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Emulsion

An emulsion is a thermodynamically unstable mixture of two or more immiscible liquids, in which one liquid is dispersed as droplets of microscopic or ultramicroscopic size within the other, appearing macroscopically homogeneous but microscopically heterogeneous.^[1] These systems require emulsifying agents, such as surfactants, to stabilize them by reducing interfacial tension and preventing droplet coalescence or separation.^[1]^[2] Emulsions are classified primarily by the nature of their continuous and dispersed phases: oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions feature oil droplets suspended in water, as seen in milk and mayonnaise, while water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions have water droplets dispersed in oil, exemplified by butter and margarine.^[1]^[3] More complex forms, such as multiple emulsions (e.g., water-in-oil-in-water), also exist for specialized uses like controlled drug release.^[1] Preparation typically involves mechanical agitation or high-shear processes to achieve droplet sizes ranging from nanometers to micrometers, with stability influenced by factors like pH, temperature, and emulsifier concentration.^[1]^[4] Emulsions play a critical role across diverse industries due to their ability to combine incompatible phases effectively. In the food sector, they enhance texture, stability, and shelf life in products like sauces, ice creams, and dressings.^[3] In pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, they facilitate drug delivery, improve bioavailability, and form bases for creams and lotions.^[1] Industrial applications extend to paints, adhesives, and petroleum processing, where emulsions enable efficient material handling and reaction control.^[2]^[5]^[6]

Etymology and Fundamentals

Etymology

The term "emulsion" originates from the Latin verb emulgere, meaning "to milk out," a reference to the process of extracting milk and the resulting milky appearance of mixtures where one liquid is dispersed in another, as seen in natural examples like milk itself.^[7] This etymological root reflects the early association of the concept with dairy products, where fat globules are suspended in water, and the word entered scientific and medical discourse in the early 17th century through French émulsion around 1610, initially describing such oil-and-water mixtures.^[7] By the 19th century, as colloidal science emerged, the term evolved in chemical contexts to denote a stable colloidal suspension of one immiscible liquid dispersed as droplets within another, formalized through foundational work by Thomas Graham around 1860, who distinguished colloids from true solutions and highlighted emulsions as a key subclass.^[7]

Definition and Classification

An emulsion is a type of colloid, which refers to a heterogeneous mixture where particles of one substance, ranging in size from 1 nm to 1 μm, are dispersed evenly throughout another substance without dissolving, resulting in a stable suspension under certain conditions.^[8] In the context of emulsions, this colloidal system specifically involves the dispersion of droplets of one liquid within another immiscible liquid, driven by the need to minimize unfavorable interactions at their interface.^[9] Emulsions are defined as thermodynamically unstable mixtures of two or more immiscible liquids, where one liquid—the dispersed phase—forms small droplets distributed throughout the other liquid—the continuous phase.^[1] This instability arises primarily from the high interfacial tension between the immiscible liquids, which represents the excess free energy per unit area at their boundary and favors phase separation to reduce the total interfacial area.^[10] Conventional macroemulsions, the most common type, feature droplet sizes typically ranging from 0.1 to 100 μm, which are visible under a microscope and contribute to the system's opacity.^[11] Emulsions are primarily classified based on the nature of the dispersed and continuous phases. Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions have oil droplets dispersed in a continuous aqueous phase, such as milk, while water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions have water droplets in a continuous oil phase, like butter.^[11] Multiple emulsions, such as water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W), involve nested dispersions where smaller droplets of one liquid are encapsulated within larger droplets of another, enabling controlled release applications.^[1] Special cases include nanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm, which remain thermodynamically unstable but achieve kinetic stability through high energy input during formation, and microemulsions, which are thermodynamically stable, isotropic systems with droplet sizes around 10–100 nm that form spontaneously due to low interfacial tension induced by surfactants.^[12]

Physical Characteristics

Appearance

Emulsions typically exhibit a milky or opaque appearance as a result of the Tyndall effect, where dispersed droplets scatter visible light, creating a cloudy visual effect when a light beam passes through the mixture.^[13] This scattering occurs because the droplets are larger than the wavelength of visible light (approximately 400–700 nm), leading to multiple scattering events that prevent light from transmitting directly and instead diffuse it in various directions.^[13] The specific visual traits vary depending on the emulsion type. Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, such as milk, often appear white and fluid due to the scattering of light by oil droplets dispersed in an aqueous continuous phase.^[14] In contrast, water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, like butter or margarine, present a creamier or more solid-like texture and appearance, with water droplets scattered in a continuous oil phase that contributes to a denser, less translucent look.^[15] Over time, processes like creaming or phase separation can alter this opacity, potentially leading to clearer layers as droplets aggregate and rise or settle.^[13] Several factors influence the overall appearance of emulsions. Droplet size plays a key role: larger droplets (typically >100 nm) enhance scattering and opacity, while smaller ones (e.g., <100 nm in nanoemulsions) reduce scattering intensity, resulting in greater clarity or transparency.^[16] Additionally, the concentration of the dispersed phase affects visual properties; as it increases up to the close-packing limit of about 74% volume fraction, the emulsion becomes more opaque due to higher scattering density from closely packed droplets.^[11]

Key Properties

Emulsions exhibit a range of rheological behaviors depending on their composition and concentration. Dilute emulsions, where the volume fraction of the dispersed phase (φ) is low, typically display Newtonian flow, characterized by a constant viscosity independent of shear rate.^[17] In contrast, concentrated emulsions often behave as non-Newtonian fluids, showing shear-thinning properties where viscosity decreases under increasing shear rates due to droplet deformation and alignment.^[17] The overall viscosity of an emulsion increases with the dispersed phase volume fraction; for dilute suspensions, this relationship is described by the Einstein equation:

\eta = \eta_0 (1 + 2.5 \phi)

where η is the emulsion viscosity, η₀ is the viscosity of the continuous phase, and φ is the volume fraction of the dispersed phase (valid for φ < 0.05). Interfacial properties play a critical role in emulsion formation and maintenance. Emulsifiers adsorb at the oil-water interface, significantly reducing surface tension from typical values of around 50 mN/m to as low as 1-10 mN/m, which facilitates droplet breakup during emulsification.^[18] For charged emulsions, the zeta potential of droplets, arising from ionized groups or adsorbed ions, influences electrostatic repulsion between droplets; values greater than |30| mV typically indicate sufficient stability against coalescence by providing a repulsive barrier.^[19] Thermal and electrical properties of emulsions vary markedly with the type of emulsion. Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions are generally conductive due to the aqueous continuous phase, which allows ion mobility, whereas water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions are non-conductive as the oil phase insulates the dispersed water droplets.^[20] Density differences between phases drive buoyancy effects, with dispersed droplets rising (creaming) or sinking (sedimentation) based on whether their density exceeds or is less than that of the continuous phase, influencing phase separation tendencies.^[21] Optically, these density gradients can contribute to light scattering and turbidity variations, though emulsions often appear opaque due to refractive index mismatches at interfaces.^[18]

Stability Aspects

Instability Mechanisms

Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable systems that tend to separate into their constituent phases over time due to various physical processes driven by gravity, interfacial forces, and diffusion.^[22] The primary instability mechanisms include creaming or sedimentation, flocculation, coalescence, Ostwald ripening, and phase inversion, each contributing to the breakdown by altering droplet distribution or integrity.^[23] Creaming occurs when less dense droplets rise to the surface, while sedimentation involves denser droplets settling at the bottom, both governed by gravitational forces in emulsions where the dispersed phase density differs from the continuous phase.^[22] The velocity of this movement for individual spherical droplets in dilute emulsions follows Stokes' law:

v = \frac{2r^2 (\rho_1 - \rho_2) g}{9 \eta}

where v is the settling or creaming velocity, r is the droplet radius, \rho_1 and \rho_2 are the densities of the dispersed and continuous phases, g is gravitational acceleration, and \eta is the continuous phase viscosity.^[24] Larger droplets cream faster due to the quadratic dependence on radius, exacerbating separation in polydisperse systems.^[25] Flocculation refers to the reversible aggregation of droplets without merging, primarily due to attractive van der Waals forces overcoming repulsive barriers between droplets.^[22] This process forms loose clusters that can accelerate creaming by increasing effective droplet size while maintaining individual droplet integrity.^[23] Coalescence involves the irreversible merging of flocculated droplets through the drainage and rupture of the thin liquid film separating them, often initiated by van der Waals attractions.^[22] The rate depends on film stability, with higher interfacial tension and viscoelastic films slowing the process.^[23] Ostwald ripening arises from the diffusion of dispersed phase molecules from smaller to larger droplets, driven by differences in solubility caused by curvature effects.^[26] The Laplace pressure, \Delta P = \frac{2\gamma}{r}, where \gamma is the interfacial tension and r is the droplet radius, is higher in smaller droplets, increasing their internal pressure and solubility according to the Kelvin equation.^[27] This leads to gradual growth of larger droplets and shrinkage of smaller ones, broadening the size distribution over time.^[26] Phase inversion is the transition from an oil-in-water (O/W) to a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion or vice versa, triggered by changes in composition, such as increasing the dispersed phase volume fraction beyond a critical point (typically around 0.74 for catastrophic inversion).^[28] Transitional inversion occurs when emulsifier affinity shifts, often with temperature, altering the curvature of the interfacial film.^[29] Environmental factors significantly influence these mechanisms by modulating inter-droplet interactions. Elevated temperature reduces continuous phase viscosity and accelerates Brownian motion, enhancing diffusion rates in Ostwald ripening and flocculation while promoting coalescence through increased kinetic energy.^[30] Variations in pH affect the charge on emulsified interfaces, altering electrostatic repulsion; for instance, at the isoelectric point, reduced repulsion facilitates flocculation and coalescence.^[31] Higher ionic strength screens electrostatic charges, compressing the double layer and weakening repulsion, which promotes flocculation and accelerates creaming in charged emulsions.^[32]

Monitoring and Prediction Methods

Monitoring emulsion stability relies on a suite of experimental techniques that probe droplet size distribution, aggregation tendencies, and interfacial properties. Turbidity measurements, utilizing light scattering principles, quantify the optical density of emulsions to infer droplet size distributions and detect instability through changes in scattering intensity; for instance, increased turbidity signals flocculation or coalescence as larger droplets form.^[33] Optical and electron microscopy provide direct visualization of droplet morphology and flocculation events, allowing observation of processes like bridging or coalescence at the microscale, often enhanced by image analysis for quantitative droplet sizing.^[34] Rheometry assesses viscosity and viscoelastic responses, where elevations in shear viscosity or the onset of non-Newtonian behavior indicate droplet aggregation, offering insights into structural changes during storage.^[35] Zeta potential analysis, commonly performed via electroacoustic methods, evaluates electrostatic repulsion by measuring electrophoretic mobility; absolute values exceeding 30 mV typically signify robust charge-based stability against coalescence.^[30] Prediction of emulsion shelf life employs accelerated testing and theoretical modeling to forecast long-term behavior from condensed experiments. Accelerated shelf-life protocols, such as temperature cycling to hasten diffusion-driven creaming or centrifugation to mimic gravitational separation, enable extrapolation of stability timelines using Arrhenius-based kinetics, reducing real-time testing durations from years to weeks.^[36] Mathematical frameworks like DLVO theory model colloidal interactions by summing attractive van der Waals forces and repulsive electrostatic potentials, with the total interaction energy expressed as

V_{\text{total}} = V_{\text{vdW}} + V_{\text{elec}}

where a high energy barrier (often >20 kT) predicts resistance to aggregation.^[37] Population balance equations further simulate droplet size evolution by accounting for birth and death rates of droplets due to breakage, coalescence, and Ostwald ripening, solving integro-differential forms to project distribution shifts over time.^[38] Post-2020 advancements introduce non-invasive and automated tools for enhanced monitoring and forecasting. Ultrasonic spectroscopy facilitates real-time, contactless assessment of droplet size and concentration by analyzing sound wave attenuation and velocity, detecting phase separation or flocculation without sample perturbation, particularly useful for opaque industrial emulsions.^[39] AI-driven image analysis processes microscopic or macroscopic visuals via convolutional neural networks to predict stability in real time, classifying destabilization patterns like creaming with accuracies exceeding 90% by training on annotated datasets of droplet dynamics.^[40] Recent machine learning models, such as interpretable frameworks trained on multi-laboratory literature data, have been developed to predict lipid emulsion stability in parenteral nutrition as of November 2025, offering generalizable predictions across diverse clinical formulations.^[41]

Components and Processes

Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers are surface-active agents, primarily surfactants, that enable the formation of emulsions by adsorbing at the interface between immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, to stabilize dispersed droplets. These amphiphilic molecules feature both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and lipophilic (oil-attracting) components, allowing them to bridge the two phases. The hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) scale, developed by William C. Griffin in 1949, quantifies this property on a numerical range from 0 (highly lipophilic) to 20 (highly hydrophilic); for instance, emulsifiers with HLB values greater than 8 are typically used for oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, while those below 6 suit water-in-oil (W/O) types.^[42]^[43] Emulsifiers are categorized into natural and synthetic types, with polymers and particle-based stabilizers serving as additional classes for enhanced stabilization. Natural emulsifiers, such as lecithin—a phospholipid mixture extracted from soybeans or egg yolks—offer biocompatibility and are widely used in food and pharmaceutical applications due to their mild nature. Emerging natural approaches include Pickering emulsions, stabilized by solid particles like protein nanoparticles or cellulose nanocrystals, which provide irreversible adsorption and improved environmental sustainability.^[44] Synthetic emulsifiers include nonionic surfactants like Tween 80 (polysorbate 80, HLB ≈ 15), which promotes O/W emulsions, and Span 80 (sorbitan monooleate, HLB ≈ 4.3), favored for W/O systems; these provide precise control over emulsion properties but may raise concerns regarding long-term safety. Polymeric emulsifiers, exemplified by xanthan gum—a microbial polysaccharide—contribute steric stabilization by creating a thick, entangled layer around droplets, preventing aggregation through physical hindrance rather than charge effects.^[45]^[3]^[46] The core functions of emulsifiers involve lowering interfacial tension (γ) to allow droplet formation and creating protective barriers against instability. Adsorption of emulsifiers at the interface follows the Gibbs adsorption isotherm, which relates surface excess (Γ) to changes in tension:

\Gamma = -\frac{1}{RT} \frac{d\gamma}{d \ln C}

Here, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, and C is the emulsifier concentration in the bulk phase; this equation demonstrates how increased adsorption reduces γ, easing the mechanical energy required for emulsification. Additionally, emulsifiers assemble into viscoelastic interfacial films that encase droplets, imparting steric repulsion or mechanical strength to inhibit coalescence—the merging of droplets into larger ones.^[47]^[48]^[49] Selecting an appropriate emulsifier requires evaluating compatibility with the emulsion's phases to ensure rapid and complete interfacial coverage, as mismatches can lead to ineffective stabilization. In regulated sectors like food production, emulsifiers must secure approval, such as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, confirming their safety for intended use without extensive toxicity data. Environmental considerations are increasingly pivotal, with a shift toward biodegradable alternatives—like plant-derived proteins or biosurfactants—to reduce persistence in ecosystems and align with sustainability goals, addressing limitations of traditional synthetics.^[3]^[50]^[44]

Emulsification Mechanisms

Emulsification involves the mechanical or physicochemical disruption of immiscible liquids to form droplets of one phase dispersed in another, typically requiring emulsifiers to reduce interfacial tension and promote droplet breakup while aiding initial stabilization.^[51] The process balances disruptive forces against cohesive interfacial forces, with the goal of achieving desired droplet sizes and uniform distribution. High-energy and low-energy approaches differ in their reliance on external mechanical input versus internal phase behavior. High-energy methods apply intense mechanical forces to break larger droplets into smaller ones, often producing emulsions with droplet diameters ranging from nanometers to micrometers. High-pressure homogenization forces the mixture through narrow valves or orifices under pressures of 500–2,000 bar (7,250–29,000 psi), generating turbulence, shear, and cavitation that reduce droplets to 0.1–10 μm.^[52]^[51] This technique is widely used in industrial settings for its efficiency in creating fine, uniform emulsions. Ultrasonication employs high-intensity ultrasound waves (typically 20 kHz) to induce acoustic cavitation, where collapsing bubbles generate localized shear and shock waves that disrupt droplets, yielding sizes as small as 100 nm depending on energy input and duration.^[53] Microfluidization directs the mixture through fixed-geometry interaction chambers under high pressure (up to 20,000 psi), where colliding streams produce intense shear forces in narrow channels, resulting in monodisperse droplets often below 1 μm and narrower size distributions compared to conventional homogenization.^[51] Low-energy methods leverage spontaneous or thermally induced phase changes, minimizing external mechanical input and relying on emulsifier properties for droplet formation. Phase inversion temperature (PIT) involves heating the mixture to alter the emulsifier's hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB), causing a temporary inversion from oil-in-water to water-in-oil or vice versa, followed by rapid cooling to trap fine droplets (typically 20–200 nm) in the desired configuration.^[51] Spontaneous emulsification occurs via solvent displacement, where a water-miscible solvent containing oil and emulsifier is injected into a continuous aqueous phase, leading to rapid diffusion, supersaturation, and self-assembly into nano-sized droplets (10–100 nm) without significant agitation.^[51] Key process parameters influence droplet breakup and emulsion quality. Energy input governs disruption, quantified by the Weber number We = \frac{\rho v^2 d}{\gamma}, where \rho is the continuous phase density, v is the relative velocity, d is the droplet diameter, and \gamma is the interfacial tension; values exceeding a critical threshold (often 4–12 depending on the system) enable inertial forces to overcome surface tension for breakup.^[54] The order of phase addition affects initial droplet formation: for oil-in-water emulsions, the oil (dispersed) phase is typically added gradually to the aqueous (continuous) phase under stirring to prevent coalescence.^[55] Scale-up from laboratory to industrial production presents challenges, including inconsistent mixing and heat transfer leading to larger droplets or agglomeration, as well as difficulties in maintaining uniform energy dissipation across larger volumes, often requiring adjusted equipment like anchor stirrers to achieve turbulent flow (Reynolds number >10,000).^[56]

Practical Applications

Food and Nutrition

Emulsions are integral to food science, enabling the incorporation of fats and oils into aqueous-based products to achieve desirable sensory attributes and nutritional benefits. In the food industry, oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions predominate, dispersing hydrophobic lipids within a continuous aqueous phase to form stable mixtures essential for everyday consumables. These systems not only influence texture and mouthfeel but also facilitate the delivery of essential nutrients, making them a cornerstone of processed and natural foods alike. Prominent examples of food emulsions include mayonnaise, a classic O/W system comprising 70–80% oil droplets stabilized by the lecithin in egg yolk, which acts as a natural emulsifier to prevent phase separation and ensure a smooth, viscous consistency. Milk exemplifies a natural O/W emulsion, with approximately 3.5% fat present as globules ranging from 0.2 to 15 μm in diameter, enveloped by a phospholipid-protein membrane that maintains dispersion in the aqueous serum phase. Ice cream represents a more complex partially coalesced emulsion, where fat globules (typically 10–16% of the mix) adsorb to air-water interfaces during freezing, enabling overrun levels of 50–100% that impart lightness and creaminess to the final product. Emulsions enhance food palatability by creating creamy textures and uniform fat distribution, which improve sensory appeal without altering core flavors, as seen in dressings and spreads. They also boost nutrient bioavailability, particularly for fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K, by increasing their solubility and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract through micellar solubilization. Additionally, homogenization processes in dairy products reduce fat globule size to below 1 μm, minimizing creaming and thereby extending shelf life by up to several weeks while preserving product uniformity. Nutritionally, low-fat emulsion formulations often employ modified starches, such as octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified variants, to replicate the viscosity and stability of full-fat systems, allowing reduced oil content (e.g., 30–50%) without compromising texture in products like mayonnaise or sauces. Regulatory concerns arise with synthetic or allergen-containing emulsifiers; for instance, soy lecithin, a common additive derived from soybeans, can trigger IgE-mediated reactions in sensitive individuals due to residual soy proteins, prompting labeling requirements under frameworks like the U.S. Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act. Post-2010 trends in the food sector emphasize clean-label alternatives, favoring natural emulsifiers like pea protein, gum arabic, or unmodified starches to meet consumer demands for transparency and minimal processing, with market growth for such ingredients projected at 7–8% annually through 2035.

Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals

Emulsions play a vital role in healthcare and pharmaceuticals, particularly as vehicles for drug delivery and nutritional support. Intravenous lipid emulsions, such as Intralipid, are widely used for parenteral nutrition in patients unable to receive adequate calories enterally, providing essential fatty acids and energy-dense formulations typically containing 10–30% oil from sources like soybean or fish.^[57] Intralipid specifically consists of 20% soybean oil emulsified with egg phospholipids and glycerin, administered via intravenous infusion to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency.^[58] In topical applications, oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions form the basis of creams and lotions, such as moisturizers, where the external aqueous phase facilitates easy spreading and absorption while delivering oil-soluble active ingredients to the skin.^[1] Nanoemulsions enhance drug delivery by improving the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble compounds, such as paclitaxel, a chemotherapeutic agent with inherently low aqueous solubility limiting its oral absorption.^[59] These submicron droplets (typically 20–200 nm) increase solubility and permeation across biological barriers, achieving up to 70% oral bioavailability for paclitaxel in optimized formulations compared to less than 8% for conventional preparations.^[60] Controlled release is another key benefit, achieved through droplet encapsulation where drugs are entrapped within emulsion cores, enabling sustained delivery and reducing dosing frequency; for instance, nanoemulsion-loaded alginate capsules have demonstrated prolonged release of lipophilic actives over hours to days.^[61] Advancements in emulsion technology include self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), isotropic mixtures of oils, surfactants, and cosurfactants that spontaneously form fine O/W emulsions upon dilution in gastrointestinal fluids, significantly boosting oral bioavailability of lipophilic drugs by up to 20-fold in some cases.^[62] Regulatory standards ensure safety for injectables, with the United States Pharmacopeia (USP <729>) stipulating that intravenous lipid emulsions must have a volume-weighted mean droplet diameter below 500 nm and no more than 0.05% of fat globules exceeding 5 μm to minimize risks like embolism.^[63] In vaccine development, squalene-based emulsions like MF59 serve as adjuvants in influenza vaccines, enhancing immune responses; post-2020 research has elucidated mechanisms such as uric acid release from muscle cells to amplify immunogenicity, supporting broader applications in seasonal and pandemic flu formulations.^[64]

Firefighting and Safety

Emulsions play a critical role in firefighting, particularly through foam formulations designed for suppressing Class B fires involving flammable liquids such as hydrocarbons and polar solvents. Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), a type of emulsion-based suppressant, utilize hydrocarbon surfactants to create a thin aqueous film that spreads across the fuel surface, suppressing vapors and preventing ignition or re-ignition by acting as a physical barrier to oxygen.^[65]^[66] The primary mechanisms of AFFF involve emulsification, where the foam blanket incorporates oil into water droplets, smothering the fire by excluding air and providing evaporative cooling to reduce fuel temperatures below ignition points. This emulsification process disrupts the fuel's continuity, while the foam's structure enhances coverage over irregular surfaces like spill areas. For alcohol-resistant variants (AR-AFFF), designed for polar fuels, expansion ratios typically reach up to 8:1 when proportioned at 3% concentration, allowing efficient deployment with lower water volumes compared to standard foams.^[67] Environmental concerns have driven significant updates in AFFF composition, with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-based emulsifiers phased out due to their environmental persistence and bioaccumulation risks. EU REACH regulations, including Commission Regulation (EU) 2025/1988 adopted in October 2025, restrict PFAS in firefighting foams, entering into force on October 23, 2025, with full prohibition applying from October 23, 2030, and labeling requirements starting October 23, 2026.^[68] Alternatives include protein-based foams, derived from natural hydrolysates for stable blanketing without fluorination, and fluorotelomer-based foams using shorter-chain C6 chemistries to reduce persistence while maintaining film-forming efficacy. These foams are increasingly applied in oil spill response scenarios, where rapid deployment suppresses ignited spills on water or land, minimizing spread and environmental damage.^[69]^[70]^[71]

Industrial and Chemical Uses

Emulsions play a pivotal role in chemical synthesis, particularly through emulsion polymerization, a process where monomers are dispersed in an aqueous phase and polymerized using radical initiators to form stable latex particles. This method is widely used to produce latex paints, which consist of polymer dispersions like acrylic or styrene-acrylic copolymers that provide durability and adhesion when applied to surfaces.^[4] Similarly, synthetic rubbers such as styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) are manufactured via free radical emulsion polymerization in water, enabling the creation of high-molecular-weight polymers with controlled particle sizes for applications in tires and adhesives.^[72] The aqueous environment in these processes facilitates heat dissipation and reduces viscosity, allowing for efficient production at industrial scales.^[73] In industrial applications, emulsions enhance oil recovery through surfactant-polymer (SP) flooding, where surfactants lower interfacial tension between oil and water, and polymers increase solution viscosity to mobilize trapped oil in reservoirs. This technique can improve recovery factors by up to 25% in heterogeneous formations by forming stable emulsions that block high-permeability zones and redirect flow.^[74] Emulsions are also essential in metalworking fluids, typically oil-in-water formulations that provide lubrication to reduce friction and cooling to dissipate heat during machining operations like milling and turning. These fluids prevent tool wear and improve surface finish by forming a lubricating film at the tool-workpiece interface while flushing away chips.^[75] Beyond these, emulsions find use in cosmetics as oil-in-water systems, such as lotions, where oil droplets are dispersed in a continuous aqueous phase to deliver moisturizing agents while ensuring a non-greasy feel and easy spreadability on skin.^[76] Asphalt emulsions, consisting of bitumen droplets stabilized in water with emulsifiers, are applied in road paving for tack coats and surface treatments, promoting adhesion between pavement layers and enabling cold-mix applications that reduce energy consumption.^[77] Recent eco-friendly innovations include bio-based emulsifiers derived from renewable sources like lignin or biosurfactants, which are increasingly used in textile dyeing to stabilize dye dispersions, improve color uptake, and minimize environmental impact by replacing petroleum-based alternatives.^[78]

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The Effect of Ionic Strength on the Formation and Stability of ... - MDPI
However, since emulsions are thermo-dynamically unstable systems, they are susceptible to external environmental influences (e.g., pH, ionic strength, and ...
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Rapid Determination of Emulsion Stability Using Turbidity ...
Feb 18, 2021 · The turbidimetry method offers advantage of rapid determination of stability at a relatively low cost with good accuracy.
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Techniques and methods to study functional characteristics of ...
The ability to absorb and scatter light are the two most critical factors that determine emulsion turbidity, which directly influences the appearance of ...
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Techniques for Emulsion Characterization - Encyclopedia.pub
Further details of emulsion properties can be revealed by zeta potential analysis, which offers insight into the electrostatic forces governing droplet behavior ...2.2. Droplet Size Analysis · 2.4. Rheological Analysis Of... · 2.13. Emulsion Texture...<|separator|>
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Assessing Shelf Life Using Real-Time and Accelerated Stability Tests
Several methods of predicting shelf life based on accelerated stability testing ... prediction of shelf life can be approximated by the Arrhenius equation.
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Study of the stability of bitumen emulsions by application of DLVO ...
The DLVO theory was applied to evaluate the stability of the emulsions. This theory was improved by taking account of additional interaction energies: ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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A population balance model for disperse systems: Drop size ...
A mechanistic model for the description and prediction of the drop size distribution in a turbulently agitated emulsion dispersion is developed.
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Ultrasonic based methods to characterize stability of water-in-crude ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Ultrasonic spectroscopy is a promising measurement technique for the characterisation of emulsions and suspensions over a wide range of ...
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AI‐ and Image‐Based Analysis of Emulsification Processes ...
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Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) is the balance of the size and strength of the hydrophilic and lipophilic moieties of a surfactant molecule.
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Lecithin | Baking Ingredients - BAKERpedia
Lecithin is naturally found in soybean and egg yolk. Lecithin. What is Lecithin? Lecithin is a natural emulsifier and stabilizer in foods. It's widely used ...
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Influence of xanthan gum on oil-in-water emulsion characteristics ...
The presence of xanthan gum in oil-in-water emulsion with OSA starch as an emulsifier enhances the stability of the system.
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Gibbs Adsorption Equation - (Physical Chemistry II) - Fiveable
The Gibbs adsorption equation illustrates that as the concentration of a solute increases at the interface, there is a corresponding change in surface tension.
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Applicability of the Gibbs Adsorption Isotherm to the analysis of ...
The Gibbs Adsorption Isotherm equation is a two-dimensional analogous of the Gibbs-Duhem equation, and it is one of the cornerstones of interface science.
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Emulsifying Agent - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
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Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) - FDA
Oct 17, 2023 · Information about how FDA regulates food additives that are generally recognized as safe or "GRAS."GRAS Substances (SCOGS... · GRAS Notification Program · GRAS Notice InventoryMissing: emulsifier compatibility phases environmental biodegradable alternatives<|control11|><|separator|>
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Recent Developments and Applications of Food-Based Emulsifiers ...
Emulsifiers must either be approved as food additives through a formal petition process or be classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for their ...Missing: criteria | Show results with:criteria
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Ultrasonic emulsification: An overview on the preparation of different ...
This review briefly discusses the major differences between different emulsification devices and the mechanism of ultrasound emulsification process.
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Prediction of Newtonian Droplet Breaking Time from a Capillary at ...
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Sep 5, 2015 · Intravenous lipid emulsions play a critical role in providing an energy-dense source of calories and supplying the essential fatty acids that cannot be ...
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[PDF] Intralipid® 20% (A 20% IV Fat Emulsion) - accessdata.fda.gov
Intralipid 20% will prevent the biochemical lesions of essential fatty acid deficiency. (EFAD) and correct the clinical manifestations of the EFAD syndrome.
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Improved oral delivery of paclitaxel following administration in ...
Nanoemulsion formulations were designed for enhancing the oral bioavailability of hydrophobic drugs. Paclitaxel was selected as a model hydrophobic drug, ...
[56]
Nanoemulsions as Versatile Formulations for Paclitaxel Delivery
The NE formulation has enhanced the peroral bioavailability significantly to more than 70%. The developed NE formulation was safe and effective for both ...
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Nanoemulsion‐Loaded Capsules for Controlled Delivery of ...
Aug 28, 2020 · In this work, a method is developed to encapsulate nanoemulsions in alginate capsules for the controlled delivery of lipophilic active ingredients.
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Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems: a novel approach to deliver ...
Jun 6, 2022 · SEDDS has been demonstrated to be quite efficient in increasing oral bioavailability of lipophilic products. SEDDS is one of the promising ...
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Nov 17, 2016 · 8 These include standards for the mean droplet diameter for lipid injectable emulsions: They must be less than 500 nm or one-half micron ...
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Emulsion adjuvant-induced uric acid release modulates optimal ...
Apr 16, 2025 · Squalene-based emulsion (SE) adjuvants like MF59 and AS03 are used in protein subunit vaccines against influenza virus (e.g., Fluad, ...
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[PDF] AC 150/5210-6E - Aircraft Fire Extinguishing Agents for Airports
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[PDF] Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) - ITRC PFAS
Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) is a highly effective firefighting product intended for fighting high-hazard flammable liquid fires.
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[PDF] FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF). AFFF is a special type of water-based fire extinguishing agent. It differs from other water-based agents in that it can be ...
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Fire Fighting Foam Restrictions - Environmental Protection Agency
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3 Firefighting Foams – PFAS — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
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[PDF] Firefighting Foams, Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF), and PFAS
AFFF is a type of low-expansion foam. • Medium-expansion foams have an expansion ratio of 20 to 100, which makes them useful for applications such as ...
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3. Manufacturing: Materials and Processing | Polymer Science and ...
Low-temperature emulsion polymerizations were developed to produce highly successful synthetic rubbers, particularly styrene-butadiene copolymers. In one of ...
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Polymer Latexes : Overview of Emulsion Polymerization
For example, butadiene-styrene latexes were initially developed for the polymer as used in synthetic rubber. High molecular weight water soluble polymers (for ...
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Effect of Emulsification on Enhanced Oil Recovery during Surfactant ...
Feb 20, 2021 · We found SP flooding can obviously enhance oil recovery factor by 25% after water flooding in both homogeneous and heterogeneous cores.
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Metalworking fluids—Mechanisms and performance - ScienceDirect
Thereby, emulsions represent the first specific approach to combine cooling and lubricating within one MWF. The combination of hydrophilic and lipophilic ...
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Nanoemulsions in cosmetics: Enhancing efficacy and stability
The small droplet size of nanoemulsions offers several advantages, including improved optical clarity ... Increasing surfactant concentration can reduce droplet ...
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An Introduction to Asphalt Emulsions
Nov 28, 2008 · Asphalt emulsions are an environmentally friendly, energy efficient and cost effective product for use in today's paving and preservation ...
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[PDF] Biosurfactants in Textiles: Sustainable Future - Lupine Publishers
Mar 3, 2023 · These compounds are well suited as an alternative molecules to synthetic products due to their high biodegradability, low toxicity, multi-.