Kurnool
Kurnool is a city in the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, India, serving as the administrative headquarters of Kurnool district.[1] Situated approximately 330 kilometers northwest of Amaravati, the state capital, it lies on the southern banks of the Tungabhadra River in the central-western part of the state.[1] The city functioned as the capital of Andhra State from October 1, 1953, to October 31, 1956, prior to the merger with Telugu-speaking areas of Hyderabad State to form Andhra Pradesh.[1] As of the 2011 census, Kurnool's urban agglomeration had a population of 484,327, making it the fifth-largest city in Andhra Pradesh by that measure.[2] Historically significant for its role under the Nawabs and proximity to ancient sites like the Erragudi Ashoka inscriptions, Kurnool has been proposed as the judicial capital under decentralization plans, though implementation remains subject to legal and political developments.[3] The city features notable landmarks such as the Konda Reddy Fort and supports regional economy through agriculture, mining, and emerging infrastructure like the Kurnool Airport.[4]Etymology
Name Derivation and Historical References
The name Kurnool originates from the Telugu term Kandanavōlu or Kandanavolu, attested in ancient inscriptions and regional literature as the designation for a settlement serving as a ford across the Tungabhadra River.[5] [6] This compound derives from kandana, signifying grease in Telugu, and vōlu or volu, denoting a place or pool; the etymology reflects the practice of merchants applying axle grease to bullock carts at the crossing, forming residual pools beneath trees that accumulated over time.[7] [8] Early historical references position Kandanavōlu as a strategic trade locale, with its name appearing in pre-medieval Telugu records linked to construction and caravan activities by communities such as the Oddera, who halted there for maintenance.[5] The term's persistence through the Vijayanagara period and into Nawabi administration is evidenced in regional chronicles, where phonetic shifts gradually simplified it to Kurnool while preserving its association with the riverine grease pools central to local commerce.[6] These derivations underscore the name's grounding in observable geographic and economic functions rather than mythological attributions.History
Prehistoric and Ancient Periods
![Ashoka inscription site at Erragudi, Kurnool]float-right Archaeological evidence from the Kurnool district reveals continuous human occupation from the Upper Palaeolithic period, with cave sites such as Billasurgam and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi yielding backed blades, burins, and bone tools including scrapers, perforators, and chisels.[9][10] These assemblages, characteristic of the Upper Palaeolithic industry in South India, date to approximately 40,000–10,000 years ago, based on stratigraphic correlations and associated fauna.[11] Jwalapuram locality provides further evidence of Middle Palaeolithic occupation spanning the Toba supereruption around 74,000 years ago, with lithic artifacts like Levallois flakes found both below and above tephra layers, indicating behavioral continuity among early modern humans.[12] Mesolithic phases are documented in rock shelters across the district, including Mosallagundu and sites in Kunukuntala and Racherla mandals, where microlithic tools, hematite nodules used for pigment, and prehistoric rock art depicting animals and geometric motifs have been excavated.[13][14] Over 145 rock shelters in these areas represent one of the largest concentrations of such art in Andhra Pradesh, with motifs dated to the Mesolithic through stylistic analysis and associated calcified artifacts.[14] Neolithic settlements emerged around 2800–1200 BCE, with sites like Mekala Benchi near Aspari featuring ground stone tools, potsherds, and rock art indicative of early agriculture and pastoralism.[15] In the Tungabhadra River drainage, at least 19 Neolithic sites show evidence of settlement patterns tied to riverine resources, including diverse pottery forms and ash mound formations linked to cattle herding.[16] These transitions reflect adaptation to local environments, with tools and ceramics suggesting cultivation of millets and domestication of animals.[17] The Iron Age is marked by megalithic burials, including stone circles and pit graves, surveyed by the Archaeological Survey of India in areas like Atmakur and Nandikotkur taluks.[18] These structures, containing iron tools, pottery, and urn burials, date to circa 1000–300 BCE and indicate socio-ritual practices involving secondary burials.[19] Recent discoveries at Chanugondla village confirm overlaps with Neolithic elements, such as celts alongside megalithic dolmens.[20] In the ancient period, the Mauryan Empire's influence reached Kurnool during Ashoka's reign (circa 269–233 BCE), evidenced by rock edicts at Erragudi, Yerragudi, and Jonnagiri.[21] These Brahmi inscriptions in Prakrit promote dhamma, welfare policies, and post-Kalinga ethical reforms, confirming administrative presence in the region.[22] The edicts' location on granite hills underscores strategic propagation of imperial ideology.[23]Medieval Dynasties and Vijayanagara Rule
In the 12th century, Kurnool fell under the influence of the Western Chalukyas before transitioning to Kakatiya control amid regional power struggles. The Kakatiya dynasty, which dominated the eastern Deccan from approximately 1163 to 1323 CE, positioned Kurnool as a strategic frontier outpost during conflicts with Chalukya remnants and southern powers like the Pandyas. Kakatiya feudatory Ambadeva, allying with the Pandyas, annexed Kurnool and adjacent Cuddapah regions, establishing local administrative restorations that integrated the area into the broader Kakatiya network of military ties and warrior strata.[24][25] By the 13th century, under Kakatiya oversight, Kurnool evolved into a key transit hub facilitating trade and military movements across the Deccan plateau. This period marked the consolidation of Kakatiya authority southward, with the region serving as a buffer against incursions, evidenced by fortified outposts that underscored its role in the dynasty's expansionist campaigns. Epigraphic records from the era highlight administrative grants and military obligations tied to local chieftains, reflecting the decentralized yet hierarchical governance structure.[26] The advent of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE brought Kurnool firmly under its expansive rule, with founders Harihara I and Bukka Raya I capturing the area alongside Nellore and Guntur through assaults on Reddy strongholds like Kondavidu. Subsequent rulers, including Devaraya I (1406–1422 CE), secured Kurnool's forts such as those in the region, bolstering defenses along vital trade routes connecting the empire's heartland to southern ports. Military engagements, including campaigns against the Gajapati and Bahmani kingdoms, positioned Kurnool as a logistical base, with fortifications like Konda Reddy Buruju exemplifying Vijayanagara engineering for sustained frontier control.[27][28][29] Vijayanagara architectural legacies in Kurnool include temple endowments and inscriptions, such as those at Tripurantakam in Kurnool district, which record grants and royal decrees in Telugu script from the 14th–16th centuries. These epigraphs, detailing land donations and ritual patronage, verify the empire's cultural imprint through durable stone slabs integrated into temple complexes, showcasing advancements in Dravidian-style construction with ornate pillars and enclosures. Such remnants highlight Kurnool's role in the empire's decentralized temple economy, where local nayakas managed religious sites amid ongoing military consolidations until the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE disrupted regional stability.[30][31]Nawabi and Colonial Eras
The Nawabi era in Kurnool commenced in the late 17th century, with the region established as a principality under Muslim rulers nominally subservient to the Nizam of Hyderabad, spanning from approximately 1690 to 1840.[32] These Nawabs maintained revenue systems reliant on land taxation and jagirs, funding local administration and military upkeep, including the reinforcement of existing fortifications such as the Konda Reddy Buruju for defense. Ghulam Rasool Khan, the last Nawab, assumed power in 1823 and governed until 1839, marked by a fondness for military displays that aroused British suspicions of disloyalty and excessive expenditure.[33] In 1839, the East India Company demanded an accounting of his finances amid reports of unauthorized military buildup; his refusal precipitated a revolt, which British forces swiftly suppressed following the deployment of troops to Kurnool.[34] The Nawab surrendered, leading to the direct annexation of the territory by the Company, effectively ending independent Nawabi rule.[35] Post-annexation, Kurnool was designated a non-regulation province under a Commissioner, with T. L. Blane appointed as the inaugural administrator in 1839, initiating centralized British oversight distinct from standard presidency districts.[34] Administrative reforms emphasized direct revenue assessment and collection, replacing Nawabi intermediaries, alongside basic infrastructure enhancements like road networks to facilitate governance and trade.[36] Economically, the period transitioned from subsistence-oriented systems to export-focused agriculture, with the region contributing to cotton cultivation within the Madras Presidency, though indigo production remained limited compared to Bengal.[36] By the mid-19th century, Kurnool's integration into colonial trade routes supported raw cotton outflows, aligning with broader Company policies promoting cash crops for European markets.[37]Post-Independence Developments
Upon the formation of Andhra State on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras State, Kurnool was designated its temporary capital until 1 November 1956.[38] [39] This selection stemmed from its strategic location and existing infrastructure, including the establishment of legislative and administrative offices such as the state assembly hall.[40] During this interval, the city hosted key governance functions, with the population of Kurnool district recorded at 1,315,499 in the 1951 census, reflecting early post-independence growth. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 integrated Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking portions of Hyderabad State to create Andhra Pradesh, relocating the capital to Hyderabad and reassigning Kurnool to district-level administration.[38] [40] Kurnool retained its status as a core district in the Rayalaseema region, with administrative boundaries largely intact amid subsequent state-level district adjustments, such as the creation of Ongole district in 1970 from parts of Kurnool and neighboring areas.[41] The 2014 bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act separated Telangana, leaving Kurnool within the residual Andhra Pradesh without major territorial losses, though the region faced economic strains from the division of assets, revenues, and Hyderabad's prior centrality.[42] [43] Border areas like Alampur experienced disruptions in trade, water supply, and connectivity reliant on Telangana links.[43] Factional violence surged in Kurnool during the 1980s, mirroring Rayalaseema's entrenched rivalries fueled by political shifts from Congress dominance to Telugu Desam Party competition, with disputes often escalating into armed clashes over land and influence.[44] [45] This period saw hundreds of fatalities across the region, including in Kurnool villages, though official interventions later reduced incidents from the 1980s peak.[46] [45] By the 2011 census, Kurnool district's population had grown to 4,053,463, with the urban agglomeration at 484,327, indicating sustained expansion amid infrastructure projects like road networks and the Kurnool Airport operational since 2018. [47] In the 2020s, urban development accelerated through master planning and district reorganization in 2022, which subdivided the original Kurnool district into three—Kurnool, Nandyal, and others—to enhance local governance, alongside initiatives for industrial corridors boosting economic activity.[48]Geography and Environment
Physical Location and Topography
Kurnool is situated at coordinates 15.8333°N 78.05°E, with an average elevation of 273 meters above sea level.[49] The city lies on the southern banks of the Tungabhadra River, near its confluence with the Handri River, positioning it as a key entry point to the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh.[50][51] The topography of Kurnool is characterized by the undulating terrain of the Deccan Plateau, featuring rocky outcrops, low hills, and broad plains that facilitated early settlements along river valleys.[52] The surrounding landscape includes influences from the nearby Nallamala Hills to the east, part of the Eastern Ghats, which contribute to a varied elevation profile across the district ranging from plateaus to steeper slopes.[53] The urban layout reflects this topography, with the historic core centered around the elevated old fort area, providing defensive advantages, while modern extensions have developed on the flatter peripheral plains to accommodate growth.[54] River systems like the Tungabhadra have shaped settlement patterns, with the city's expansion following natural contours and avoiding flood-prone lowlands.[50]Climate Patterns and Natural Resources
Kurnool district features a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh) with extreme seasonal temperature variations and low, variable precipitation. Maximum temperatures routinely surpass 40°C during the pre-monsoon summer months of April to June, peaking at 45°C in May, while winter minima average around 20°C from December to February. Annual mean temperatures hover between 28°C and 30°C, contributing to high evapotranspiration rates that exacerbate water scarcity.[55] Precipitation averages approximately 700 mm annually, with over 70% concentrated in the southwest monsoon period from June to September, though intra-annual variability leads to frequent deficits. Data from the Central Ground Water Board indicate annual rainfall as low as 615 mm in years like 2012, often with positive departures in some seasons but overall unreliability due to erratic distribution. The district's meteorological patterns align with broader Rayalaseema trends, showing increasing drought severity linked to rising temperatures and altered precipitation as per Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index analyses.[56][57] The region faces recurrent drought risks, quantified by a vulnerability index of 42.5 through integrated GIS-Analytic Hierarchy Process modeling, corroborated by historical records of meteorological and hydrological droughts. Deforestation remains minimal, with satellite-derived data from Global Forest Watch reporting a cumulative loss of 78 hectares of tree cover from 2001 to 2024, representing a 0.13% decline relative to 2000 baselines across the district's 17,658 km² area.[58][59] Kurnool is endowed with substantial mineral resources, notably limestone and barytes, which underpin local extractive industries. Limestone deposits, primarily in the eastern and southern mandals, supply raw materials for cement production, with the district hosting multiple quarries and processing units as documented in geological surveys. Barytes reserves, valued for oil drilling and paints, yielded 2,450 tons in 2010-11, though production has fluctuated amid regulatory and market shifts. Other resources include dolomite (562,377 tons produced in 2010-11) and iron ore (708,096 tons in the same period), alongside steatite, clay, and ochre pigments, with quarrying activities concentrated in areas like Yerraguntla and Banganapalle.[60][61]Demographics
Population Trends and Growth
The 2011 Census of India recorded the population of Kurnool urban agglomeration at 484,327, comprising 241,607 males and 242,720 females, while the municipal corporation area stood at 430,214.[62] The corresponding district-level figure for the pre-reorganization Kurnool district was 4,053,463, reflecting a decadal growth of 14.65% from 2001.[63] Following the 2014 bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh and subsequent 2016 district reorganization, the redefined Kurnool district's population aligned with 2,271,686 as per adjusted 2011 benchmarks, with urban areas accounting for approximately 33.64% of this total.[48] Projections indicate sustained annual growth rates of 2-3% for the Kurnool urban area, driven primarily by rural-to-urban migration within Rayalaseema and broader urbanization incentives post-bifurcation, as residual Andhra Pradesh emphasized infrastructure development to offset the loss of Hyderabad.[64] The city's estimated population reached 726,000 by 2023 and is projected at 765,000 for 2025, reflecting compounded growth from natural increase and influxes tied to agricultural diversification and emerging non-farm opportunities.[65] District-wide estimates for 2025 hover around 4.39 million when considering pre-reorganization trajectories adjusted for boundary changes, though official updates lag due to the absence of a 2021 census.[66] Demographic indicators from the 2011 census show a district sex ratio of 988 females per 1,000 males, marginally above the state average, with urban Kurnool exhibiting a balanced 1,005 ratio indicative of selective female migration for education and services.[63] Literacy rates stood at 59.97% district-wide (61.12% male, 43.73% female), rising to about 75% in the urban core, underscoring uneven access amid growth.[63] Workforce participation, per recent district-level data informed by National Sample Survey Office methodologies, reached a labour force participation rate of 70.60% in 2023-24, with rural-urban shifts elevating urban male engagement in trade and construction while female rates lagged due to persistent agricultural ties.[67]| Year | Urban Agglomeration Population | Annual Growth Rate (approx.) | Key Driver |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2011 | 484,327 | - | Baseline census |
| 2023 | 726,000 | 2.5-3% | Rural migration post-bifurcation |
| 2025 (proj.) | 765,000 | 2-3% | Urbanization and natural increase[68][65] |