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Amorphophallus konjac

Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch, commonly known as konjac, devil's tongue, or voodoo lily, is a herbaceous perennial plant in the Araceae family characterized by a large subterranean corm up to 30 cm in diameter from which emerges a single, tall, mottled petiole supporting a tripartite leaf and, in its flowering phase, a spadix inflorescence with a foul odor to attract pollinators.^[1]^[2] Native to forest margins and thickets in subtropical Yunnan Province, China, it has been naturalized and cultivated across East and Southeast Asia for centuries due to the corm's high content of glucomannan, a hydrophilic polysaccharide comprising up to 60% of its dry weight.^[2]^[3] The plant's corm yields konjac glucomannan (KGM), which forms a viscous gel upon hydration, enabling its use in traditional Asian foods such as konnyaku blocks and shirataki noodles, which are low-calorie, high-fiber substitutes valued for promoting satiety and digestive regularity through delayed gastric emptying and increased fecal bulk.^[3]^[4] Empirical studies substantiate KGM's efficacy in reducing serum cholesterol via bile acid binding and supporting modest weight loss in calorie-restricted diets, though effects are attributable to its physical properties rather than metabolic alterations.^[5] Beyond cuisine, purified KGM serves as a thickener, stabilizer, and prebiotic in supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, with its gel-forming capacity derived from extensive β-1,4-linked mannose and glucose residues.^[6] The species' thermogenic inflorescence, which can reach 1 meter in height and emits a corpse-like scent, exemplifies arum adaptations for beetle pollination, though commercial propagation focuses on vegetative corm division rather than seeds due to inconsistent germination.^[7]^[8]

Taxonomy and botany

Botanical description

Amorphophallus konjac is a perennial herbaceous geophyte in the Araceae family, characterized by growth from a large subterranean corm.^[9] The corm is globose, attaining diameters up to 30 cm, and serves as the primary storage organ, producing long rhizomatous offsets measuring up to 50 cm in length and 3 cm in thickness.^[10] Each year, a mature corm typically emerges with either a single vegetative leaf or a reproductive inflorescence, but not both, reflecting its mono-foliar habit common in the genus.^[11]^[7] The leaf petiole rises to 1–1.5 m in height, featuring distinctive mottling in shades of green, olive, purple, or pinkish-gray along its fleshy surface.^[2]^[7] The blade is solitary and compound, pedatisect or palmately divided into multiple glossy, dark green leaflets spanning up to 1 m across, providing an umbrella-like canopy.^[12]^[13] Reproductively, the inflorescence emerges on a peduncle up to 1 m tall prior to leaf development in mature plants. It comprises a central spadix enclosed by a flared spathe, both exhibiting dark purple to brownish hues. The spadix can extend similarly in height, generating thermogenesis and emitting a fetid odor during anthesis to attract carrion flies and midges for pollination.^[10]^[12]^[11]

Etymology and synonyms

The binomial name Amorphophallus konjac reflects both morphological characteristics and cultural nomenclature. The genus name Amorphophallus derives from Ancient Greek amorphos ("shapeless" or "deformed") and phallos ("penis"), a reference to the irregular, phallic form of the spadix in the inflorescence typical of the genus.^[14] The specific epithet konjac is a latinization of the Japanese konnyaku (also romanized as konjac), the vernacular name for the plant itself or the gel-like food product derived from its corm, which has been used in East Asian cuisine for centuries.^[15] In taxonomic nomenclature, Amorphophallus konjac K. Koch (1858) is the accepted name according to the Plants of the World Online database maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. It has several heterotypic and homotypic synonyms, including Amorphophallus rivieri Durieu, Amorphophallus rivieri var. konjac (K. Koch) Engl., Amorphophallus mairei H. Lév., and Hydrosme rivieri Engl. These synonyms arose from early 19th- and 20th-century descriptions based on variable specimens from East Asia, with A. rivieri often conflated due to overlapping morphological traits and regional variants, though modern revisions prioritize A. konjac for the Yunnan-origin type.^[9]^[7]

Distribution and habitat

Native range

Amorphophallus konjac is native to Yunnan province in southwestern China, occurring in forest margins, thickets, and moist shady habitats at elevations between 830 and 1,200 meters.^[9]^[16] Wild populations are also documented in central China, particularly the Wuling Mountain region spanning Hunan, Chongqing, and Guizhou provinces, where genetic variation supports its natural occurrence rather than solely cultivation.^[17] Although reports extend the range to adjacent areas including the East Himalaya, Vietnam, Thailand, and the Philippines, these may reflect naturalization or early introductions, with primary botanical records confirming southern China as the core native distribution.^[2]^[11] The plant's limited wild extent underscores conservation concerns, as habitat loss and overharvesting for tubers have reduced populations in these regions.^[17]

Ecological requirements

Amorphophallus konjac thrives in subtropical to tropical climates native to eastern Asia, including forest margins and thickets where shaded, moist conditions prevail.^[11]^[7] It prefers temperatures ranging from 10°C to 30°C, with optimal growth occurring between 20°C and 25°C during the active season, and tolerates minima around 15.5°C but requires warm conditions to emerge from dormancy.^[12]^[11] The plant demands well-drained, humus-rich, fertile loamy soils high in organic matter, which retain moisture yet prevent waterlogging; soil pH ideally falls between 5.5 and 7.0 to support root development from its corm.^[6]^[18]^[19] In its natural habitat at elevations of 830 to 1,200 meters, it grows amid loose leafy detritus in shady, humid environments that mimic understory forest floors.^[20] Light exposure should be dappled or partial shade to avoid direct sun scorch, aligning with its adaptation to under-canopy positions; consistent humidity and soil moisture are essential, with weekly watering recommended in cultivation to replicate native wetter microclimates without saturation.^[6]^[21]^[22] Poor drainage or prolonged dry spells can inhibit corm viability, underscoring its intolerance for arid or compacted substrates.^[23]^[3]

History and cultivation

Historical origins

Amorphophallus konjac, a perennial plant in the Araceae family, originates from wild populations in subtropical and tropical regions of Southeast Asia, including areas extending into southern China.^[5] Cultivation of the plant for its edible corm began in these regions, with evidence of human use dating back over 2,000 years primarily in China, where it was valued for both food and medicinal purposes.^[24] Early records indicate that the corm was processed into a gelatinous substance used in traditional diets to address digestive issues and as a low-calorie staple during famines.^[25] The plant was introduced to Japan from China around the 6th century CE, likely by Buddhist monks who adopted it as a fasting food and therapeutic agent due to its satiating properties and compatibility with vegetarian precepts.^[26] In Japan, initial cultivation focused on medicinal applications, with texts from the Nara period (710–794 CE) referencing its use for treating ailments like skin conditions and constipation.^[27] By the Edo period (1603–1868), konjac—known locally as konnyaku—had transitioned into broader culinary use, particularly in mountainous regions where it supplemented rice-based diets, reflecting adaptations to local agricultural constraints.^[28] Formal botanical description of A. konjac occurred in 1854 by German botanist Karl Koch, who named it based on the inflorescence's distinctive morphology, though this postdated millennia of practical cultivation in East Asia.^[12] Historical expansion beyond East Asia remained limited until the 20th century, driven by interest in its glucomannan content for industrial applications.^[3]

Modern cultivation practices

Amorphophallus konjac is propagated vegetatively using corm offsets or seed corms derived from mature plants, with planting typically occurring in spring to align with the plant's growth cycle. In Japan, seed tubers known as kigo or one-year-old tubers are buried shallowly in prepared fields, allowing shoots to emerge during summer while foliage senesces in autumn.^[1] Corm size directly influences yield potential, as larger corms (typically 100-200 grams) support robust initial growth and daughter corm development.^[3] Major production centers, including China—which accounts for the bulk of global output—employ optimized plant densities of approximately 20,000-30,000 corms per hectare to maximize yield while minimizing competition and disease spread. Soils are prepared to be well-drained and enriched with organic matter, maintaining a pH of 6.0-7.0 and positioned in partial shade to replicate understory conditions, with elevations up to 1,100 meters in regions like the Bolaven Plateau. Mulching with organic materials suppresses weeds and retains moisture, supplemented by selective weeding and 1-2 applications of pesticides for pest control.^[3]^[29] Recent agronomic trials demonstrate that incorporating biochar into soil enhances traits such as corm weight, overall yield (up to 20-30% increases reported), and resistance to diseases like southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii), a primary constraint in monoculture systems.^[30] Cultivation cycles last 1-2 years per field, with harvesting conducted manually in late autumn or winter after leaf dieback, when corms are excavated to avoid damage and ensure viability for replanting. Continuous cropping on the same plot is avoided, with rotations or grove-based systems recommended to mitigate soil-borne pathogens, as prolonged occupancy exceeds 2-3 years leads to yield declines of over 50%.^[31]^[32] These practices have scaled production in East Asia since the 20th century, driven by demand for glucomannan extraction, though challenges persist in disease management and labor-intensive harvesting.^[3]

Chemical composition

Glucomannan structure and properties

Glucomannan, the primary polysaccharide in Amorphophallus konjac tubers, constitutes approximately 40-60% of the dry weight and is a linear heteropolysaccharide composed of β-1,4-linked D-mannopyranosyl and D-glucopyranosyl residues in a molar ratio of approximately 1.6:1 to 2:1 (mannose:glucose).^[33]^[34] The backbone features predominantly mannose units with interspersed glucose, and about 10-15% of the mannose residues bear O-acetyl groups at the C-6 or C-3 positions, contributing to its solubility and preventing tight helical aggregation.^[35]^[36] Deacetylation, often induced by alkali treatment, promotes intermolecular hydrogen bonding, leading to gel formation.^[37] Konjac glucomannan (KGM) exhibits high molecular weight, typically ranging from 500 to 2,000 kDa, which underlies its exceptional rheological properties, including an intrinsic viscosity of around 1,320 mL/g—one of the highest among food polysaccharides.^[38] It is highly hydrophilic and water-soluble at neutral pH, capable of absorbing water up to 100 times its weight to form viscous, pseudoplastic solutions with shear-thinning behavior.^[39]^[40] In aqueous media, KGM solutions display non-Newtonian flow, with zero-shear viscosity scaling as concentration to the power of approximately 4.0, independent of added salts.^[41] Gelation of KGM occurs via deacetylation and subsequent formation of a double-helix network stabilized by hydrogen bonds, yielding thermoirreversible gels under alkaline conditions (e.g., with 0.2-1% KOH or NaOH at 80-100°C), while combinations with locust bean gum or xanthan enable synergistic thermoreversible gels at lower temperatures.^[37]^[42] These properties confer film-forming ability, emulsion stabilization, and high water retention, making KGM suitable for applications requiring texture modification without heat sensitivity in native form.^[43] Thermal stability is notable, with degradation onset above 240°C, though excessive heat or strong acids can hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds.^[4]

Other bioactive compounds

Amorphophallus konjac corms contain proteins, including a mannose-binding lectin known as Amorphophallus konjac agglutinin (AKA), which belongs to the superfamily of monocot mannose-binding lectins and exhibits specificity for mannose and glucose residues.^[44] The full-length cDNA of the AKA gene spans 736 bp, encoding a 157-amino-acid precursor protein with a 22-amino-acid signal peptide, and the mature lectin demonstrates hemagglutinating activity toward rabbit erythrocytes.^[45] This lectin may contribute to potential immunomodulatory or antimicrobial effects observed in plant extracts, though its concentration in the corm is low relative to carbohydrates, comprising approximately 1-2% protein content overall.^[1] Extracts from A. konjac tubers display in vitro antioxidant activity, as evidenced by reduced malondialdehyde levels in lipid peroxidation assays, suggesting the presence of minor phenolic compounds or other radical-scavenging agents beyond the dominant polysaccharides.^[46] However, quantitative phytochemical analyses indicate that phenolics and flavonoids are present in trace quantities in the corm, with higher concentrations reported in leaves rather than the edible tuber, limiting their role as primary bioactives.^[47] Ethyl acetate fractions of the plant have shown binding affinities to molecular targets in cancer models via docking studies, implying additional unidentified secondary metabolites with potential therapeutic interactions.^[48] The overall protein fraction, including trypsin-inhibitory components potentially akin to those in related Araceae species, supports limited enzymatic modulation, but specific quantification in konjac remains sparse in peer-reviewed literature.^[49] These compounds collectively represent minor bioactive elements compared to glucomannan, with activities often amplified in extracts rather than native corm tissue.

Culinary applications

Traditional uses in East Asia

Amorphophallus konjac, known as konjac or devil's tongue, originated in China where its corm has been processed into flour and used as a staple food source during periods of scarcity for over a millennium.^[5] In traditional Chinese cuisine, the flour is incorporated into noodles, gels, and fillings, valued for its satiating texture derived from glucomannan.^[3] Introduced to Japan from China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE), konjac initially served medicinal roles but soon integrated into culinary practices, particularly in Buddhist temples as a vegetarian alternative to meat due to its gelatinous, low-calorie profile.^[50] By the 12th century, production records indicate widespread cultivation in regions like Kyoto, with the corm powdered and molded into blocks or threads for dishes emphasizing digestibility.^[25] In Japanese tradition, konnyaku features prominently in simmered preparations such as oden—a winter stew with fish cakes and daikon—where its firm, rubbery consistency absorbs broth flavors without adding calories.^[51] Other classic applications include shiraae, a sesame-seasoned salad combining minced konnyaku with mashed tofu and vegetables, and konnyaku itcho, grilled slices brushed with soy-based sauce, reflecting its role in balanced, fiber-rich meals.^[50] Historical texts from the Edo period (1603–1868) document its use in sukiyaki and as a faux sashimi for mimicking seafood texture in plant-based diets.^[27] While less central in Korean cuisine, konjac appears in regional hot pots and fermented preparations akin to Chinese styles, underscoring its broader East Asian utility as an affordable, versatile ingredient supporting dietary restraint and intestinal health.^[5]

Contemporary food products

Shirataki noodles, composed of konjac glucomannan powder hydrated with water, serve as a staple contemporary food product, offering negligible calories (approximately 5-10 kcal per 100g serving) and high soluble fiber content, which appeals to adherents of low-carbohydrate and ketogenic diets in Western markets.^[52] These translucent, gelatinous noodles mimic traditional pasta textures while providing prebiotic benefits, with global demand surging alongside the popularity of plant-based and weight-loss regimens since the early 2010s.^[53] Konjac flour, derived from dried and milled corms, functions as a versatile additive in gluten-free baked goods, such as breads and pastries, where it imparts elasticity and moisture retention comparable to xanthan gum, enabling low-calorie formulations without compromising mouthfeel.^[52] This application has expanded in North America and Europe, driven by rising gluten intolerance diagnoses and preferences for clean-label ingredients, with the flour segment exhibiting the fastest market growth among konjac derivatives.^[53] Innovative uses include konjac-based rice alternatives, snacks, and meat analogs, where glucomannan enhances gelation and fat mimicry for reduced-calorie profiles; for instance, formulators incorporate it into alternative seafood products and fiber-enriched bars to improve nutritional density and sensory qualities.^[54] Konjac jelly, formed by alkali-processed glucomannan, thickens sauces and soups as a cornstarch substitute, maintaining stability across pH ranges in processed foods.^[52] Market projections indicate sustained expansion, with food and beverage applications dominating konjac utilization amid increasing consumer focus on functional fibers.^[53]

Health effects

Traditional medicinal applications

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), Amorphophallus konjac, known as mo yu or konjac, has been employed for over 2,000 years, with its first documentation appearing in the Shen Nong Materia Medica during the Western Han Dynasty (circa 206 BCE–9 CE).^[3] The corm's flour is processed into a gel, valued for its viscous properties, and applied to address various ailments rooted in concepts of balancing bodily humors and expelling pathogens.^[55] These uses extend to Japan and Southeast Asia, where the plant has served as a medicinal food since at least the 6th century CE, though TCM records provide the most detailed historical accounts.^[5] Specific applications in TCM include detoxification to clear toxins from the body, tumor suppression to inhibit abnormal growths, alleviation of blood stasis to promote circulation, and phlegm liquefaction to resolve respiratory obstructions.^[55] ^[5] The gel was administered internally or topically for conditions such as asthma, cough, hernia, breast pain, and burns, as well as hematological disorders like excessive bleeding and various skin afflictions including wounds and inflammations.^[55] Respiratory and dermatological uses reflect the plant's purported ability to moisten tissues and dispel heat or dampness, per classical TCM principles.^[3] While these applications persist in ethnomedicinal practices, they derive from pre-modern observational traditions rather than controlled empirical validation, with source texts like the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing emphasizing symptomatic relief over mechanistic causation.^[3] Japanese historical records from the Edo period (1603–1868) similarly highlight konjac for digestive and purgative effects, aligning with broader Asian uses for intestinal cleansing, though less emphasis is placed on antitumor properties compared to Chinese lore.^[5]

Evidence for physiological benefits

Glucomannan, the primary soluble fiber in Amorphophallus konjac, has demonstrated modest physiological benefits in clinical trials and meta-analyses, particularly for lipid metabolism and weight management when consumed at doses of approximately 3 g per day with adequate water. A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials involving 706 participants reported that such supplementation reduced low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by 0.43 mmol/L (approximately 10%) and non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol by 0.46 mmol/L (7%), with effects more pronounced in individuals with baseline hyperlipidemia.^[56]^[57] These findings align with glucomannan's viscosity, which binds bile acids in the intestine, promoting their fecal excretion and indirectly lowering circulating cholesterol levels.^[58] A 2024 updated meta-analysis of 22 randomized controlled trials with 1,456 adults further corroborated these lipid-lowering effects, showing significant reductions in total cholesterol (weighted mean difference: -0.26 mmol/L) and LDL cholesterol (-0.23 mmol/L), though no substantial impact on triglycerides or apolipoprotein B/A1 ratio.^[59] Benefits were consistent across doses ranging from 1 to 4 g daily and durations of 4 to 12 weeks, with greater effects in trials targeting metabolic syndrome patients. For glycemic control, a 2023 review of clinical evidence indicated glucomannan supplementation (1-3 g/day) lowered fasting blood glucose by up to 0.4 mmol/L and postprandial glucose excursions in type 2 diabetes patients, attributed to delayed gastric emptying and carbohydrate absorption.^[60]^[33] In weight management, a 2020 meta-analysis of 11 trials with overweight or obese adults found glucomannan intake resulted in a statistically significant mean weight loss of 0.79 kg over 5-8 weeks compared to placebo, alongside reductions in body mass index and waist circumference, particularly when combined with energy-restricted diets.^[61] The European Food Safety Authority has authorized health claims for glucomannan aiding weight loss in the context of energy-restricted diets, based on consistent evidence from such trials.^[62] However, not all studies confirm robust effects; a 2014 randomized trial in 53 overweight adults reported no significant weight reduction after 8 weeks of 3 g daily glucomannan, highlighting variability possibly due to adherence or baseline differences.^[63] Emerging evidence also suggests benefits for gut physiology, including improved bowel regularity in constipated individuals via increased stool bulk and water retention, with one review noting reduced transit time by 20-30% at 3 g/day doses.^[33] A 2024 study further indicated glucomannan's prebiotic potential, enhancing short-chain fatty acid production by gut microbiota, which may support metabolic health indirectly.^[64] Overall, while meta-analytic data support targeted benefits, effect sizes remain small to moderate, with optimal outcomes requiring consistent intake alongside lifestyle factors.^[65]

Research limitations and causal mechanisms

Glucomannan, the primary polysaccharide in Amorphophallus konjac, exerts physiological effects through its high water-binding capacity and ability to form a viscous gel in the gastrointestinal tract upon hydration. This gel delays gastric emptying and nutrient absorption, promoting satiety by physically occupying space and slowing the transit of food, which may contribute to modest reductions in caloric intake.^[66] The increased viscosity also impedes the enzymatic breakdown and diffusion of carbohydrates and lipids, attenuating postprandial glucose spikes and restricting fat absorption, potentially aiding glycemic control and lipid profiles.^[67] Additionally, glucomannan binds bile acids in the intestine, increasing their fecal excretion and prompting hepatic cholesterol conversion to bile, which underlies observed hypocholesterolemic effects in animal and human models.^[58] These mechanisms align with broader soluble fiber actions but are amplified by glucomannan's exceptional swelling ratio, up to 100-fold its weight in water.^[68] Despite these plausible pathways, clinical research on glucomannan's health benefits is constrained by methodological shortcomings. Many randomized controlled trials (RCTs) feature small sample sizes, typically under 50 participants per arm, limiting statistical power and generalizability.^[69] Study durations are often short, ranging from 4 to 12 weeks, precluding assessment of sustained effects or long-term adherence.^[70] High heterogeneity in meta-analyses (e.g., I² > 70% for weight loss and lipid outcomes) arises from variable dosing (1-4 g/day), formulations, and participant characteristics, complicating pooled effect estimates.^[61] Risk-of-bias assessments via Cochrane tools reveal frequent issues, including inadequate blinding, unclear allocation concealment, and selective reporting, with up to 50% of trials rated as high risk in domains like performance bias.^[71] Industry sponsorship, common in glucomannan trials due to commercial interests in supplements, introduces potential conflicts that may inflate positive findings, as evidenced by funnel plot asymmetry suggesting publication bias in some reviews.^[72] Inconsistent replication across outcomes—e.g., significant short-term weight loss (≈0.5-1 kg) but null effects on body composition or insulin sensitivity in subgroup analyses—highlights causal uncertainties, where viscosity-mediated benefits may not translate uniformly beyond acute settings.^[60] Larger, independent, long-term RCTs are needed to disentangle true efficacy from these confounds, particularly for metabolic endpoints where preclinical mechanisms outpace human evidence.^[65]

Safety concerns and controversies

Choking and obstruction risks

Konjac-derived products, particularly jelly candies containing glucomannan, have been associated with severe choking hazards due to their firm, gelatinous texture that resists breakdown in the mouth and throat, potentially leading to airway obstruction. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has documented at least six pediatric deaths in the United States from choking on konjac jelly snacks between 1995 and 2001, prompting import alerts and recalls for such products.^[73] This risk is heightened in young children, whose smaller airways and immature chewing abilities exacerbate the danger, as the material can swell upon contact with saliva without dissolving.^[74] Recent FDA actions, including the 2024 recall of Dragonfly Jelly Bars and 2023 recall of Mini Fruit Jelly Cups, reiterate that konjac's consistency poses threats not only to children but also to adults with swallowing difficulties or anatomic/functional impairments.^[75]^[76] Esophageal and gastrointestinal obstructions represent another documented risk, primarily from glucomannan supplements in tablet, powder, or capsule form derived from Amorphophallus konjac tubers. These products absorb water rapidly, expanding up to 50 times their volume, which can form a hygroscopic pharmacobezoar—a cohesive mass—if insufficient liquid is consumed, leading to blockage in the esophagus or stomach.^[77] Case reports confirm such incidents, including esophageal obstruction requiring endoscopic removal after glucomannan tablet ingestion without adequate water.^[78] Clinical guidelines advise against use in individuals with esophageal strictures, motility disorders, or prior obstructions, as the fiber's viscosity impedes passage and increases impaction likelihood.^[79] Children face elevated risks from solid forms, deemed likely unsafe by pharmacology references due to potential throat blockages, though powdered glucomannan may be safer short-term with ample hydration.^[80] The incidence of these events correlates with product formulation: high-glucomannan gels or minimally hydrated supplements amplify obstruction potential via incomplete disintegration, whereas well-hydrated or liquid preparations mitigate it.^[81] Regulatory bodies like the FDA maintain import bans on certain konjac jellies (e.g., under Alert 35-15) to curb pediatric exposures, underscoring the causal link between the plant's polysaccharide properties and mechanical airway or luminal compromise.^[82]

Other adverse effects and regulatory actions

Consumption of glucomannan derived from Amorphophallus konjac can lead to gastrointestinal side effects, including bloating, flatulence, abdominal discomfort, diarrhea, loose stools, gas, and occasionally constipation, particularly when intake exceeds recommended levels or is not accompanied by sufficient water.^[79]^[83] These effects stem from the high viscosity and water-absorbing properties of the soluble fiber, which can ferment in the gut and alter bowel motility.^[84] Allergic reactions are rare but may manifest as hives, rash, itchy skin, swelling, difficulty breathing, or rapid heart rate.^[84] In clinical studies, glucomannan supplementation at doses up to 3 grams daily for 12 weeks has not raised significant toxicological concerns beyond these mild effects, with no evidence of genotoxicity, immunotoxicity, or allergenicity in humans or animals.^[85] However, interactions with oral medications are possible due to delayed gastric emptying and reduced absorption, necessitating administration at least one hour apart.^[79] Regulatory bodies have assessed glucomannan safety favorably for food use. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies konjac flour as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used as a food additive.^[86] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) re-evaluated konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E 425 ii) in 2017, concluding no genotoxicity or allergenicity risks at approved levels, though it advised against use in novel foods like certain polysaccharide complexes without further data.^[85] EFSA has authorized health claims for glucomannan in weight management and cholesterol reduction, conditional on daily intake of at least 3 grams with adequate water.^[87] Restrictions primarily target product forms posing physical risks rather than inherent toxicity, such as Australia's prohibition on glucomannan supplements due to potential esophageal or gastric obstruction beyond choking.^[88] The FDA maintains import alerts for mini-cup konjac jellies, reflecting ongoing surveillance aligned with international bans in regions like the UK and proposed in Hong Kong effective April 2026.^[89]^[90] Labels on glucomannan products often mandate warnings for hydration to mitigate viscosity-related issues.^[79]

Economic significance

Global production and trade

China dominates global production of Amorphophallus konjac, accounting for approximately 63% of worldwide output in 2020 according to data from the China Konjac Association.^[91] In 2022, China's production contributed 44,600 tons to a global total of 71,600 tons of konjac sales, reflecting its role as the primary supplier of raw tubers and processed forms like flour.^[92] Other significant producers include Japan and Indonesia, though Indonesia's output focuses more on related species like Amorphophallus muelleri (porang) and faces export restrictions to China due to quality standards non-compliance.^[93] Production volumes have grown in Asia-Pacific countries amid rising demand for glucomannan, the key polysaccharide extracted from konjac corms, but global supply remains constrained at around 12,000 tons annually against demand exceeding 50,000 tons.^[94] This shortfall drives price volatility, with Japan's import prices reported at 12 RMB per kg—six to eight times higher than Chinese domestic rates—due to inconsistent local yields from weather and soil challenges.^[94] In trade, konjac and its derivatives are exported primarily from China, Japan, and Hong Kong, which together accounted for 88% of global glucomannan shipments between October 2023 and September 2024.^[95] Export values reached $672.27 million USD in 2023, marking a 10.66% year-over-year increase, while imports totaled $658.19 million USD, up 7.38%.^[96] Key markets include Japan for traditional food uses, South Korea and Southeast Asia for regional consumption, and Europe and the United States for health supplements and low-calorie products, fueled by interest in glucomannan's fiber properties.^[94] Trade growth is projected to continue, supported by expanding applications in clean-label foods, though supply bottlenecks may persist without scaled cultivation in new regions.^[53]

Industrial applications

Konjac glucomannan (KGM), the primary polysaccharide extracted from the tubers of Amorphophallus konjac, finds application in the pharmaceutical industry primarily due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ability to form gels and films suitable for drug delivery systems.^[97] It is incorporated into controlled-release matrices, sustained-release tablets, and hydrogel formulations that enable targeted and prolonged drug administration, leveraging KGM's swelling properties in aqueous environments to modulate release rates.^[98] These attributes stem from KGM's high molecular weight and viscous gel formation upon hydration, which have been demonstrated in vitro for encapsulating active pharmaceutical ingredients without toxicity.^[99] In biomedical engineering, KGM-based materials are developed into scaffolds, nanoparticles, and emulsions for tissue engineering and wound dressings, capitalizing on their non-toxicity and film-forming capabilities.^[100] For instance, blends of KGM with polymers like chitosan yield membranes and films for drug encapsulation and regenerative applications, exhibiting mechanical strength and controlled degradation profiles.^[101] KGM also serves as a functional ingredient in cosmetics, where its thickening, stabilizing, and moisturizing properties enhance product formulations such as creams and lotions.^[101] Its natural hydrocolloid nature allows for improved texture and emulsion stability without synthetic additives, aligning with demand for biodegradable alternatives in personal care manufacturing.^[102] Emerging uses include wastewater treatment, where KGM acts as a flocculant or adsorbent due to its high water absorption and binding affinity for pollutants, and in fine chemical processes for stabilization of nanoparticles, such as palladium catalysts synthesized via green reduction methods.^[103]^[102] These applications exploit KGM's environmental compatibility, though scalability remains limited by extraction yields from konjac tubers, typically ranging from 40-60% glucomannan content by dry weight.^[104]

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https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/konjac
[16]
https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Amorphophallus%20konjac
[17]
[PDF] Genetic variation in wild populations of the tuber crop ...
Dec 28, 2015 · konjac are mainly distributed in the Wuling Mountain region of central China and therefore, effective conservation of A. konjac is urgently ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin<|separator|>
[18]
Amorphophallus konjac - K.Koch - PFAF
It has gelling and film-forming properties and is widely used as an emulsifier and stabilizer in foods, drinks, cosmetics and the pharmaceutical industry. It ...
[19]
How to Grow and Care for Konjac - PictureThis
What Soil is Best for Konjac? More. Soil Composition: Loam, Sand. Soil Type: Garden Soil. Soil pH: 5.5-6.5. Maintaining good aeration and drainage is crucial ...Missing: rainfall | Show results with:rainfall
[20]
Amorphophallus konjac – Native Plant Search - PFAF.org
Loose leafy detritus in moist shady habitats. Forest margins and thickets at elevations of 830 – 1,200 metres in western Yunnan. Love ...
[21]
Amorphophallus Konjac (Voodoo Lily) – The Exotic Edible with a ...
Jan 9, 2025 · This remarkable plant is native to the forests of Southeast Asia, primarily found in countries like Japan, China, and Indonesia.
[22]
Amorphophallus konjac (Care, Characteristics, Flower, Images, Toxic)
Konjac is originally indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of East Asia. Its native range extends across various parts of this region. Konjac has also ...
[23]
Amorphophallus konjac - 9 Care Tips for Voodoo Lily - Ohio Tropics
Oct 31, 2022 · Amorphophallus loves a potting mix or soil that is well-drained, fertile and moist. If you plant them in the ground, they will not tolerate ...SOME INTERESTING... · GROWTH HABIT & LIFE CYCLE · AMORPHOPHALLUS...
[24]
What is Konjac | Fiber, History and Culture - MOYU
History and Culture. China was the first country to cultivate and consume the konjac. It has been found & used in Asia for over 2,000 years.
[25]
All You Need to Know About Konnyaku (Konjac) - Japanese Taste
Aug 10, 2023 · It was first introduced from China to Japan in the sixth century as a medicinal product. It has a gelatinous texture and virtually no flavor ...
[26]
What Is Konnyaku? Japanese Cuisine's Best Kept Secret?
Edible konjac is thought to have been brought to Japan from China around the 6th century, likely by Buddhist monks who consumed it as a medicine and a fasting ...What Is A Corm? · How Konnyaku Is Made · A Little History
[27]
https://pacpacsnacks.com/blogs/news/the-history-and-cultural-significance-of-konjac-in-japanese-society
[28]
The origin of konjac history
Apr 24, 2020 · Wild forms grow naturally in Southeast Asia and China.Konjac has been known in Japan since the sixth century as a medicinal food. During the Edo ...Missing: cultivation | Show results with:cultivation
[29]
Konjac Yam - Indochina Organic farming Development Center
Jan 20, 2011 · Konjac yams are grown on the Bolaven Plateau at a height of about 1100 meters above sea level, and located in the northwest part of Champasak ...
[30]
Response and mechanisms of Amorphophallus konjac agronomic ...
Dec 1, 2024 · The results revealed that biochar application significantly affected agronomic traits, yield, and disease occurrence of A. konjac.Missing: practices | Show results with:practices
[31]
effects of cultivation duration and mode on the microbial diversity of ...
Amorphophallus konjac cannot be cultivated on the same field consecutively for extended periods, but can be cultivated on the same grove.
[32]
https://pacpacsnacks.com/blogs/news/from-farm-to-table-growing-and-harvesting-konjac
[33]
Konjac Glucomannan: An Emerging Specialty Medical Food to Aid ...
Jan 12, 2023 · KGM can extend gastric emptying time, increase satiety, and promote liver glycogen synthesis, and also has the potential to improve intestinal flora and the ...
[34]
Konjac Glucomannan (KGM), Deacetylated KGM (Da-KGM), and ...
This review first narrates the typical commercial KGM source species, the industrial production, and the purification process of KGM flour. The structural ...
[35]
Detailed Examination of the Branched Structure of Konjac ...
Abstract. Konjac glucomannan, a reserve polysaccharide from Amorphophallus konjac tubers was isolated in a homogeneous state and is known to contain d-mann.Missing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
[36]
A chromosome-level genome assembly of Amorphophallus konjac ...
Previous analyses suggest that glucomannan is comprised of mannose and glucose with a ratio of 1.8:1, and with 11% of the mannosyl residues O-acetylated equally ...
[37]
Review of Konjac Glucomannan Structure, Properties, Gelation ...
Apr 7, 2023 · Konjac glucomannan (KGM) is a naturally occurring macromolecular polysaccharide that exhibits remarkable film–forming and gel–forming properties.
[38]
Dynamic viscoelastic study on the gelation of konjac glucomannan ...
Jacon, Rao, Cooley, and Walter (1993) reported that the intrinsic viscosity of KGM was 1320 ml/g which is one of the highest of the polysaccharides used in food ...
[39]
Introduction To Konjac - Properties - CyberColloids
Konjac is a gelling, thickening, suspending, and film-forming agent, readily dissolves in water, and can form both thermo-reversible and thermo-irreversible ...
[40]
Konjac - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Konjac (Amorphophallus konjac) is a plant known for its multiple therapeutic effects, including antiobesity, antidiabetic, and prebiotic properties, ...
[41]
Viscoelastic properties of konjac glucomannan in the presence of salts
The zero shear viscosity (η0) and specific viscosity are scaled as C4.0 with concentration and are also independent of the type of salt used, which confirms ...
[42]
Preparation and characterization of konjac glucomannan (KGM) and ...
Jan 19, 2022 · Konjac glucomannan (KGM) has been widely applied in the food industry as a thickening and gelation agent because of its unique colloidal ...
[43]
Structure, Merits, Gel Formation, Gel Preparation and Functions of ...
Mar 13, 2023 · KGM possesses a range of favorable properties, such as film-forming, gelation, water retention and thickening properties, which make it suitable ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Molecular Cloning and Characterization of a Novel ... - PubMed
A new lectin gene was cloned from Amorphophallus konjac. The full-length cDNA of Amorphophallus konjac agglutinin (aka) was 736 bp and contained a 474 bp open ...
[45]
Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel mannose-binding ...
A new lectin gene was cloned from Amorphophallus konjac. The full-length cDNA of Amorphophallus konjac agglutinin (aka) was 736 bp and contained a 474 bp ...
[46]
Hypoglycemic and antioxidant properties of konjac (Amorphophallus ...
Oct 7, 2020 · Antioxidant activity of konjac (Amorphophallus konjac) in vitro through the determination of malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in healthy ...
[47]
Chitosan-based composite films incorporating upcycled Konjac leaf ...
A. konjac leaf blade exhibits higher levels of phenolics. The contents of total phenols and flavonoids in extracts from A. konjac and A. paeoniifolius varied ...
[48]
Mechanism of ethyl acetate fraction of Amorphophallus konjac ...
Mar 17, 2025 · Aims of the study: This study explores the therapeutic effects of the konjac ethyl acetate fraction (KEAF) in triple-negative breast cancer ( ...
[49]
Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel mannose-binding ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... The full-length cDNA of Amorphophallus konjac lectin revealed that it is a member of the monocot mannose-binding protein superfamily.
[50]
Konnyaku no Shiraae ｜ Our Regional Cuisines : MAFF
In Kagawa prefecture, the cultivation of konjac potatoes began during the Meiji period, and they are still grown today in the mountainous areas. “Soba” (= ...
[51]
Konnyaku: A Health Food Rich in Dietary Fiber and Super Low in ...
Aug 23, 2025 · Konnyaku is a staple of stews and warming dishes like oden. Made from the starch of the konjac potato, it is chewy and filling while also ...<|separator|>
[52]
5 Ways Konjac Can Help Boost Your Health
May 15, 2024 · The glucomannan fiber in konjac can be good for your digestion, heart, weight loss and more. Bowl of white konjac noodles in wooden bowl.
[53]
Konjac Market Size, Share, Growth, Trends, 2032
The popularity of ketogenic, gluten-free, and plant-based diets has increased the demand for konjac-derived products such as konjac noodles and flour. The ...
[54]
Formulators find new uses for konjac in baked goods, snacks, more
Dec 21, 2023 · A root vegetable native to Asia, konjac is used in modern food products like noodles, baked goods, snacks and alt-seafood. Learn more about ...
[55]
Traditional uses and potential health benefits of Amorphophallus ...
Mar 24, 2010 · Amorphophallus konjac (konjac) has long been used in China, Japan and South East Asia as a food source and as a traditional medicine.
[56]
A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized ... - PubMed
Conclusions: Our findings support the intake of ∼3 g KJM/d for reductions in LDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol of 10% and 7%, respectively. The ...
[57]
A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled ...
Our findings support the intake of ∼3 g KJM/d for reductions in LDL cholesterol and non-HDL cholesterol of 10% and 7%, respectively.
[58]
Effect of glucomannan on plasma lipid and glucose concentrations ...
Several clinical trials (3–19) have investigated the impact of glucomannan on total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cho- lesterol, triglycerides, body weight, ...
[59]
The effect of glucomannan supplementation on lipid profile in adults
Oct 9, 2024 · Review of Konjac Glucomannan Structure, Properties, Gelation Mechanism, and Application in Medical Biology. Polymers. 2023;15(8):1852 ...<|separator|>
[60]
Effects of Glucomannan Supplementation on Type II Diabetes ...
Jan 24, 2023 · Glucomannan is hydrophilic and contains a main chain polymerized by D-glucose and D-mannose through a β-l,4-glycosidic bond (Figure 1) and a ...
[61]
Effects of glucomannan supplementation on weight loss in ...
In this meta-analysis we found a significant reduction in body weight following glucomannan consumption in overweight and obese adults.Missing: physiological benefits
[62]
Published scientific review notes safety of six weight management ...
Glucomannan has an approved claim for weight loss by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and clinical evidence suggests beneficial effects on blood ...
[63]
Safety and Efficacy of Glucomannan for Weight Loss in Overweight ...
Glucomannan has been associated with reductions in body weight and plasma lipid and glucose levels in adults in a few clinical trials [14–19]. But these trials ...
[64]
Effects of Konjac Glucomannan and Its Oligosaccharides on ...
Jun 26, 2024 · This study has provided preliminary evidence that KGM and KOGM have the ability to hydrolyze lactose in the colon, resulting in increased ...
[65]
Konjac glucomannan as an emerging nutritional strategy for obesity ...
Jul 11, 2025 · This review aims to evaluate the role of Konjac Glucomannan (KGM) as an emerging nutritional strategy in regulating obesity and metabolic dysfunction
[66]
Konjac Glucomannan: A functional food additive for preventing ...
Konjac has been used as a culinary ingredient and in herbal medicine for thousands of years in Southeast Asia, China, and Japan. It contains alkaloids, starch, ...Missing: East | Show results with:East
[67]
Glucomannan Benefits for Weight Loss, Diabetes, and More
Apr 16, 2025 · Some studies of glucomannan report promising results in treating high cholesterol or lowering blood pressure, but research results often are ...
[68]
Health benefits of konjac glucomannan with special focus on diabetes
Konjac glucomannan increases satiety, reduces glucose, improves blood sugar and cholesterol, aids in avoiding constipation, and acts as a laxative.
[69]
The effect of glucomannan supplementation on lipid profile in adults
Oct 9, 2024 · Glucomannan has been studied for various health benefits, but its effects on lipid profile in adults are not well understood.
[70]
The efficacy of glucomannan supplementation in overweight ... - NCBI
A meta-analysis (random effect model) of 8 RCTs revealed a nonstatistically significant difference in weight loss between glucomannan and placebo (mean ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[71]
The effect of Glucomannan on fasting and postprandial blood ... - NIH
Feb 27, 2022 · Quality assessment of studies. Two investigators (A-M and R-Z) assessed the quality of each selected study using the Cochrane risk of bias tools ...
[72]
A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled ...
A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of the effect of konjac glucomannan, a viscous soluble fiber, on LDL cholesterol and the ...
[73]
FDA bans more konjac products - Food Navigator
May 26, 2017 · There have been six children's deaths from choking associated with this type of jelly candy throughout the United States in recent years.
[74]
U.S. Trading Company of Hayward, CA is Recalling Dragonfly Jelly ...
Jan 11, 2024 · Konjac and its consequent texture and consistency could pose a choking hazard to small children as well as adults with functional and/or ...
[75]
Tiffany Food Corp Recalls Mini Fruit Jelly Cups Because of Possible ...
Oct 19, 2023 · Konjac and its consequent texture and consistency could pose a choking hazard to small children as well as adults with functional and/or ...
[76]
Jelly bars recalled after FDA determines products present choking ...
Jan 12, 2024 · Konjac powder's texture and consistency could pose a choking hazard to small children as well as adults with functional and/or anatomic ...
[77]
Esophageal obstruction from a hygroscopic pharmacobezoar ...
Glucomannan is a dietary fiber that is the main polysaccharide obtained from the tubers of the Amorphophallus konjac plant. It has been used as a dietary fiber ...
[78]
Esophageal obstruction from a hygroscopic pharmacobezoar ...
Glucomannan is a dietary fiber that is the main polysaccharide obtained from the tubers of the Amorphophallus konjac plant. It has been used as a dietary ...
[79]
Glucomannan Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com
May 21, 2025 · Konjac mannan reduced plasma cholesterol levels in rats30; however, only water-soluble konjac mannan had this effect. The hypocholesteremic ...Missing: mechanism action
[80]
Glucomannan: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose ... - RxList
However, solid tablets containing glucomannan are POSSIBLY UNSAFE for adults and LIKELY UNSAFE for children. These can sometimes cause blockages of the throat ...<|separator|>
[81]
Glucomannan and risk of oesophageal obstruction - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · The risk of esophageal obstructions for glucomannan products is dependent on the amount of glucomannan and how the products are manufactured, as ...
[82]
RONG SHING TRADING NY INC - Xi Zhi Liang Fruit Jelly Cup
Jun 11, 2020 · Small konjac powder jelly cups are presently under FDA import alert 35-15 and are not permitted for entry into the United States.
[83]
Glucomannan - Uses, Side Effects, and More - WebMD
The effect of Glucomannan on fasting and postprandial blood glucose in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J ...
[84]
What Is Konjac? Uses, Benefits, and Side Effects - Healthline
Apr 27, 2017 · Konjac is a root vegetable from Asia, known for its starchy corm, used for noodles and snacks, and as a food additive and supplement.
[85]
Re‐evaluation of konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E ...
... children, adolescents, adults and the elderly were used for the exposure assessment. ... Glucomannan and risk of oesophageal obstruction. British Journal of ...
[86]
[PDF] CO23KonjacFlour.pdf - Agricultural Marketing Service - USDA
Apr 20, 2020 · The FDA defines konjac flour as a GRAS food additive. 185. 186 ... 633. [EFSA] European Food Safety Authority (EU). 2017. Re-evaluation ...
[87]
Glucomannan related health claims | EFSA - European Union
Oct 19, 2010 · Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to konjac mannan (glucomannan) and reduction of body weightMissing: FDA | Show results with:FDA
[88]
Why Is Konjac Root Banned in Australia? Side Effects - MedicineNet
Konjac is found in some parts of Asia and used as part of traditional Chinese medicine. It has become popular in the Western world for its use as a supplement ...<|separator|>
[89]
Import Alert 33-15 - accessdata.fda.gov
A 2017 an Australian surveillance study found that banned mini jelly cups containing konjac continue to be imported, showing that there has been recent trade ...Missing: Amorphophallus | Show results with:Amorphophallus
[90]
Hong Kong could ban mini konjac jelly cups from April 2026 over ...
Jul 18, 2025 · Hong Kong has proposed banning the sale of mini konjac jelly cups from April next year over the products' choking-hazard risks.Missing: Amorphophallus actions
[91]
Plant recognition and counting of Amorphophallus konjac based on ...
According to the China Konjac Association, China was the world's largest producer of Konjac in 2020, accounting for 63 % of global production. The planting ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[92]
A review on extraction, structure, properties, and potential applications
Konjac spread from China via Korea to Japan, where large-scale reintroduction during the Edo period advanced local cultivation and processing (Fig. 1A). In 2022 ...
[93]
Elevational Impact on Konjac Price Amidst Export Restrictions to China
On an international scale,. China has the largest processing industry. China has banned Indonesian konjac exports because Indonesia failed to follow many ...
[94]
Konjac market share and global evaluation of Konjac 2024-2032
May 30, 2024 · According to some statistics, the current global supply of glucomannan is about 12,000 tons, while the demand is more than 50,000 tons. The ...
[95]
Glucomannan Imports in World - Volza.com
Rating 4.7 (1,334) According to Volza's Global Trade data, During Oct 2023 to Sep 2024, China, Japan, and Hong Kong accounted for 88% of the world's total Glucomannan export.
[96]
Konjac production and top producing countries - Tridge
Get access to the Konjac production data including top producing countries, global production chart with market growth, volume, and quantities per country.
[97]
Konjac glucomannan: A functional biopolymer for multifaceted drug ...
Jul 19, 2024 · Excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, and nontoxicity has marked the utilization of KGM in variety of drug delivery and biomedical ...
[98]
Advance in the applications of konjac glucomannan and its derivatives
Aug 9, 2025 · The recent studies on the applications of konjac glucomannan and its derivatives in pharmaceutical, bio-technical, fine chemical fields etc.
[99]
Review of Konjac Glucomannan Structure, Properties, Gelation ...
Apr 12, 2023 · KGM has been utilized in various forms such as nanoparticles, emulsions, tablets, and hydrogels for targeted drug delivery systems that respond ...
[100]
A Review on Konjac Glucomannan Gels: Microstructure and ... - MDPI
Oct 27, 2017 · Konjac glucomannan (KGM) has attracted extensive attention because of its biodegradable, non-toxic, harmless, and biocompatible features.
[101]
Films Based on Chitosan/Konjac Glucomannan Blend Containing ...
Jan 20, 2025 · It is a polysaccharide employed in the development of drug delivery systems, the production of membranes, the manufacture of cosmetics, and the ...
[102]
In vitro evaluations of konjac glucomannan and xanthan gum ...
Aug 9, 2025 · It has found applications in various industries, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, paints and coatings, and wastewater treatment, but ...
[103]
Green synthesis of Konjac glucomannan templated palladium ...
Jul 15, 2021 · A simple Konjac glucomannan (KGM) reduced and stabilized PdNPs-catalysts were green synthesized without using any toxic reagents.
[104]
Konjac glucomannan: A comprehensive review of its extraction ...
Sep 1, 2024 · Konjac glucomannan (KG) is a dietary fiber hydrocolloid derived from Amorphophallus konjac tubers and is widely utilized as a food additive and