahathir of his majority, prompting the PH government's resignation and the appointment of Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor as the new Menteri Besar under PN on the same day.[81] The defections exemplified "frog-hopping" tactics that undermined electoral mandates in Malaysia's Westminster-style system, where slim majorities—PH held a narrow edge post-2018—proved vulnerable to individual switches without immediate by-elections.[82] Azman Nasrudin and Robert Ling later formalized their alignment by joining Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (PPBM, now Bersatu) in September 2020, further consolidating PN's control.[81] Such maneuvers contributed to broader instability, as they eroded public trust in representative democracy and fueled demands for reform; the Kedah episode was part of a wave that toppled PH administrations in four states during the 2020 crisis.[83] These events accelerated legislative responses to curb defections. The anti-party hopping amendment to the state constitution, enacted in December 2022, stipulates that assembly members who resign or are expelled from their sponsoring party vacate their seats, triggering by-elections rather than allowing seamless government overthrows.[84] Applied to the 15th Kedah assembly elected in August 2023—where PN secured 32 seats—no similar defections have occurred, stabilizing PN's majority despite internal coalition tensions between PAS and Bersatu.[50] However, PN's Kedah government has faced ongoing instability from leadership controversies, including sedition charges against Sanusi in July 2023 for comments on federal matters and reports of internal PAS squabbles as late as September 2025.[85][86] Analysts have cited these frictions, alongside policy disputes with the federal unity government, as eroding PN's cohesion without triggering defections.[87]Disputes with Federal and Adjacent States
The Kedah state government, under Menteri Besar Muhammad Sanusi Md Nor since 2021, has experienced tensions with the federal government primarily over development project approvals and allocations. In July 2023, Sanusi was charged with sedition for publicly questioning why federal resources were directed to states like Johor for data centers while Kedah's similar proposals, including rare-earth element mining initiatives, faced delays; he alleged discriminatory treatment against Perikatan Nasional-ruled states.[88] The federal Economy Ministry countered that project hold-ups in Kedah, such as a RM195 million allocation for industrial land, stemmed from unresolved state-level land acquisition issues rather than federal withholding, with Minister Rafizi Ramli noting in January 2025 that Kedah had only recently identified alternative sites after prior failures.[89] Further friction arose from Sanusi's advocacy for the Langkasuka heritage tourism project, which collapsed amid financial woes; in January 2025, he attributed Kedah's economic challenges to historical territorial losses, implicitly critiquing federal inaction on rectifying past inequities.[90] These exchanges reflect broader federal-state strains under Malaysia's constitutional division of powers, where resource-dependent states like Kedah seek greater autonomy, though federal officials maintain that approvals require compliance with national guidelines on environmental and fiscal sustainability.[91] With adjacent Penang, the most prominent dispute centers on raw water extraction from the Sungai Muda basin, which spans both states and supplies up to 70% of Penang's needs via the Penang Water Supply Corporation (PBAPP). Kedah has demanded annual compensation of RM100 million since at least 2021, arguing that Penang benefits disproportionately without contributing to upstream conservation costs in Ulu Muda; in September 2024, Sanusi announced plans to sue Penang for unpaid dues dating back decades, escalating a conflict rooted in differing interpretations of interstate water rights under the National Water Services Council framework.[92][93] Compounding this, Sanusi has repeatedly asserted historical claims that Penang "belongs to Kedah," referencing pre-colonial ties and demanding lease payments for Seberang Perai territories, which Penang dismissed as baseless given its federal territory status since 1786.[93] The federal government offered mediation in December 2024, citing the transboundary nature of river basins, but no resolution has been reached, with critics like lawyer S. Raveentharan urging de-escalation to avoid economic fallout in the Northern Corridor Economic Region.[94][95] In contrast, Kedah and Perlis formalized a land and maritime boundary agreement in May 2023, covering 44.3 km without reported ongoing conflicts.[96]Performance Critiques and Empirical Outcomes
The Kedah State Legislative Assembly, under Perikatan Nasional governance since August 2020, has faced critiques for subdued economic expansion relative to national benchmarks and neighboring states. In 2021, the state's GDP growth registered at 3.2%, trailing Penang's 6.8% and contributing to perceptions of underperformance in manufacturing and services sectors, which dominate alongside agriculture. Exports from Kedah declined by RM2.0 billion in July 2025, reflecting vulnerabilities in trade-dependent activities amid global slowdowns. Opposition lawmakers have attributed this lag to policy emphases on populist initiatives over industrial diversification, though state officials counter that sectors have recovered beyond pre-pandemic levels by mid-2025.[97][98][99] Unemployment outcomes, however, demonstrate relative stability, with the rate at 1.7% in Q4 2024—below the national 3.2%—and a consistent downward trend over two years, affecting fewer than 25,000 individuals in a labor force of approximately 1.4 million. This resilience is linked to agricultural employment buffers in Kedah's rice-producing regions, despite a 3.4% contraction in the state's agriculture sector in recent years, driven by declines in palm oil and related outputs. Government data refute exaggerated claims of mass youth joblessness, pegging affected youth at around 25,000 rather than 100,000, underscoring effective local labor absorption amid federal recovery efforts.[100][101][102][103] Poverty metrics reveal mixed empirical results, with incidence surging to 12.7% in 2020 from 8.8% in 2019 due to pandemic disruptions in rural farming households, exceeding national upticks. By 2022, hardcore poverty persisted at elevated rates in Kedah compared to urban centers, prompting federal interventions like targeted aid under Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, which critics argue the state administration underutilized in favor of political posturing. Rural-urban disparities endure, with agriculture-dependent districts showing slower rebounds, though absolute poverty nationally fell to 5.1% by 2024, implying parallel but unverified state-level moderation.[104][105][106][107] Policy critiques center on water governance and development disputes, where populist resource reallocations—such as challenging federal-approved pipelines with Penang—have yielded short-term rural gains but long-term inefficiencies, including supply shortages during floods. Mega-project proposals like airport expansions faced federal rejections post-2022, stalling infrastructure outcomes and fueling accusations of governance instability over pragmatic execution. Proponents highlight Perikatan Nasional's retention of power in 2023 elections as validation, yet empirical lags in GDP per capita and sectoral diversification underscore causal links to limited federal alignment and overreliance on agrarian bases.[108][88]| Indicator | Kedah (Recent) | National Comparison | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| GDP Growth (2021) | 3.2% | Higher in Penang (6.8%) | [97] |
| Unemployment Rate (Q4 2024) | 1.7% | 3.2% | [100] [102] |
| Poverty Incidence (2020) | 12.7% | ~8.4% (national spike) | [104] [109] |