Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Kiev -class aircraft carrier

The Kiev-class aircraft carrier, officially designated Project 1143 Krechyet, was a class of four hybrid heavy aviation cruisers developed for the Soviet Navy in the 1970s and 1980s as part of its effort to project naval power during the Cold War.^[1] These vessels combined the functions of an aircraft carrier and a missile cruiser, featuring an angled flight deck with a bow ski-jump ramp for short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) operations, arrestor wires for conventional landings, and a substantial arsenal of anti-ship missiles, anti-aircraft systems, and anti-submarine weaponry.^[1] With a standard displacement of approximately 32,000 tons and a full load of 43,000-45,000 tons, they measured 273 meters in length overall, had a beam of 32 meters, and were powered by steam turbines delivering up to 180,000 shaft horsepower for a maximum speed of 32 knots and a range of 8,500 nautical miles at 18 knots.^[2] Their air wing typically included up to 16–18 Yak-38 Forger STOVL fighters for air defense and ground attack, along with 14–18 Ka-25 Hormone or Ka-27 Helix helicopters for anti-submarine warfare and search-and-rescue roles, supported by a 14,700-square-meter flight deck.^[1] Designed under the direction of Admiral Sergei Gorshkov to circumvent doctrinal resistance to full-fledged aircraft carriers within the Soviet military establishment, the Kiev class represented the USSR's first major foray into carrier aviation, emphasizing multi-role capabilities to support surface action groups in anti-submarine, anti-air, and strike missions against NATO naval forces.^[3] Construction began at the Mykolaiv Shipyard (now in Ukraine) in 1970, with the lead ship Kiev launched in 1972 and commissioned in December 1975; the class included Minsk (1978), Novorossiysk (1982), and Baku (renamed Admiral Gorshkov in 1991, 1987).^[2] Armament comprised two twin P-500 Bazalt (SS-N-12 Sandbox) anti-ship missile launchers (12 on Baku), two twin 76 mm AK-726 guns (100 mm AK-100 on Baku), four AK-630 close-in weapon systems, two RBU-6000 anti-submarine rocket launchers, and torpedo tubes, complemented by defensive systems like the SA-N-3 Goblet and SA-N-4 Gecko surface-to-air missiles.^[2] The Kiev class played a key role in Soviet naval exercises and deployments, including operations in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific, demonstrating the USSR's growing blue-water capabilities before the Cold War's end.^[4] After the Soviet Union's dissolution in 1991, the ships were inherited by Russia, but maintenance challenges led to their decommissioning: Kiev in 1993 (later a museum ship in China), Minsk in 1995 (now a theme park attraction in Shenzhen), Novorossiysk scrapped in 1998 after a fire, and Admiral Gorshkov sold to India in 2004 for refit as the STOBAR carrier INS Vikramaditya, commissioned in 2013 with a modified MiG-29K air wing.^[5] Though limited by the Yak-38's short range and the class's hybrid design, the Kiev vessels marked a pivotal evolution in Soviet naval aviation, influencing subsequent designs like the Kuznetsov class.^[1]

Development

Strategic Background

During the 1960s, Soviet naval doctrine placed significant emphasis on surface action groups designed primarily for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and fleet air defense, reflecting a focus on countering submarine threats to protect warships, troop transports, and coastal installations.^[6] This strategy evolved from mid-1950s formulations and was refined in the early 1960s to address perceived vulnerabilities in open-ocean operations, prioritizing integrated task forces over standalone power projection.^[7] In contrast, the U.S. Navy pursued a carrier-centric blue-water approach, leveraging large-deck aircraft carriers for global strike and reconnaissance missions, which highlighted fundamental differences in strategic priorities during the Cold War.^[8] Soviet intelligence efforts in the 1960s, including reconnaissance flights over U.S. carriers such as the Forrestal-class between January and February 1963, provided detailed observations that influenced the conceptualization of hybrid carrier designs.^[3] These assessments, combined with monitoring U.S. carrier operations in Southeast Asia starting in 1964, underscored the effectiveness of naval aviation in local conflicts and prompted the Soviet Navy to pursue balanced carrier-cruiser hybrids capable of supporting both aviation and heavy armament.^[3] Such designs aimed to integrate fixed-wing aircraft operations without fully replicating American supercarriers, partly to navigate political sensitivities around naval force classifications under international agreements like the Montreux Convention.^[9] Key milestones in this strategic shift included 1964 Politburo discussions on naval expansion, which aligned with Admiral Sergey Gorshkov's policy statements emphasizing operations in distant theaters and the integration of aviation assets into surface fleets.^[10] Gorshkov, as Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy, further advocated for aviation-capable cruisers in his 1971 book Sea Power of the State, arguing that modern navies required versatile forces combining missiles, submarines, and aircraft to achieve command of the sea and support state interests in both war and peace.^[11] The strategic imperatives were particularly driven by vulnerabilities in the Soviet Northern and Pacific Fleets to NATO submarine forces during the 1960s, where U.S. and allied ASW capabilities threatened Soviet ballistic missile submarines and surface operations in the North Atlantic and Far East.^[12] Initial concepts for Project 1143 (Krechyet) emerged from 1962 studies on ASW platforms, building on earlier helicopter carrier designs to incorporate fixed-wing aviation for enhanced fleet defense and anti-submarine roles.^[13]

Project Definition and Approval

In 1968, the Nevskoye Planning and Design Bureau (formerly TsKB-17) was tasked with developing Project 1143, the design for what would become the Kiev-class aircraft-carrying cruisers, under the leadership of chief designer A.V. Marinich. This effort built on earlier helicopter carrier projects like Project 1123, aiming to create a more advanced vessel capable of integrating fixed-wing aviation while adhering to Soviet naval doctrine. The technical design was completed in under a year, with the preliminary design receiving approval from the Soviet Navy and Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry on April 30, 1970.^[14]^[15] The project emphasized a hybrid "heavy aircraft cruiser" classification, which allowed the ships to operate as both missile-armed surface combatants and aviation platforms, integrating anti-ship missiles such as the P-500 Bazalt with VTOL aircraft capabilities. This designation was crucial for compliance with the 1936 Montreux Convention, which restricted aircraft carriers over 15,000 tons from transiting the Turkish Straits; by classifying the vessels as cruisers, the Soviet Union ensured access from Black Sea shipyards to operational theaters. Displacement was balanced to meet requirements for construction and deployment feasibility. Admiral Sergei Gorshkov, Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy from 1956 to 1985, played a pivotal role in advocating for this configuration, viewing it as a pragmatic evolution toward carrier aviation within political and doctrinal constraints.^[16]^[2]^[17] Key challenges during the approval phase included debates over aircraft integration, particularly the selection of a VTOL fighter suitable for the STOVL (short takeoff/vertical landing) setup. In 1970, the Yakovlev Yak-38 was chosen as the primary fixed-wing aircraft, despite ongoing discussions about its limitations in range, payload, and engine reliability compared to conventional carrier-based options. The full project received final approval from Soviet authorities later that year, enabling the lead ship Kiev's keel-laying in July 1970.^[18]^[14]

Design

Structural Design

The Kiev-class aircraft carriers were constructed with a steel hull optimized for durability and versatility in harsh maritime conditions, including operations in Arctic waters where ice navigation capabilities were essential. The hull featured a bulbous bow to improve hydrodynamic stability and reduce wave resistance, contributing to the ship's overall seaworthiness. This design allowed the vessels to navigate ice-covered regions typical of Soviet northern fleets, with reinforced forward sections to withstand minor ice impacts.^[2] Key dimensions included an overall length of 273.1 meters, a beam of 31 meters (expanding to 49.2 meters across the flight deck for Project 1143), and drafts of 8.95 meters. Displacement measured approximately 30,500 tons standard and 41,500 tons full load (varying slightly by ship), reflecting a balanced weight distribution that supported structural integrity while enabling integration with propulsion systems for sustained high-speed performance. The superstructure was positioned offset to starboard, housing command facilities and facilitating an angled flight deck layout with a ski-jump ramp angled at 12 degrees to assist short takeoffs.^[1]^[19]^[2] Internally, the ships comprised four decks, with the primary hangar situated directly below the flight deck and spanning approximately 2,925 square meters (130 m x 22.5 m) to accommodate aviation support infrastructure. Critical areas, such as the citadel protecting missile magazines, were armored with up to 100 mm of steel plating to enhance survivability against potential threats. Stability was rigorously engineered, with calculations verifying resilience to rolls of up to 60 degrees, ensuring operational reliability in rough seas.^[2]

Propulsion and Performance

The Kiev-class aircraft carriers were powered by a conventional steam turbine propulsion system consisting of four TV-12-3 geared steam turbines, which delivered a total output of 180,000 shaft horsepower (shp) through four shafts equipped with fixed-pitch propellers.^[20] This arrangement provided the necessary thrust for the vessels' hybrid cruiser-carrier role, emphasizing balanced power distribution for both high-speed transits and sustained operations. Complementing the main turbines were four KN-3-18 turbogenerators, ensuring auxiliary power support during maneuvering or auxiliary modes.^[2] The steam was generated by eight KVN-98/64 boilers operating at a pressure of 64 kg/cm², fueled primarily by mazut or fuel oil, which allowed for efficient combustion in the high-pressure environment.^[2] The steam generation cycle achieved an efficiency of approximately 25%, typical for mid-20th-century naval steam plants, enabling reliable energy conversion while minimizing fuel consumption under cruising conditions. Redundancy was incorporated into the system to withstand battle damage, with segmented boiler rooms and cross-connections allowing partial operation even if one unit was compromised.^[21] In terms of performance, the Kiev-class vessels attained a maximum speed of 32.5 knots, suitable for escorting task forces or evading threats, while a cruising speed of 18 knots optimized fuel use for extended deployments.^[20] The operational range reached 8,000 nautical miles at 18 knots (7,160 nm for Project 1143.3), supported by the substantial fuel reserves, with an overall endurance of 30 days at economical speeds.^[2] Maneuverability was enhanced by robust rudders and fin stabilizers, providing stability during high-speed turns or rough seas. Later ships in the class, such as Minsk and Novorossiysk, incorporated minor fuel efficiency improvements through refined boiler tuning and propeller adjustments, extending range slightly under similar conditions.^[21]

Armament

The Kiev-class aircraft carriers featured a robust armament suite that underscored their designation as heavy aviation cruisers, blending long-range strike capabilities with layered air and submarine defenses to support fleet operations against NATO naval forces. Variations existed across subclasses (Projects 1143, 1143M, 1143.4). The principal anti-ship weaponry consisted of eight P-500 Bazalt (NATO designation SS-N-12 Sandbox) supersonic cruise missiles arranged in four twin launchers positioned forward on the superstructure (12 launchers on Baku). These missiles, turbojet-powered and capable of sea-skimming flight, achieved speeds of up to Mach 2.5 at altitude and possessed a maximum range of 550 km, allowing the carriers to engage high-value targets such as enemy carriers or battle groups from standoff distances. The system included a total magazine capacity of 16 Bazalt missiles for sustained operations on early units. Fire control for the launchers was integrated with the ship's MR-300 Kavga radar, enabling over-the-horizon targeting potentially augmented by data from embarked aviation assets. For Project 1143.3 (Novorossiysk), the Osa-M and torpedo tubes were deleted. Air defense was provided by the M-11 Shtorm (NATO SA-N-3 Goblet) system, comprising two twin launchers with a magazine of 96 missiles for medium-range interception of aircraft and missiles. Short-range protection came from two twin 9K33 Osa (NATO SA-N-4 Gecko) launchers holding 40 missiles (on Kiev and Minsk), designed to counter low-flying threats. The main battery included two twin 76 mm AK-726 dual-purpose gun mounts, each firing at a rate of 60 rounds per minute to engage surface vessels or low-altitude aircraft. Close-in defense against missiles and aircraft was handled by eight 30 mm AK-630 Gatling-type close-in weapon systems (CIWS), radar-guided for automatic operation and capable of engaging incoming threats at short ranges. Anti-submarine warfare armament comprised two RBU-6000 Smerch-2 12-barrel rocket launchers for short-range depth charge delivery against submarines, along with two quintuple 533 mm torpedo tubes compatible with SET-65 electrically propelled torpedoes (capacity of 10 torpedoes; deleted on Novorossiysk). A 1x2 RPK-1 Vyuga ASuM launcher with 16 missiles was also fitted on early units.

Aviation and Hangar Facilities

The Kiev-class aircraft carriers were designed to support a mixed air wing primarily consisting of up to 12 Yakovlev Yak-38 Forger VTOL fighters and 16 to 18 helicopters, such as the Kamov Ka-25 Hormone for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) or later the Ka-27, enabling versatile roles in air defense, ASW, and reconnaissance (up to 36 total aircraft on later units).^[2] The Yak-38, a subsonic VTOL jet, could carry a payload of approximately 2,000 kg, including bombs or missiles, with a combat radius of about 185 km on internal fuel when armed, though its operational range was limited by fuel constraints in vertical takeoff modes. Helicopters like the Ka-25 integrated dipping sonar for submarine detection, enhancing the carrier's ASW capabilities during fleet operations.^[2] Aviation facilities centered on a 273 m by 49.2 m angled flight deck (Project 1143), optimized for STOBAR (short takeoff but arrested recovery) operations, featuring a ski-jump ramp at the bow to allow Yak-38 launches with increased payload over pure vertical takeoffs (extended to 51.3 m beam on Project 1143.4).^[2] Two aircraft elevators, each with a 15-ton capacity, facilitated movement between the flight deck and hangar, positioned to starboard and amidships for efficient aircraft handling. The deck included arresting gear primarily for helicopter recoveries and stations for refueling and rearming, supporting sustained flight operations in varied sea states. The flight deck area measured approximately 11,000 square meters.^[19] The hangar, divided into two bays measuring approximately 130 m by 22.5 m overall (2,925 m²), accommodated up to 36 aircraft (22 on Kiev), providing space for maintenance, storage, and preparation of the air wing. Dedicated workshops within the hangar supported jet engine overhauls and helicopter rotor servicing, while aviation fuel storage totaled around 1,200 tons (1,800 tons on Baku), sufficient for extended deployments.^[2] A deck crew of about 150 personnel managed operations, achieving launch rates of up to 4 aircraft per hour under optimal conditions, though VTOL limitations often constrained sortie generation compared to catapult-equipped carriers.^[22]

Electronics and Sensors

The Kiev-class aircraft carriers were fitted with the MR-700 Fregat-M 3D air/surface search radar as their primary sensor for detecting air and surface targets, offering a detection range of up to 250 km (Mars-Passat on Baku). The Don-2 radar supported missile guidance operations on some units, integrating with the ship's P-500 Bazalt anti-ship missile fire control loop to enable coordinated targeting. For underwater detection, the class featured the Horse Jaw (MGK-335 Platina) hull-mounted low-frequency sonar operating in the 10-16 kHz band for active and passive search against submarines.^[23] Complementing this was the Bull Nose variable depth sonar deployed from Ka-27 helicopters, allowing extended-range anti-submarine warfare operations.^[23] The electronic warfare suite included two Podkat radar interceptors for threat detection and four KT-208 jammers to disrupt enemy radar signals, supported by Slut Yard decoy launchers for countermeasure deployment (variations on later ships). Communication systems encompassed HF, VHF, and UHF antennas for tactical coordination, with later ships like Baku incorporating satellite links via the Parus system for secure naval data relay.^[24] Design efforts incorporated radar cross-section reduction measures, such as sloped superstructure surfaces and rounded edges on deckhouses to minimize detectability.^[25] The Baku variant featured an upgraded phased-array radar system, identified as Mars-Passat, enhancing multi-target tracking capabilities over earlier units.^[26]

Construction

Shipyards and Methods

The four ships of the Kiev class were constructed exclusively at the Mykolaiv Shipyard, known during the Soviet era as the Black Sea Shipyard or Chernomorsky Shipyard No. 444, located on the Black Sea coast in what is now Ukraine.^[1]^[16] This facility was the Soviet Union's primary yard for large surface combatants, including the preceding Moskva-class helicopter carriers, and it handled the entire assembly process for the Project 1143 vessels due to its specialized infrastructure for handling massive hull sections and outfitting.^[1] The keel for the lead ship, Kiev, was laid down on 21 July 1970, marking the start of a construction program that leveraged the yard's slipways and dry docks designed for vessels over 40,000 tons displacement.^[2] Construction methods emphasized modular techniques, dividing each carrier into numerous prefabricated blocks—up to 300 tons each—assembled from steel plates and substructures fabricated at distant industrial centers, including Leningrad's metallurgical plants for high-strength armor and structural steel.^[2] These blocks were transported to Mykolaiv via heavy-lift ships along inland waterways and the Black Sea, allowing parallel fabrication to accelerate the timeline despite the ships' complexity; each vessel spent approximately three years on the ways from keel-laying to launch. Launching occurred in floating docks to manage the carriers' size and weight, enabling precise placement into the water for subsequent fitting-out.^[27] The process integrated components from around 300 factories across the Soviet Union, combining Ukrainian hull and assembly expertise with Russian-sourced propulsion systems and electronics, under strict GOST quality control standards to ensure uniformity in materials and welding.^[2] A workforce of approximately 1,500 personnel handled the integration on average, facing challenges such as delays in subsystem installation for some units due to supply coordination. Each carrier represented a significant investment, reflecting the distributed supply chain and labor-intensive modular assembly.^[2]

Commissioning Timeline

The development of Project 1143 Krechyet, the Soviet designation for the Kiev-class aircraft carriers, was formally approved on April 30, 1970, by the Soviet Navy and Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry, marking the initiation of planning for the class's construction.^[2] This approval followed conceptual studies dating back to the late 1960s, aiming to create a hybrid aviation cruiser capable of supporting naval operations with fixed-wing aircraft. The lead ship, Kiev, had her keel laid down on July 21, 1970, at the Black Sea Shipyard in Mykolaiv, Ukraine, initiating the physical build phase for the class.^[28] Construction progressed through standard phases typical of large Soviet warships of the era, with keel laying to launch spanning approximately 18 to 24 months, followed by an extensive fitting-out period of about two years to install propulsion, armament, and aviation systems. Kiev was launched on December 26, 1972, allowing for the subsequent integration of internal components and testing of subsystems.^[2] The fitting-out phase emphasized modular assembly techniques at the Black Sea Shipyard to streamline the process for subsequent vessels. Sea trials for the lead ship commenced in the summer of 1975 in the Black Sea, lasting roughly six months to evaluate propulsion, stability, and initial aircraft operations before full commissioning.^[29] A key milestone during trials was the integration testing of vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft, with the first landing of a Yak-36M prototype—precursor to the operational Yak-38—performed on Kiev's deck on May 18, 1975, validating the carrier's aviation facilities.^[2] This testing phase confirmed the ship's ability to support short-takeoff VTOL fighters, a core requirement for the class. Kiev was officially commissioned into the Soviet Navy on December 28, 1975, after successful completion of trials, with the subsequent ships following a similar timeline adjusted for yard capacity and design refinements.^[28] The overall class timeline reflected efficient Soviet shipbuilding practices, enabling four vessels to enter service between 1975 and 1987 despite the complexity of the hybrid design.^[30]

Ships of the Class

Kiev

The lead ship of the Kiev class, originally named after the Ukrainian capital, was constructed at Chernomorsky Shipyard No. 444 in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR. Her keel was laid down on 21 July 1970, she was launched on 26 December 1972, and she was commissioned into the Soviet Northern Fleet on 28 December 1975 following sea trials that began in April 1975.^[2]^[31] Upon entering service, Kiev marked several pioneering milestones for Soviet naval aviation. In July 1976, she embarked the first squadron of Yakovlev Yak-38 VTOL fighters, consisting of evaluation aircraft including single-seat Yak-38s and two-seat trainers, enabling initial carrier-based operations from her angled flight deck.^[32] The ship maintained a standard crew of approximately 1,500 personnel, supporting her role as a heavy aviation cruiser with combined fixed-wing and rotary-wing capabilities. During her early operational period, Kiev conducted her inaugural Mediterranean deployment in July 1976, transiting from the Black Sea, and participated in joint maneuvers with her sister ship Minsk in March 1979.^[33]^[2] In the 1980s, Kiev underwent minor refits to enhance her aviation facilities, including adaptations to operate the more advanced Kamov Ka-27 anti-submarine helicopters alongside her existing Ka-25s and Yak-38s. These upgrades improved her ASW and search-and-rescue roles without major structural changes.^[2] Kiev was decommissioned from the Russian Navy in 1993 amid post-Soviet fleet reductions. She was sold to a Chinese company in 1996 and towed to Tianjin, where she was converted into a museum ship at Binhai Aircraft Carrier Theme Park, opening to the public in 2003 as a centerpiece for naval history exhibits and tourism.^[34]^[2]

Minsk

Minsk was the second vessel of the Kiev-class aircraft carriers, with her keel laid down on 28 December 1972 at Shipyard No. 444 in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR.^[35] She was launched on 30 September 1975 and completed sea trials before being commissioned on 27 September 1978 into the Soviet Pacific Fleet.^[35] Assigned to operations in the Far East, Minsk conducted routine patrols throughout the 1980s to project Soviet naval power in the region.^[2] One notable deployment occurred in 1980, when Minsk sailed from Vladivostok to Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam, marking a significant show of force in Southeast Asia and conducting joint exercises with Vietnamese forces.^[36] During her early service, Minsk was among the first Soviet carriers to operate the newly introduced Kamov Ka-27 anti-submarine helicopters, enhancing her capabilities for maritime surveillance and attack roles.^[37] In 1982, she underwent a major refit at the Dalzavod shipyard in Vladivostok, which included upgrades to her aviation facilities and the addition of extra AK-630 close-in weapon systems for improved air defense.^[2] Minsk also took part in large-scale naval maneuvers, such as the Okean exercises, demonstrating integrated carrier group tactics.^[38] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Minsk was decommissioned on 30 June 1993 due to budget constraints in the Russian Navy.^[35] In 1995, she was sold to a South Korean firm for scrapping, but the deal collapsed amid the 1997 Asian financial crisis, leading to her resale to a Chinese consortium in 1998.^[39] Towed to Shenzhen, the carrier was converted into a tourist attraction and opened as the centerpiece of Minsk World theme park on 10 May 2000.^[40] The park operated until 2016, after which Minsk was relocated to a lagoon in Nantong, Jiangsu Province, where she remains preserved as a museum ship, though recent years have seen deterioration and a major fire in August 2024.^[41]

Novorossiysk

Novorossiysk, the third vessel of the Kiev class, was laid down on 30 September 1975 at Shipyard 444 in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR.^[35] She was launched on 24 December 1978 and commissioned on 12 September 1982, initially joining the Soviet Pacific Fleet after transiting from the Black Sea.^[35] The ship underwent builder's trials in the Black Sea before completing state trials and formal handover, marking her as the last conventionally powered unit in the class to enter service during the late Cold War era.^[4] Upon commissioning, Novorossiysk participated in routine Pacific Fleet operations, including exercises near Okinawa in April 1985 alongside escort vessels.^[42] However, her service was plagued by persistent maintenance challenges inherent to the class, resulting in limited deployments and extended periods in refit.^[43] A major engine room fire erupted during a refit in 1993, severely damaging the vessel and exacerbating operational unreadiness.^[44] The end of the Cold War brought severe budgetary constraints to the Russian Navy, leading to crew reductions across surface assets and accelerated decommissioning of aging platforms like Novorossiysk.^[45] She was formally decommissioned on 30 June 1993 after just 11 years of active service.^[35] In 1995, the hulk was sold for scrap to a South Korean firm and towed to Pohang, where she was dismantled in 1997 amid environmental protests that briefly delayed the process.^[44]

Baku (Admiral Gorshkov)

Baku, the fourth and final vessel of the Kiev-class aircraft carriers, represented an advanced variant under Project 1143.4. Her keel was laid down on 17 February 1978 at Black Sea Shipyard No. 444 in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSR. The ship was launched on 1 April 1982 and completed construction amid delays due to evolving design requirements. She was commissioned into the Soviet Northern Fleet on 11 December 1987, initially named after the Azerbaijani capital to symbolize Soviet unity across republics.^[46]^[47] As the most technologically refined unit in the class, Baku incorporated several unique enhancements over her predecessors. Her superstructure housed the Mars-Passat phased-array radar complex, a 3D air/surface search system designed for improved battle management and electronic warfare integration, though it faced operational challenges during service. Armament was streamlined to 12 P-500 Bazalt (SS-N-12 Sandbox) supersonic anti-ship missiles in six twin launchers, emphasizing long-range strike capability without the additional SA-N-9 launchers found on earlier ships. The carrier also featured provisions for testing the Yakovlev Yak-141 Freestyle supersonic VTOL fighter, including reinforced deck sections and hangar modifications to support its lift-plus-cruise engine configuration during late-1980s deck trials.^[48]^[46] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baku was renamed Admiral Gorshkov on 4 October 1991 in honor of the Soviet naval commander Sergey Gorshkov, reflecting the ship's reassignment to the Russian Navy. She underwent a limited modernization between 1991 and 1995, which included sensor upgrades and boiler adjustments to address reliability issues from her original steam turbine propulsion system, though these proved insufficient for sustained operations. Decommissioned in 1996 due to high maintenance costs in the post-Cold War era, the vessel remained laid up until selected for export.^[46] In 2004, Russia agreed to sell Admiral Gorshkov to India under an intergovernmental pact valued initially at $974 million, with the final price adjusted to $2.35 billion by 2010 to cover extensive refurbishment. The refit, conducted at Sevmash Shipyard from 2005 to 2012, transformed her into a full STOBAR carrier by removing missile launchers, expanding the angled flight deck, and installing modern arrestor gear and catapults. Key upgrades included integration of the MiG-29K multirole fighter for carrier operations and the Israel Aerospace Industries EL/M-2248 MF-STAR active electronically scanned array radar for multi-mission surveillance and fire control. She was recommissioned as INS Vikramaditya on 16 November 2013 and now operates with the Indian Navy's INAS 303 "Black Panthers" squadron, equipped with MiG-29K aircraft.^[5]^[49]^[50]

Operational History

Soviet Service

The Kiev-class carriers played a key role in Soviet naval operations during the Cold War, primarily supporting anti-submarine warfare and fleet defense in both the Northern and Pacific Fleets. Assigned to the Northern Fleet, Kiev and later Baku conducted routine patrols and exercises in the Barents Sea and North Atlantic from the mid-1970s through the 1980s, enhancing the Soviet Navy's presence near NATO's maritime approaches.^[2] In the Pacific Fleet, Minsk and Novorossiysk focused on operations in the Sea of Japan, with extended deployments to the Indian Ocean between 1978 and 1985, including Minsk's notable transit and activities in 1982 to demonstrate Soviet reach in distant waters.^[51] These deployments underscored the class's mission to protect strategic missile submarines and project power beyond Soviet borders, though the ships never engaged in combat, serving instead as a deterrent against Western naval forces.^[52] The carriers participated in several major Soviet naval exercises, integrating their VTOL aircraft and helicopters into coordinated fleet maneuvers. Kiev featured prominently in Okean-75, the Soviet Navy's first large-scale global exercise involving carrier operations, where it supported anti-submarine and convoy protection drills across multiple oceans.^[29] Subsequent exercises, such as Sever-82, emphasized anti-submarine warfare (ASW) tactics in the northern waters, with the class providing air cover and reconnaissance for surface groups. The Kiev-class also routinely shadowed NATO convoys in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, honing interception and surveillance capabilities without direct confrontation.^[16] Throughout their service, the ships demonstrated the operational tempo of their air wings in training and patrol scenarios.^[53] In fleet roles, the Kiev-class provided essential ASW screening for Slava-class cruisers, using Ka-25 helicopters to detect and track submarines during joint operations.^[52] They integrated effectively with Kirov-class battlecruisers in the Northern Fleet, forming powerful task groups for high-seas deterrence and power projection into the Third World; for instance, a Kiev-class vessel visited ports in sub-Saharan Africa in late 1983, signaling Soviet support for allied regimes amid regional conflicts.^[54] This non-combat employment highlighted their strategic value in maintaining naval balance during the Cold War, though the class faced significant operational challenges, including high maintenance demands and persistent crew training issues with the complex VTOL Yak-38 aircraft.^[55]

Post-Soviet Developments

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the first three Kiev-class carriers—Kiev, Minsk, and Novorossiysk—faced severe budget constraints in the Russian Navy, leading to their rapid decommissioning between 1993 and 1995. Kiev was decommissioned on 30 June 1993 due to economic pressures and high maintenance costs.^[2] Minsk followed suit on the same date.^[2] Novorossiysk was also decommissioned in June 1993 after a major accident that necessitated extensive repairs beyond affordable limits, with the Russian Navy opting to sell it for scrap amid fiscal austerity.^[2] The fourth ship, Baku (renamed Admiral Gorshkov in 1991), avoided immediate decommissioning and underwent an extended refit period from 1991 to 2004, transitioning from active service to a mothballed state before a major overhaul for export. This refit, initially intended to modernize the vessel, was paused due to funding shortages but resumed under a bilateral agreement with India.^[56] In contrast, the earlier ships met varied fates: Kiev and Minsk were sold to Chinese companies for conversion into tourist attractions, while Novorossiysk was dismantled in South Korea in 1997, sparking protests from local environmental groups over potential pollution from hazardous materials like asbestos and heavy metals during the scrapping process.^[44] Kiev was acquired by a Chinese firm in 2000 for $8.2 million and transformed into the centerpiece of the Binhai Aircraft Carrier Theme Park in Tianjin, where it serves as a museum ship with onboard exhibits, a hotel, and military displays, attracting visitors interested in Cold War naval history.^[57] Minsk, sold in 1995, became the focal point of Minsk World in Shenzhen, a military theme park that drew over five million visitors by 2005 and generated significant revenue through themed attractions featuring Soviet-era aircraft and weaponry. On August 16, 2024, Minsk was severely damaged by a fire during renovations in Nantong, Jiangsu, China. As of 2025, its future status remains unclear.^[40]^[41] These conversions preserved the hulls as cultural artifacts but highlighted the class's shift from military assets to commercial ventures amid post-Soviet economic realities. Baku's refit culminated in its sale to India in 2004, with extensive modifications including an extended ski-jump ramp for enhanced aircraft operations and upgraded arrestor wires for safer recoveries, transforming it into INS Vikramaditya.^[56] The project suffered significant cost overruns, escalating from an initial estimate of $974 million to $2.35 billion by completion in 2012, due to delays in boiler replacements and systemic upgrades.^[5] Commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2013, Vikramaditya integrated into a carrier battle group and participated in multinational exercises in the Indian Ocean Region, including the 2020 Malabar exercise alongside U.S., Japanese, and Australian forces, focusing on anti-submarine warfare and carrier strike operations.^[58] It underwent further refits in India, including a short refit in 2016 at Cochin Shipyard and a major refit from 2020 to 2023 at Karwar, addressing propulsion issues and avionics enhancements, though a 2016 toxic gas leak during maintenance resulted in two fatalities.^[59] The Kiev class's design influenced subsequent Soviet and Russian carrier development, particularly the Admiral Kuznetsov, which evolved from Project 1143 by incorporating a full-length flight deck and STOBAR configuration to overcome the hybrid cruiser-carrier limitations of the earlier vessels.^[60] However, with no active Russian successors to the class beyond the aging Kuznetsov, the Kiev carriers represent a transitional legacy in naval aviation, underscoring the challenges of sustaining large-deck platforms in a post-Cold War era.^[61]

References

[1]
Project 1143 Krechyet Kiev class
Sep 7, 2011 · With a 14,700 square meter flight deck, arrestor wires, and a bow ski-jump, the carrier airwing consists of 14 Yak-41M (Freestyle) vertical ...
[2]
Kiev Class aircraft carriers (1972-82) - Naval Encyclopedia
The Kiev class became the first Soviet aircraft-carrying ship having a full flight deck 189 m in lenght and 20.7 m in width for a total area of 5,600 m2. The ...
[3]
The Soviet "Aircraft Carrier" | Proceedings - May 1974 Vol. 100/5/855
May 1, 1974 · Beginning in 1951 U. S. carriers were able to deploy into European and Western Pacific waters with aircraft capable of attacking Soviet cities ...
[4]
The Soviet Navy in 1985 | Proceedings - May 1986 Vol. 112/5/999
May 26, 1986 · The Kiev-class aircraft carrier Novorossiysk participates in Soviet naval maneuvers in the Pacific off Japan in April 1985. a new Chief of ...
[5]
INS Vikramaditya Aircraft Carrier - Naval Technology
Feb 4, 2021 · The Admiral Gorshkov (Project 11430) is a modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier built at the Nikolayev South shipyard for the Russian Navy.Missing: Soviet | Show results with:Soviet
[6]
Submarines in Soviet ASW Doctrine and Tactics - jstor
Soviet ASW (PLO) aimed to protect warships and coastal areas from submarine attacks, preventing enemy submarine activities. Submarines were used for fleet area ...
[7]
Soviet Carrier Strategy | Proceedings - December 1973 Vol. 99/12/850
Modern Soviet naval doctrine, formulated in the mid-1950s and reexamined, refined, and expanded in the early 1960s, may be about to undergo further revision.
[8]
[PDF] Aircraft Carriers in Soviet Naval Theory from 1960 to the Falklands ...
May 21, 2025 · This interest appears to derive from changes in Soviet views in three areas: command of the sea, fleet air defense, and more fundamentally, the ...
[9]
[PDF] USSR Local War Doctrine as Rationale for the Development ... - DTIC
The Soviets saw a need to develop power projection capabilities. * and, after observing U.S. aircraft carriers in local wars, came to the conclusion that this ...
[10]
[PDF] soviet navy - GovInfo
Sep 15, 1992 · This collection focuses on CIA's analysis of the Soviet Navy's development, strategy, operations, and force capabilities during the Cold War.
[11]
[PDF] 9439 TRANSLATION THE SEA POWER OF THE STATE BY ... - CIA
It examines the basic components of sea power among which the main attention is focused on the navy, particularly a modern navy capable of conducting operations.
[12]
Russian Northern Fleet Bastion Revisited - Marine Corps University
During the 1960s, deploying submarines armed with nuclear-tipped submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) to linger along the American Eastern and Western ...
[13]
[PDF] Development and Use of CTOL Aircraft Carriers in the Soviet Union ...
“A History of Russian and Soviet Naval Development.” MA thesis,. Naval Postgraduate School, 1988. Federation of American Scientists. “Project 1143 Krechyet Kiev ...
[14]
Nevskoye Planning and Design Bureau - History - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 30, 2019 · In 1968, the bureau began designing the aircraft-carrying cruiser Kiev (project 1143, chief designer AV Marinich) with vertical take-off and ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[15]
Project 1123.3 / 1123M - "Kiev" - GlobalSecurity.org
Aug 5, 2017 · The main task of the ship was to destroy the enemy's nuclear submarines and to provide anti-submarine defense for connecting the ships operating ...
[16]
The Soviet Aircraft Carrier - October 1976 Vol. 102/10/884
At just under 40,000 tons full load displacement the Kiev is the largest war- sfiip to be produced in Russia under e*ther tsars or commissars. She was built at ...
[17]
The Kiev class 'cruiser-carrier' hybrid – A flawed design or ahead of ...
Sep 11, 2017 · Its design displacement was 43,000 to 45,000 metric tons, with a ... Its command and control systems in my point of view needed to be ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification
[18]
Aircraft carrier cruisers and Yak-38: retrospective analysis and lessons
Jan 28, 2021 · The Yak-38 really did not live up to expectations, like the VTOL aircraft, in principle. But at the same time, there is no more slandered ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
https://www.navypedia.org/ships/russia/ru_cv_kiev.htm
[20]
Kiev Class - Project 1143 - GlobalSecurity.org
Sep 7, 2011 · Project 1143 Krechyet Kiev class ; Propulsion: 8 turbopressurized boilers 4 steam turbines; 200,000 shp 4 shafts ; Crew: 1,200-1,600 (including ...
[21]
Heavy Aircraft-Carrying Cruisers - Project 1143 - RussianShips.info
NATO: Kiev Class. Completed. 3 units. Ships. Project 1143 - Chernomorskiy Shipyard №444, Nikolayev - 2 units. Name. Yard №. Laid Down. Launched. Commissioned.
[22]
Kiev (Project 1143 Krechyet) Heavy Aircraft Carrier - Military Factory
In the Soviet Navy the Kiev class of ships was specifically designated as a heavy aviation cruiser. The ships layout mirrored the Moskva Class with the bow, or ...
[23]
[PDF] Project 1143.5 Kuznetsov Class - Archived 10/97
Oct 3, 1996 · Propulsion is the standard Russian large-ship plant using eight vertical turbo-pressurized boilers linked to four geared steam turbines. The ...
[24]
SS-N-12 Sandbox - Russian / Soviet Nuclear Forces - Nuke
Total length, 11.70 meters ; Diameter, 0.90 meters ; Wingspan, 2.60 meters ; Weight, 5,000 kg ; Warhead, 1,000 kg high-explosive or; 350 kiloton nuclear.
[25]
How A British Submarine Spent Hours Under A Russian Aircraft ...
Jan 11, 2023 · ... Kiev, the sonar suite is the most relevant to our story. It comprised a hull-mounted MG-342 Orion (Horse Jaw) low-frequency (LF) sonar, MG ...
[26]
Nuclear Warships and Naval Nuclear Weapons 1990 - Nuke
The fourth and last ship of the Kiev class aircraft carriers, the Baku, was deployed in 1988. Baku is equipped with a four faced phased array radar ...Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
[27]
Russia and Communications Satellite Systems - GlobalSecurity.org
Feb 20, 2024 · It is necessary to develop a constellation of communication satellites and broadcasting, that by 2025 should reach 73 spacecraft.
[28]
U.S. and Soviet Ship Design Practices, 1950-1980 | Proceedings
... Kiev-class aircraft carrier,[2] the 23,000-ton Kirov-class nuclear-powered guided missile cruiser,[3] the 8,000-ton Sovremennyy-class guided missile ...
[29]
Black Sea Shipyard | Military Wiki - Fandom
The shipyard constructed the Moskva-class helicopter ships, Kiev-class and ... Launching of vessels is effected with the help of the floating dock. The ...Missing: modular transport
[30]
Kiev Class Heavy Aircraft Carriers (Project 1143 Krechet)
Sep 15, 2023 · The Project 1143 Krechet (NATO name: Kiev) class heavy aircraft carrying cruisers were designed to perform a wide range of missions.
[31]
The Soviet Navy in 1975 | Proceedings - May 1976 Vol. 102/5/879
May 25, 1976 · During the summer the lead ship of the first class of aircraft carrier, the 45,000 ton Kiev, began sea trials in the Black Sea. Meanwhile ...
[32]
[PDF] TACTICAL AIR POTENTIAL OF KIEV CLASS AIRCRAFT CARRIERS
The Kiev class is expected to carry a mix of V/STOL fighters and ASW helicopters. The fighter complement probably will be used primarily for air defense and ...Missing: specifications Jane's<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
The Soviet Navy in 1976 | Proceedings - May 1977 Vol. 103/5/891
May 28, 1977 · During 1976, the arrival of the Kiev not only enhanced considerably the capabilities of the Northern Fleet in open-ocean ASW, but, as a ...
[34]
Yakovlev Yak-38 - VSTOL fighter-bomber - Aviastar.org
An evaluation squadron comprising 12 single-seat Yak-36Ms and two two-seat Yak-36Us embarked aboard the Kiev in the summer of 1976, the aircraft being confined ...
[35]
The Soviet Navy in 1979: Part I - April 1980 Vol. 106/4/926
Apr 1, 1980 · It continued its operations until midMarch, when the Kiev and Minsk and accompanying escorts exited the Mediterranean via Gibraltar en route to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Kiev - Museum Ships
It was built between 1970 and 1975 at Chernomorski factory in Mykolaiv and was the first Kiev-class vessel to be built. It is currently part of a theme park in ...Missing: rubles | Show results with:rubles
[37]
Kiev Class - Project 1143 - GlobalSecurity.org
Apr 8, 2017 · Project 1143 Krechyet Kiev class. Class Listing. Unit, Shipyard, Fleet, Chronology, Notes. #, number, Name, Laid Down, Launched, Comm. Stricken.
[38]
Soviet Carrier Reaches Vietnam - The New York Times
Sep 7, 1980 · 6 (Reuters)--The Soviet aircraft carrier Minsk has entered Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam, the news ... View Full Article in Timesmachine ». Share ...
[39]
Kamov Ka-27 helicopter - development history, photos, technical data
New helicopter broadly based on Ka-25 for Soviet Navy with redesigned broader chord rotor blades, strengthened transmissions and u/c, two tail fins.
[40]
OKEAN: A Massive Soviet Exercise, 50 Years Later | Proceedings
Apr 12, 2020 · Fifty years ago—in April and May 1970—the rapidly growing Soviet Navy conducted history's largest peacetime fleet exercise.Missing: carrier Minsk
[41]
An aircraft carrier's tragic tale - Korea JoongAng Daily
Sep 28, 2017 · In 1994, the Russian Navy decided to decommission its aircraft carriers and sold them to foreign bidders. The Minsk and Novorossiysk were on ...
[42]
None
Nothing is retrieved...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
Minsk, old Soviet aircraft carrier, burns in Chinese lagoon in Nantong
Aug 19, 2024 · The carrier Minsk, which has been anchored for the past eight years in a lagoon near the Yangtze River in Nantong, Jiangsu province, caught fire ...Missing: museum | Show results with:museum
[44]
[PDF] Ready Seapower - Naval History and Heritage Command
of 1985 a carrier battle group consisting of helicopter carrier Novorossiysk, four cruisers, two frigates, and two logistics ships exercised near okinawa ...
[45]
https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1994/march/world-navies-review
[46]
The Sad Story Of How This Soviet Aircraft Carrier Ended Up Rotting ...
Apr 15, 2021 · The Kiev class carrier Minsk was saved from the scrapyard after the fall of the Soviet Union, but is now wasting away 50 miles northwest of Shanghai.
[47]
World Navies in Review | Proceedings - U.S. Naval Institute
Early in 1993, it appeared that five reserve mine hunters (out of the 15-ship Alkmaar class) would be brought back into active service, presumably to replace ...
[48]
Admiral Gorshkov (Baku CVHG-103) - Military Factory
The Admiral Gorshkov (formerly the "Baku" CVHG-103) was a late-Cold War-era aircraft carrier serving the Soviet Navy for a time. The type was based on the Kiev ...
[49]
Soviet Aircraft Carrier Baku | IPMS/USA Reviews Website
Feb 26, 2014 · Her keel was laid down in 1978 in Ukraine, she was launched in 1982, and commissioned in December 1987. The ship was actually renamed Admiral ...
[50]
Project 11434 - Heavy aircraft-carrying cruiser - RussianShips.info
Mars-Passat radar complex, MR-700M Fregat-M1 air/surface search radar, 2 MR-350 Podkat radars, MP-503 Kantata-M radar, MP-407 Start-2 radar, MGK-355 Polinom ...
[51]
Naval Radar Market Forecast $2.6 Billion Over 15 Years
Feb 29, 2024 · Israel Aerospace Industries' EL/M-2248 MF-STAR S-band radar equips the Indian Navy's INS Vikramaditya aircraft carrier. IAI has done well as a ...
[52]
MIG 29K/ KUB - Indian Navy
Defence Minister AK Antony commissioned the Indian Naval Air Squadron (INAS) 303, the first MiG 29K squadron of the Indian Navy at INS Hansa in Goa · A MiG 29 K ...Missing: EL/ M- 2248 MF- STAR
[53]
SOVIET NAVAL ACTIVITY OUTSIDE HOME WATERS DURING 1982
The Kiev-class carrier Minsk made its first Indian Ocean deployment since joining the Pacific Fleet in mid-1979. During its month of operations in the ...
[54]
[PDF] STATUS OF THE SOVIET AIRCRAFT CARRIER PROGRAM - CIA
Nevertheless, the diversity of the sources and the persistent theme of a carrier larger than the Kiev class suggested that Soviet discussions about or planning.
[55]
Soviet Jet VTOL: Yak-36, Yak-38, & Yak-41 - AirVectors
Jun 1, 2025 · The USSR developed a series of jet VTOL machines. This document provides a history and description of Soviet jet VTOL combat aircraft efforts.Missing: integration debates
[56]
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: A GROWING SOVIET MILITARY ... - CIA
A December 1983 visit included a Kiev- class carrier, and earlier visits have included a Sverdlov-class cruiser and a Kashin-class guided missile destroyer.
[57]
https://www.agenzianova.com/en/news/la-portaerei-kiev-orgoglio-della-marina-sovietica-diventato-un-parco-divertimenti-in-cina-foto/
[58]
R Vikramaditya [ex-Gorshkov] Aircraft Carrier - GlobalSecurity.org
Renamed after a legendary Indian king, the warship was originally as a Project 1143.4 or modified Kiev class aircraft carrier commissioned by the Soviet Navy in ...
[59]
The Kiev aircraft carrier, the pride of the Soviet Navy, has become an ...
Apr 4, 2024 · She was assembled at the Black Sea shipyard in the Ukrainian city of Mykolaiv from 1970 to 1975 under the code name “Project 1143”. After ...
[60]
https://odin.tradoc.army.mil/WEG/Asset/Kuznetsov_Class_%28Project_11435_Class%29_Russian_Aircraft_Carrier
[61]
Vikramaditya: The Cursed Carrier? | by Adreesh Ghoshal - Medium
May 8, 2019 · The INS Vikramaditya was originally a Kiev-class carrier and underwent extensive refurbishment to suit the Indian Navy's needs. While this was a ...
[62]
Kuznetsov Class (Project 11435 Class) Russian Aircraft Carrier
Mar 11, 2024 · The design represented a major advance in Soviet fleet aviation over the Kiev-class carriers, which could only launch VSTOL aircraft.
[63]
The Legacy of the Soviet Union's Ambitious Aircraft Carrier Program
Oct 19, 2018 · Of the Kuznetzov Class ships one had been completed in 1990, and today serves as Russia's only carrier - the Admiral Kuznetsov. The second ship, ...