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Adoni

Adoni is a and municipality in the of , India, serving as the administrative headquarters of Adoni mandal in the region. Located approximately 103 kilometers northwest of and 300 kilometers from , it lies along the Chennai-Mumbai railway line and is renowned for its historical significance as a former stronghold of the , featuring the prominent Adoni Fort atop granite hills. With a 2011 of 166,344 (estimated at 241,000 as of 2025), the has a diverse demographic comprising about 71% Hindus, 26% Muslims, and a rate of 65.9% as of 2011. Historically, Adoni emerged as a during the in the 14th to 16th centuries, later coming under rule and then Muslim control, including the Sultanate, until it was ceded to the in 1792 following Anglo-Mysore conflicts. The Adoni Fort, a key landmark with fortifications spanning five hills and inscriptions from Emperor Krishnadevaraya's era, symbolizes this layered heritage, alongside structures like the Jumma Masjid and Kaman Bhavi well built by 17th-century governor Siddi Masud Khan. Established as a in 1867 under the and upgraded to special grade status in 2001, the city covers 32.16 square kilometers divided into 41 election wards. Economically, Adoni is often called the "Lancashire of Rayalaseema" due to its thriving ginning, spinning, and industries, supplemented by oil processing and a vibrant market that supports local . The Tungabhadra Low Level Canal, located 8 kilometers away, aids irrigation for surrounding farmlands, while the carpet weaving sector, known as "Jamkhanas," adds to its artisanal economy. Culturally, Adoni blends Hindu and Islamic influences, evident in festivals at sites like the Sri Veerabhadra Swamy Temple and the annual at , reflecting its role as a trading and cultural hub in northwestern .

Geography

Location and Topography

Adoni is situated in the of , India, serving as the headquarters of Adoni mandal. It lies within the region, approximately 100 km northwest of city, and borders the state of to the west. The city's geographical coordinates are 15°37′28″N 77°16′23″E, with an average elevation of 435 meters above . The municipal area of Adoni spans 32.16 km², encompassing an urban agglomeration that extends into adjacent localities. The topography features a plateau typical of the uplands, with graded valleys and isolated hills shaped by erosion. Surrounding the city are predominantly black and red soils, which support agricultural activities and reflect the region's mixed soil profile, with black soils covering a significant portion of the district. Notable natural features include the nearby Ranamandla Konda hill, located about 3-4 km from the town center, which rises prominently and hosts religious sites accessible via approximately 600 steps. This hill contributes to the area's varied terrain, alongside red sandy expanses and occasional black soil patches that indicate underlying geological diversity. The region's soil composition also supports limited mineral deposits, such as , though extraction details pertain to broader resource assessments.

Climate and Natural Resources

Adoni experiences a tropical characterized by hot summers and mild winters, with significant seasonal variation in temperature and rainfall. Summer temperatures, from to May, typically range from 31°C to 42°C, while winter months from December to February see averages between 18°C and 29°C. The region receives an annual rainfall of approximately 700 mm, predominantly during the southwest from to September, with the nearby contributing to localized moisture influences during this period. The area's soil profile features predominantly black cotton soils (regur) in the central parts and red soils in upland regions, both of which support rain-fed agriculture. Black cotton soils, rich in clay and moisture-retentive, are particularly suitable for cotton cultivation, while red soils, with their iron-rich composition, favor groundnut and millet production. These soil types enhance the region's agricultural resilience despite variable precipitation. Natural resources in Adoni include substantial deposits of in the region, vital for production. These minerals contribute to by enabling extraction and processing operations. Environmental challenges in the region stem from its semi-arid conditions within the plateau, leading to occasional droughts that affect water availability and . Annual rainfall variability, often below 700 mm in dry years, exacerbates these issues, prompting reliance on riverine for mitigation. As of 2024, exploration for deposits in the Kappatralla reserve forest under Adoni range has faced significant local opposition due to concerns over environmental impact and health risks.

History

Founding and Early Development

The region encompassing Adoni in exhibits evidence of prehistoric human settlement, with and sites scattered throughout the area, including ancient caves near Akkampalli that show occupation by early humans. These findings, dating back to the period, underscore the long-standing habitability of the Tungabhadra valley landscape, which likely supported initial human clusters due to its access to water sources and fertile terrain. Adoni developed as a distinct settlement in the early amid the rise of regional Hindu kingdoms in the Deccan, with its strategic position at the foothills of hills facilitating growth as an early along inter-regional pathways, leveraging the area's natural defenses and proximity to riverine trade corridors. By the mid-, following the establishment of the in 1336, Adoni solidified its role as a foundational military and administrative center. (r. 1356–1377) utilized the site as a base for operations against the , culminating in a significant battle there in 1366 that affirmed its defensive value. This period marked the town's initial expansion, with basic fortifications erected on the rocky outcrop to protect against invasions, including rudimentary walls and watchtowers that predated the more elaborate structures added in later centuries.

Medieval and Colonial Rule

During the medieval period, Adoni emerged as a key stronghold for the , serving as an important fortress in the kingdom's defensive network against northern incursions. The city's strategic location on elevated terrain facilitated its role as a , with the Adoni fort undergoing enhancements to bolster fortifications and accommodate larger garrisons during the 15th and early 16th centuries. A notable event was the Battle of Adoni in the mid-16th century (c. 1543), where Vijayanagara forces under Venkatadri repelled an assault by the Bahmani Sultanate's army led by Asad Khan, underscoring the fort's tactical significance in regional power struggles. Control of Adoni shifted to the Sultanate in 1535, when occupied the fort, marking the onset of Muslim governance in the region. Under rule, the city experienced administrative consolidation, with local governors overseeing trade routes and agricultural output. In the late , , an Abyssinian-origin noble and premier general of the Adil Shahi court, served as governor of Adoni from approximately 1662 to 1687, during which he expanded the town's infrastructure, including significant improvements to the fort's walls and the construction of the Mosque, enhancing its defensive and cultural prominence. His tenure, as son-in-law to the influential , represented one of the last phases of autonomous Habshi leadership in the declining sultanate, amid internal quarrels and external pressures from the Mughals. The asserted dominance over Adoni in 1690, when Emperor Aurangzeb's forces seized the fort as part of broader campaigns to subdue the following the conquest of in 1686. This capture integrated Adoni into Mughal administration, with imperial officials managing revenue collection and military postings, though local resistance persisted through sporadic Maratha raids in the region. By the late , the city briefly fell under Tipu Sultan's control in 1786 after a month-long , during which he demolished parts of the fortifications and relocated supplies to ; this period ended in 1792 with the , leading to the cession of Adoni to the under the . Adoni remained under the Nizam until 1800, when it was ceded to the as part of the districts to settle financial obligations, transitioning under oversight through subsidiary alliances with the Nizam. The city flourished as a commercial hub, earning the moniker "Second " due to its vibrant trade in , oil, and , supported by over a hundred mills and export networks that rivaled major ports in economic activity. Administrative changes included the establishment of British revenue systems and infrastructure upgrades, solidifying Adoni's role in the colonial economy until .

Post-Independence Era

Following India's independence in 1947, Adoni, located in the Telugu-speaking regions of the former , was integrated into the newly formed on October 1, 1953, as part of the linguistic reorganization of states. This marked a significant administrative shift, placing Adoni within the boundaries of the emerging state. On November 1, 1956, merged with the Telugu-speaking areas of the former to form , with Adoni continuing under the , which briefly served as the state's capital from 1953 to 1956. Post-1947, Adoni experienced steady as a municipal town, building on its pre-existing status established in , with notable growth in the and beyond, including expansions in roads, , and public facilities to support the region's agricultural and needs. The of colonial-era briefly influenced this phase by sustaining market linkages that spurred local economic activities into the period. By the late , Adoni's saw further enhancements through state initiatives, such as improved connectivity via rail and road networks, facilitating urban expansion and integration into broader frameworks. In recent history, Adoni was designated as the headquarters of Adoni mandal following the introduction of the mandal system in on May 25, 1985, which decentralized administration to enhance local governance and service delivery. This status reinforced its role as a regional administrative center within . Urban growth culminated in the 2011 census, where Adoni's population reached 166,344, qualifying it as a Class I town (with over 100,000 residents) and highlighting its transition to a significant urban hub. Adoni has faced challenges in integrating into state development plans, particularly due to its location in the drought-prone region, prompting participation in initiatives like the Andhra Pradesh Drought Mitigation Project, which focuses on enhancing resilience through and crop diversification in districts including . These efforts, implemented since the early , aim to address recurrent and support sustainable rural-urban linkages.

Demographics

Population and Growth Trends

As per the , Adoni had a of 166,344, while the agglomeration encompassed 184,625 residents. This marked an increase from the 2001 figure of 157,305 for the , reflecting a decadal growth rate of about 5.7%. The agglomeration's stood at 1,735 persons per square kilometer across an area of 106.4 km², influenced by the 's compact topography in the . The in Adoni city was 1,017 females per 1,000 males, slightly higher than the urban agglomeration's ratio of 1,013, indicating a balanced distribution relative to national urban averages. Adoni's has exhibited consistent annual growth, driven by expansions in local trade and since . Current estimates project the city to reach 241,000 and the metro area 268,000 by 2025, based on from trends assuming sustained and economic pull factors. This post-independence surge aligns with the development of ginning and processing, attracting workforce inflows and bolstering urban expansion.

Literacy, Sex Ratio, and Social Indicators

Adoni's rate, according to the 2011 , was 65.94% for the city proper, with at 74.02% and at 58.06%, reflecting a notable in educational access. For the agglomeration, the overall rate stood slightly lower at 65.86%, with and rates at 74.24% and 57.58%, respectively. These figures indicate moderate compared to the national average of 85%, influenced by factors such as expanded schooling and programs promoting enrollment. The in Adoni was 1017 females per 1,000 males, while the recorded 1013, both exceeding the state average of 993 and suggesting relative balance. sex ratios were lower at 965 for the and 961 for the metro, pointing to underlying cultural preferences despite legal measures against . These ratios have shown gradual improvement from 2001 levels, driven by awareness campaigns and healthcare access. Key social indicators include the presence of Scheduled Castes at 16.6% of the population, with a favorable of 1021 females per 1,000 males, and Scheduled Tribes at 1.3%, with a of 989. Urban-rural patterns have shaped these metrics, as influxes from surrounding rural areas introduce populations with potentially lower baseline and alter demographic balances, though urban opportunities have aided and upward mobility in indicators over the decade. Overall trends from the to 2011 censuses demonstrate progress in and equity, largely due to enhanced educational and socioeconomic initiatives.

Religion, Languages, and Slum Population

Adoni exhibits a diverse religious landscape reflective of its location in the multicultural Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh. According to the 2011 Census of India, Hindus comprise the majority at 71.02% of the town's population, followed by Muslims at 26.49% and Christians at 1.27%; adherents of other religions, including Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains, along with those not stating a religion, make up the remaining less than 1.5%. This composition underscores the town's historical influences from Hindu, Islamic, and Christian traditions, shaped by its proximity to Karnataka and Telangana borders. The linguistic diversity in Adoni is equally prominent, driven by its border position facilitating cross-state migrations and trade. The 2011 Census data indicates that is the dominant mother tongue, spoken by 60.5% of residents, reflecting the town's roots in . Urdu follows at 25.1%, indicative of the significant Muslim population and historical Deccan sultanate influences, while accounts for 6.52%, highlighting ties to neighboring ; smaller proportions speak (4.66%), (2.12%), and (0.88%), with other languages comprising 0.19%. This multilingual environment supports local commerce and cultural exchanges in markets and daily interactions. Urban poverty in Adoni is marked by substantial slum habitation, with the 2011 Census reporting a slum population of 105,128 individuals, representing 56.94% of the metropolitan area's total population of 184,625. The Adoni Municipality recognizes 42 notified slums, many of which suffer from inadequate access to basic amenities such as potable water, , and , exacerbating and living challenges amid rapid and for employment in and industries. Government interventions include the (Urban) scheme, which promotes slum rehabilitation through public-private partnerships to provide and in-situ development, alongside Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) initiatives for upgrades like roads and in select clusters. These efforts aim to integrate slum dwellers into formal urban frameworks, though implementation faces hurdles like issues and funding constraints.

Economy

Key Industries

Adoni's economy is prominently driven by the industry, which has been a since the colonial when the region engaged in cotton ginning and pressing activities. As of 2011, mills such as Adoni Cotton Mills, with 20,800 spindles and 465 employees, The Mills Ltd., operating 36,720 spindles and employing 1,089 workers, and Kothari Industrial Corporation Ltd., with 30,000 spindles and 850 employees, served as major employers in ginning, spinning, and yarn . These operations leverage the area's agricultural output, contributing significantly to local and sustaining ancillary jobs in power looms and garment . Groundnut oil extraction represents another vital sector, supported by the Adoni Oil Mills Cluster comprising 55 micro and 12 small enterprises focused on decortication, expelling, solvent extraction, and refining. Units like Bhagya Lakshmi processed up to 7,500 tons per annum of refined oil, employing around 150 workers, and the cluster as a whole generated 2,100 jobs with an annual turnover of 1,620 million rupees as of 2011. This industry processes locally grown groundnuts, though it faces challenges like raw material shortages. Small-scale mining for limestone and associated minerals, including quartzite and granite, also plays a role, drawing on the district's abundant deposits that yielded 9,965,709 tons of in 2010-11. Food processing complements these efforts through edible oil and seed units, enhancing value addition in agro-based products. In terms of as of , Adoni's key industries supported a where the oil mills cluster accounted for about 2,100 jobs, textile mills around 2,400, and and several hundred more, within the district's broader small-scale sector employing roughly 19,190 daily workers. The district's registered industrial units rose from 4,112 in 1999-2000 to 4,853 by 2011-12.

Trade Centers and Economic Role

Adoni has long served as a prominent commercial hub in the Kurnool district, historically recognized during the British era as the "Second Bombay of Andhra Pradesh" due to its diverse business activities centered on cotton and oil trade. Established as the second municipality in the state in 1867, the town emerged as a key trading center, fostering economic exchanges that extended beyond local boundaries. As of 2016, Adoni functioned as a vital marketplace for agricultural commodities, particularly cotton and groundnuts, with its central market attracting 15,000 to 20,000 visitors daily. The Adoni Cotton Market stands as the largest in the Rayalaseema region, serving as the state's primary government-regulated venue for cotton trading and supporting ginning and textile activities that feed into broader regional commerce. Groundnut trade is equally significant, bolstered by the Adoni Oilseed and Oil Exchange Ltd., a structured institution that facilitates oil exports to distant states, enhancing the town's role in inter-state economic linkages, including with neighboring Karnataka. These markets contribute substantially to the district's agricultural economy, underscoring Adoni's position as a linchpin for commodity distribution in southern Andhra Pradesh. Weekly shandies and periodic trade gatherings in Adoni further amplify its commercial vibrancy, drawing farmers and traders for the exchange of , groundnuts, textiles, and related goods, while annual events tied to harvest cycles promote bulk dealings and networking. Infrastructure enhancements from 2014 to 2016, including upgrades under the 13th (₹243.26 lakhs allocated in 2014-15) and park development via the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) scheme (₹60 lakhs in 2015-16), have bolstered market accessibility and urban appeal. Ongoing initiatives under the —such as the completion of over 2,300 household toilets by 2016—have supported a healthier trading environment.

Infrastructure and Landmarks

Transportation Networks

Adoni's road network is primarily anchored by National Highway 167 (NH 167), a 483-kilometer corridor that traverses , , and , passing directly through the town and facilitating connectivity to northern regions including and ultimately . This highway supports freight and passenger movement, with recent rehabilitation and upgradation works from kilometer 14.900 to 70.000 in the Chintakunta-Adoni section converting it to a two-lane paved shoulder configuration to enhance safety and capacity. Complementing NH 167, state highways link Adoni to nearby towns such as (approximately 20 km east) and Alur (approximately 25 km south), while the Adoni-Kurnool route, spanning 105 km, serves as a vital state for local commerce despite ongoing concerns over its condition. The railway infrastructure centers on Adoni railway (code: AD), established during British rule in 1871 as part of the early rail expansions in southern and now operated under the Guntakal division of South Central Railway. Positioned on the Mumbai-Chennai main line, the handles approximately 72 train departures daily, including key services like the Rayalaseema Express and Basava Express, providing links to major cities such as , , and . Electrified tracks ensure efficient operations, with the classified as NSG-4 for its regional significance. Public bus services are managed by the Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC), operating from the Adoni bus station with frequent routes to destinations like (7-8 hours), (7 hours), and (2-3 hours), including both ordinary and express services. For , Adoni relies on nearby airports, with (KJB), which commenced domestic operations in 2023, located approximately 100 km away and (BEP) at around 80 km providing additional options. Post-2011 developments, accelerated after 's 2014 bifurcation, include the redevelopment of Adoni railway station, featuring modern amenities and a new structure to replace the century-old building, alongside proposed upgrades for the Gutti-Pathikonda-Adoni road to national highway status.

Historical and Religious Sites

Adoni Fort, perched atop rocky hills surrounded by five prominent hillocks, serves as a key medieval stronghold originally constructed during the in the 15th century. Inscriptions within the fort indicate temple constructions dating to the reign of , highlighting its role as a defensive and administrative center. The structure was significantly enhanced in the 17th century by Khan, the local governor under the Sultanate and later the Mughals, who added fortifications, a palace, treasury, and jail amid the broader Mughal influence in the region. Among the fort's religious sites, several temples reflect Vijayanagara-era , including the Sri Veerabhadra Swamy Temple, Sri Swamy Temple, and Mangaraya Swamy Temple, featuring granite carvings and pillared halls typical of styles. The Sri Ranamandla Konda Temple, dedicated to Anjaneya Swamy () as a swayambhu idol atop a hill reachable by 600 steps, holds mythological significance as the site where is believed to have battled demons disturbing Lord Rama's rest; it was established by the scholar Thirtha, who installed the main deity and nine surrounding idols. The Yellamma Temples, devoted to the goddess (also known as Yellamma), embody local devotional traditions and attract pilgrims during annual jatras, particularly on the fourth Tuesday of Ashada month, underscoring their role in community worship. Complementing these are Islamic structures from the Muslim occupation period, such as dargahs for Syed Aminuddin Ali and Syed Shagulu Husaini Sahebs, alongside heritage wells like Kaman Bhavi (50x50 feet, built by Khan) and Venkanna Bhavi, constructed by his . The Shahi Jamia Masjid, a standout example of , was erected in 1662 by Khan on land purchased for 77,000 rupees at a construction cost of 2 million dinars, designed by Iranian engineers to match the Kaaba's area and adorned with 15 black slabs inscribed with Quranic verses and . This , located in Adoni's old town near the market, exemplifies blended and local styles with its domes, minarets, and arches, serving as a cultural hub open to visitors of all faiths. Other landmarks include the fort's Jumma Masjid, showcasing fine Muslim architectural elements, and the surrounding Adoni Hills with natural rock formations that integrate Vijayanagara granite masonry and later Islamic influences in buildings like gateways and reservoirs. These sites draw tourists for their historical depth and scenic appeal, offering trekking opportunities across the fort's ruins and hills, with the Adoni Fort recognized as one of India's largest enclosures spanning over 50 kilometers in walls. Preservation efforts are led by the (ASI), which centrally protects the ruined fort and associated buildings (excluding the Ramazan Masjid) to maintain structural integrity and promote , though challenges like urban encroachment persist.

Education

Educational Institutions

Adoni hosts a range of educational institutions, including government-aided and private schools affiliated with the Andhra Pradesh Board of Secondary Education. One of the oldest and most notable is YMK (Yelle Malleshappa Kannada) High School, a government-aided co-educational institution established in 1947 that provides secondary education up to the 10th standard, focusing on foundational academics and serving students from diverse linguistic backgrounds in the region. Other prominent schools include Kiddy's High School, Sai Bharathi Zodiac High School, and Sri Balaji Vidyaniketan School, which offer curricula emphasizing holistic development alongside state board examinations. These institutions, numbering around 95 in total, cater primarily to primary and secondary levels under the state board system. In , Adoni features several undergraduate affiliated with universities in , such as in and Rayalaseema University in . The Adoni Arts and Science , founded in 1962 and sponsored by the Rotary Club of Adoni, stands out as the second oldest in ; it offers a variety of bachelor's programs in arts, science, and commerce, along with 50 specialized courses, and is accredited with a B grade (CGPA 2.21) by the (NAAC) as of 2019. Other key institutions include Dr. Jyothirmayi Degree College, which provides undergraduate degrees in multiple streams and is affiliated with Rayalaseema University, and Bheema Institute of Technology and Sciences, affiliated with for technical programs. These colleges emphasize accessible higher education for local youth, with programs designed to meet regional employment needs in , , and emerging industries. Enrollment trends in Adoni's institutions reflect steady growth, with schools collectively serving thousands of students annually; for instance, individual primary and secondary schools in the Adoni mandal report enrollments ranging from 50 to over 800 pupils, enabling these facilities to accommodate both urban residents and students from surrounding rural areas. Higher education sees approximately 3,000 students at Adoni Arts and Science College alone, underscoring its role as a central hub for post-secondary learning that draws from nearby villages and supports social mobility. Post-2011 developments have included infrastructure expansions funded by the University Grants Commission (UGC), such as enhanced facilities at Adoni Arts and Science College, which earned "College with Potential for Excellence" status and NAAC accreditation to address the rising population and demand for quality education. These upgrades have helped institutions scale up to serve an expanding student base amid Adoni's demographic growth.

Access and Challenges

Access to education in Adoni remains uneven, marked by notable rural-urban disparities where rural areas surrounding the urban center face limited school availability and transportation barriers, exacerbating enrollment gaps. Gender disparities in enrollment persist, particularly at the secondary level, with lower female participation influenced by socio-cultural norms and household responsibilities, even as overall access has seen incremental improvements through state-wide efforts. Key challenges include acute teacher shortages, with reporting over 12,900 single-teacher schools statewide, many in districts like affecting Adoni's rural and peri-urban zones. As of the 2024-25 academic year, continues to have 12,912 single-teacher schools statewide, with ongoing efforts to address shortages in districts like through recruitment drives. In Adoni's 42 notified slums, which house approximately 62,300 residents (as of 2004), educational facilities suffer from inadequate infrastructure such as lack of proper classrooms, sanitation, and safe water, leading to irregular attendance. Economic pressures, including high and in these low-income settlements—where approximately 39% of the slum population lives below the poverty line—contribute to elevated dropout rates, as families prioritize child labor or immediate income over schooling. The Andhra Pradesh education department has introduced several initiatives post-2011 to address these barriers, including the Mana Badi Nadu Nedu program launched in 2019, which upgrades infrastructure in over 15,000 schools statewide through modern classrooms, toilets, and digital tools to enhance access in underserved areas like Adoni. Scholarships under schemes like Jagananna Amma Vodi provide Rs. 15,000 annually to mothers or guardians of school-going children from low-income families, aiming to reduce dropouts by covering uniforms, books, and transport costs, while Jagananna Vidya Deevena offers full fee reimbursement and maintenance for higher secondary and college students via the JnanaBhumi portal. Digital education pushes, including interactive flat panels and tablet distribution under Nadu Nedu, target bridging urban-rural and gender gaps by providing e-learning resources in government schools. Looking ahead, with Adoni's population projected to reach 241,000 by 2025 amid steady urban growth, ongoing alignment of these programs with expanded capacities—such as through the existing of elementary and several high schools—seeks to scale access and mitigate challenges from demographic pressures.

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