The LHCb experiment, or Large Hadron Collider beauty, is one of the four major particle detectors at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC), specializing in the study of decays involving beauty quarks (b quarks) to investigate the asymmetry between matter and antimatter in the universe and to search for indications of physics beyond the Standard Model of particle physics.[1] Located approximately 100 meters underground near Ferney-Voltaire, France, along the 27-kilometer LHC ring, the experiment records proton-proton collisions to analyze heavy-flavor hadrons containing b and charm (c) quarks, which are produced copiously in the forward direction due to the LHC's high-energy beams.[2] Its primary scientific goals include precise measurements of CP violation parameters in the B meson system, such as the angles of the CKM unitarity triangle (α, β, and γ), to test the Standard Model's predictions and potentially reveal new physics through deviations in decay rates or branching ratios.[3]The LHCb detector is a single-arm forward spectrometer, spanning 21 meters in length, 10 meters in height, and 13 meters in width, with a total mass of 5,600 tonnes, uniquely designed to cover a pseudorapidity range of 2 < η < 5 for optimal detection of forward-produced particles.[1] Key components include a high-precision vertex locator positioned close to the collision point to reconstruct decay vertices with micrometer accuracy, silicon tracking stations and straw tube trackers for momentum measurement up to 1 tesla magnetic field provided by a warm dipole magnet, ring-imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors for particle identification across a wide momentum range (1–150 GeV/c), electromagnetic and hadronic calorimeters for energy measurements, and a muon system for identifying muons from decays.[2] This modular design enables efficient triggering and reconstruction of rare decay events at a luminosity of up to 2 × 10³² cm⁻² s⁻¹, with an integrated luminosity goal exceeding 50 fb⁻¹ over its lifetime to achieve sub-percent precision in key observables.[3]Approved by CERN in 1998 and involving over 1,800 scientists from 107 institutes across 28 countries as of 2025, LHCb transitioned from preparation to data-taking on 23 November 2009, coinciding with the LHC's early operations at 7 TeV center-of-mass energy.[4] The experiment underwent a major upgrade during the second long shutdown of the LHC (2019–2021), replacing key components like the tracking detectors with a scintillating fibre (SciFi) system and implementing a triggerless readout to handle instantaneous luminosities up to 2 × 10³³ cm⁻² s⁻¹, thereby increasing data rates to 30 MHz for more comprehensive analyses.[5] Since 2022, LHCb has been operating in Run 3, accumulating over 20 fb⁻¹ of integrated luminosity by November 2025 toward its goal. Notable achievements include high-precision measurements of matter-antimatter asymmetries in beauty baryon decays, confirming and refining CP violation effects, as well as the discovery of multiple exotic hadronic states such as tetraquarks and pentaquarks since 2018, including further studies in 2024–2025, which challenge and extend the quark model.[6] In 2025, the LHCb collaboration shared in the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for contributions to particle physics. These results, derived from over 800 publications using data from LHC Runs 1, 2, and 3 (2009–present), continue to provide critical tests of flavor physics and contribute to the broader quest to understand the universe's matter dominance.[7][8]
Historical Development
Inception and Construction
The LHCb experiment originated from efforts to study CP violation and rare decays involving beauty quarks at the proposed Large Hadron Collider (LHC). A Letter of Intent was submitted in August 1995, outlining the need for a dedicated b-physics experiment at a hadron collider. The technical proposal followed in February 1998, detailing the experiment's design and physics potential as one of the LHC's four major experiments.[9][10]Approval for the LHCb experiment was granted by the CERN Research Board in September 1998, with full construction authorization from the CERN Council in 2000. Construction commenced in 2001, involving the fabrication and assembly of detector components across multiple international sites before final installation. The project was completed by 2008, aligning with the LHC's initial startup phase.[11][10][12]The LHCb collaboration, coordinated by CERN, grew to encompass approximately 600 scientists from about 50 institutions across 15 countries during the construction period, reflecting broad international support from CERN member states and beyond. Funding for the detector totaled approximately 75 million Swiss francs (CHF), supplemented by in-kind contributions from collaborating institutions for infrastructure and components.[13][14]Site preparation at Point 8 of the LHC, near Ferney-Voltaire, France, repurposed sections of the former Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) tunnel, which had operated from 1989 to 2000 and previously housed the DELPHI experiment. Excavation and civil engineering work integrated the 5,600-tonne detector into the 27-kilometer LHC ring, with the forward-angled geometry chosen to efficiently capture b-hadron decay products produced asymmetrically in proton-proton collisions, distinguishing it from the central-tracking designs of ATLAS and CMS. The physics motivations for this asymmetric design stemmed from the need to maximize acceptance for forward-produced heavy-flavor particles.[15][1]
Commissioning and Early Operations
The commissioning phase of the LHCb experiment began with the circulation of the first LHC beams on September 10, 2008, allowing initial tests of beam-induced backgrounds and single-beam interactions within the detector.[16] Extensive cosmic ray data taking commenced in 2009, enabling the calibration and synchronization of subdetectors such as the muon spectrometer and preshower, with large samples recorded both with and without the dipole magnet energized.[17] These efforts addressed foundational alignment and timing requirements, achieving space alignment precisions on the order of a few micrometers for critical components like the vertex locator.[18] By late 2009, following the LHC restart, LHCb recorded its first proton-proton collisions at a center-of-mass energy of 900 GeV in December, accumulating approximately 260,000 minimum-bias events after beam-gas subtraction.[19]The transition to full physics operations occurred in March 2010 with the first pp collisions at 7 TeV, marking a key milestone as LHCb identified and recorded its initial b-hadron events shortly thereafter.[20] Luminosity ramped up progressively during Run 1 (2009-2013), reaching the design instantaneous value of $4 \times 10^{32} \, \mathrm{cm}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1} through levelling techniques that maintained stable interaction rates despite increasing pile-up.[21] By the end of 2012, the experiment had collected an integrated luminosity of approximately 3 fb^{-1}, with operations shifting to 8 TeV in 2012 to optimize physics output.[22] Data processing relied on CERN's computing infrastructure, including the Tier-0 center, to handle the event stream and enable rapid reconstruction.[23]Early operations faced several technical hurdles, including the need to maintain the beam pipe integrity; it was initially evacuated in 2008 and then filled with ultrapure neon at atmospheric pressure for protection.[24] Detector alignment proved challenging due to the need for sub-micrometer precision in a high-radiation environment, addressed through iterative surveys and cosmic muon tracks during commissioning.[25] Initial trigger efficiency tuning involved optimizing the Level-0 hardware thresholds using early collision data to achieve near 100% acceptance for b-hadron signatures while suppressing backgrounds.[26] Concurrently, the LHCb collaboration expanded to around 1,500 members by 2010, drawing expertise from over 80 institutions worldwide to support these commissioning activities.[27]
Physics Program
Primary Objectives
The LHCb experiment is dedicated to precision studies of beauty (b) and charm (c) quarks, with a primary focus on probing CP violation in the heavy-flavor sector to search for indirect signs of physics beyond the Standard Model. By analyzing the decays of b- and c-hadrons produced in high-energy proton-proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), LHCb aims to uncover asymmetries between matter and antimatter that could explain the observed dominance of matter in the universe. This investigation targets deviations from Standard Model predictions in CP-violating processes, leveraging the rich spectrum of heavy-flavor decays to constrain or discover new physics contributions.[1][3]LHCb exploits the LHC's exceptionally high rate of b-quark production, with approximately $3 \times 10^{11} b\bar{b} pairs generated per fb^{-1} of integrated luminosity, concentrated in the forward pseudorapidity region of $2 < \eta < 5. This forward geometry allows efficient detection of boosted heavy hadrons traveling close to the beam direction, enabling the collection of large samples of rare decay events that would be challenging at other colliders. The experiment's design optimizes for this angular acceptance, providing a unique vantage point for flavor physics not covered by the central detectors of ATLAS and CMS. Following Upgrade I, LHCb targets sub-degree precision in CKM angle measurements and further tests of lepton flavor universality with data collected up to 50 fb^{-1} by 2030, as of 2025.[28][29][30]Key goals include searches for new physics manifestations in b-hadron decay modes, precise measurements of quark mixing parameters such as those in the CKM matrix, and tests of lepton flavor universality in processes like b \to s \ell^+ \ell^-. These objectives build on the legacy of B-factory experiments such as BaBar and Belle, which operated in e^+ e^- collisions at the \Upsilon(4S) resonance, but LHCb achieves significantly higher statistics through the pp collision environment—collecting hundreds of millions of b-hadron events per year compared to the tens of millions at B-factories—while managing higher backgrounds with advanced triggering.[3][29][31][32]Beyond core flavor studies, LHCb contributes to broader particle physics aims, including probes of the Higgs sector through rare b decays sensitive to extended Higgs models and explorations of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) effects in heavy-flavor production and hadronization. These efforts complement the LHC's general-purpose experiments by providing flavor-specific insights into electroweak symmetry breaking and strong interaction dynamics at high energies.[1][33]
Targeted Measurements
The LHCb experiment focuses on high-precision measurements of key observables in flavor physics to test the Standard Model and search for new physics contributions. Central to its program are probes of CP violation, rare decay processes, lepton flavor universality, hadron spectroscopy, and meson mixing, leveraging the experiment's forward geometry and particle identification capabilities to select and reconstruct specific decay channels with minimal background contamination.[1]A primary target is the measurement of CP violation parameters in the B_s^0 meson system via the golden channel B_s^0 \to J/\psi \phi. This decay allows extraction of the mass difference \Delta m_s between the two B_s^0 mass eigenstates and the CP-violating phase \phi_s, which arise from interference between mixing and decay amplitudes. LHCb achieves sensitivity to the B_s^0 mixing frequency on the scale of ns^{-1}, enabling precise determination of these parameters through flavor-tagged, time-dependent analyses of the decay angular distribution and lifetime.[34][35]Rare decays mediated by flavor-changing neutral currents, such as b \to s \mu^+ \mu^- and b \to s \gamma, are targeted to measure branching ratios that are highly suppressed in the Standard Model. These processes are analyzed using effective Hamiltonians that parameterize short-distance contributions from loop diagrams, allowing isolation of potential beyond-Standard-Model effects through Wilson coefficients that modify the decay amplitudes. LHCb reconstructs multi-body final states like B^0 \to K^{*0} \mu^+ \mu^- and B^0 \to K^{*0} \gamma, optimizing angular observables and optimizing for high statistics to reach percent-level precision.[36][37]Lepton flavor universality (LFU) is tested through ratios of branching fractions for decays involving different lepton flavors, such as R_K = \frac{\mathrm{BR}(B \to K \mu^+ \mu^-)}{\mathrm{BR}(B \to K e^+ e^-)} in the low dilepton invariant mass region $1 < q^2 < 6 GeV^2/c^4. In the Standard Model, LFU implies R_K = 1 up to small electroweak corrections of order $10^{-3}, so any deviation signals non-universal new physics couplings to leptons. LHCb measures these ratios using same-sign dimuon triggers and kinematic constraints to suppress backgrounds, achieving sensitivities that probe effects down to a few percent.[38][39]Hadron spectroscopy efforts at LHCb emphasize the study of exotic charmonium-like states, exemplified by the X(3872), through determinations of their masses and widths. These analyses employ Dalitz plot techniques in three- or four-body decays, such as B^+ \to J/\psi \pi^+ \pi^- K^+, to resolve amplitude interferences and extract resonance parameters without assuming specific quantum numbers. This approach reveals the X(3872)'s proximity to the D^0 \overline{D}^{*0} threshold, providing insights into molecular or hybrid interpretations.[40][41]Mixing and interference effects in the B_s^0 system are probed via the relative width difference \Delta \Gamma_s / \Gamma_s, which quantifies the decay rate disparity between heavy and light mass eigenstates. This parameter is determined from time-dependent decay rates in channels like B_s^0 \to J/\psi \phi, where the evolution follows\Gamma(t) \propto e^{-\Gamma t} \left[ \cosh\left(\frac{\Delta \Gamma_s t}{2}\right) + \cos(\Delta m_s t) \right],assuming no direct CP violation; deviations in the coefficients reveal mixing-induced asymmetries. LHCb's high b-hadron production rate and decay-time resolution enable extraction of \Delta \Gamma_s / \Gamma_s with uncertainties below 10%, testing Standard Model predictions around 7%.[42][34]
Detector System
Overall Architecture
The LHCb detector is a single-arm forward spectrometer designed to study particles produced in the forward direction of proton-proton collisions at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). It covers a pseudorapidity range of 2 < η < 5, corresponding to an angular acceptance of approximately 300 mrad in the horizontal plane and 250 mrad in the vertical plane. The detector has a total length of 21 m along the beam direction, with dimensions of roughly 10 m in height and 13 m in width, and weighs 5,600 tonnes. This layout integrates seamlessly with the LHC beam pipe, which passes through the detector's central axis, allowing the vertex locator to surround the interaction point while maintaining the required vacuum conditions.[43][1]The detector's components are arranged sequentially along the beamline in a coordinate system where the z-axis aligns with the LHC beams (pointing from the interaction point towards the detector), the x-axis is horizontal (bending plane), and the y-axis is vertical. Closest to the interaction point is the Vertex Locator (VELO), which provides precise tracking of decay vertices. This is followed by a large dipole magnet, tracking stations for momentum measurement, Ring Imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors for particle identification, a calorimeter system for energy measurements, and finally the muon system for identifying muons and triggering events. The dipole magnet generates an integrated field of 4 Tm, bending charged particle tracks in the x-z plane to enable momentum reconstruction up to and beyond 1 TeV/c.[43][44][45]Unique to LHCb is the movable design of the VELO, which retracts to a safe distance during LHC beam injection and commissioning to avoid damage, then advances to within 8 mm of the beam during stable collisions for optimal vertex resolution. The inner tracker stations operate within a dedicated vacuum vessel to minimize multiple scattering from air, ensuring high tracking precision in the high-radiation environment near the beam pipe. Data from all subdetectors are read out at a rate of 1 MHz following the Level-0 hardware trigger, which selects events based on high transverse momentum or energy signatures; a subsequent software-based high-level trigger reduces this to approximately 2 kHz for detailed offline analysis. These subdetectors collectively enable particle identification through complementary techniques, such as Cherenkov radiation and muon detection.[46][43][47][48]
Core Subdetectors
The core subdetectors of the LHCb detector form a forward spectrometer optimized for reconstructing beauty-hadron decays in the pseudorapidity range 2 < η < 5, with these components providing precise tracking, particle identification, and triggering capabilities that integrate seamlessly for event reconstruction.[43]The Vertex Locator (VELO) surrounds the proton-proton interaction point and consists of silicon hybrid pixel detectors with 55 × 55 μm² pixels, offering a single-hit resolution of approximately 4 μm in the r-φ plane and 50 μm in the z direction for tracks at moderate angles.[43] These detectors achieve hit efficiencies exceeding 99% and are radiation-hardened to withstand fluences up to 1 × 10^{15} n_{eq} cm^{-2}, enabling precise primary and secondary vertex reconstruction essential for decay-time measurements.[43] In Run 1 operations, the VELO delivered impact parameter resolutions of about 14 μm + 35 μm / p_T (GeV/c), confirming its design performance under real conditions.[49]The tracking system comprises the silicon-strip Tracker Turicensis (TT) stations upstream of the magnet, the silicon-strip Inner Tracker (IT) stations downstream, and the straw-tube Outer Tracker (OT), providing momentum measurements with a relative transverse momentum resolution σ(p_T)/p_T ≈ 0.5% for tracks with p_T > 2 GeV/c.[43] The TT and IT use microstrip sensors with pitches of 180–220 μm, yielding spatial resolutions of 40–50 μm, while the OT employs 5 mm diameter straw tubes filled with Ar/CO_2 for efficient detection in the outer regions.[43] Combined, these trackers achieve overall efficiencies above 95%, with the system's material budget minimized to less than 0.5 X_0 per station to preserve track quality.[43] Measured in Run 1, the momentum resolution reached ~0.5% at low p_T, scaling to ~1% at higher momenta, supporting accurate charge and decay product identification.[49]Particle identification in LHCb relies on two Ring Imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors using hybrid photon detectors (HPDs) with pixel anodes of 2.5 × 2.5 mm², enabling separation of pions from kaons up to momenta of 100 GeV/c through Cherenkov angle resolution of ~0.7 mrad.[43] RICH1, positioned upstream, employs silica aerogel and C_4F_{10} radiators to cover lower momenta (1–60 GeV/c), while RICH2 uses CF_4 for higher momenta (15–100 GeV/c), yielding average photoelectron yields of 25–30 per ring.[43] The system provides kaon identification efficiencies around 95% with pion misidentification rates below 10% for Δlog L(K/π) > 0, crucial for flavor tagging and separation in multi-body decays.[43] Run 1 data validated this performance, with pion-kaon separation maintaining effectiveness across the full momentum range.[49]The calorimeter system includes a preshower (PS), electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL), and hadronic calorimeter (HCAL) for distinguishing electrons, photons, and hadrons, with the ECAL employing shashlik technology using alternating scintillator and lead plates for an energy resolution of σ_E / E ≈ 10% / √E ⊕ 1%.[43] The PS, with quartz fibers ahead of the ECAL, achieves >99% electron-pion separation efficiency, while the HCAL uses iron-scintillator sampling for hadronic energy resolution of ~69% / √E ⊕ 9%.[43] Overall, the system identifies electrons with ~92% efficiency and photons with ~95%, rejecting hadrons at the 90% level, and supports neutral particle reconstruction.[43] In practice during Run 1, the ECAL delivered π^0 mass resolutions of ~9 MeV/c², aligning with design goals.[49]The muon system utilizes multi-wire proportional chambers (MWPCs) in five stations covering 435 m², supplemented by triple-GEM detectors in high-rate regions, providing identification efficiencies greater than 99% for muons with p > 1 GeV/c and spatial resolutions of ~1 mm.[43]Pion misidentification rates are below 3%, with the system radiation-tolerant up to 10^{12} cm^{-2} s^{-1} particle fluxes.[43] This enables clean muon triggering and reconstruction, contributing to the transverse momentumresolution for muons.[43] Run 1 measurements confirmed efficiencies around 95% for inclusive muon identification in b-hadron decays.[49]
Upgrades and Evolution
Upgrade I Implementation
The LHCb Upgrade I, executed during the LHC's Long Shutdown 2 (LS2) from late 2018 to early 2022, fundamentally redesigned the detector to operate without a hardware trigger, enabling a triggerless readout of the entire system at the 40 MHz LHC bunch crossing frequency and relying exclusively on software-based event selection. This shift allows synchronous data transmission from all front-end electronics per bunch crossing, supporting data rates up to 20 Tbit/s for the tracking system and dramatically improving event selection efficiency—approximately a factor of 5 overall, with specific gains up to 80% for long tracks from B-meson decays compared to Run 2 hardware triggers. The upgrade prepares LHCb for higher instantaneous luminosities, targeting 2 × 10^{33} cm^{-2} s^{-1} in Run 3, while maintaining low material budgets and high radiation tolerance.[50]A key component of the upgrade is the Vertex Locator (VELO), which features new pixel sensors mounted on retractable modules for protection during beam operation, with a 55 μm pixel pitch and USB 2.0-based readout for rapid data transfer and reduced latency. Comprising 52 modules and 41 million channels, the VELO uses VeloPix ASICs for on-module cluster finding and operates with microchannel CO₂ cooling to minimize material (about 0.3% X_0 at perpendicular incidence), achieving hit efficiencies above 98% and enabling precise impact parameter resolutions essential for vertex reconstruction in high-pileup environments. The design also incorporates a SMOG2 storage cell for fixed-target gas injection, installed in summer 2020, enhancing versatility for rare decay studies.[50]The tracking system underwent a complete overhaul, replacing the Outer Tracker with the Scintillating Fibre (SciFi) detector, which delivers a spatial resolution better than 100 μm (average <100 μm, with 64 ± 16 μm in sensitive regions) using 250 μm diameter fibers arranged in 12 planes across three stations. The SciFi employs silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) arrays with custom PACIFIC readout chips, cooled to -40°C in a dedicated cold box to suppress dark noise below 2 MHz per channel, and supports the 40 MHz readout—10 times faster than the legacy system—while achieving single-hit efficiencies of 99.3 ± 0.2%. Neutron shielding reduces radiation fluence by factors of 2.2–3.0, ensuring longevity under expected doses up to 10^{15} 1 MeV n_eq/cm².[50]The Ring Imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors received upgrades focused on photon detection and optics, transitioning from hybrid photon detectors to multianode photomultiplier tubes (MaPMTs)—1888 one-inch and 384 two-inch units—coupled with CLARO ASICs for 40 MHz readout and reduced occupancy below 30%. This renewal, including new front-end electronics and lighter mechanical structures, boosts photoelectron yields to 59 for RICH1 and 30 for RICH2, with Cherenkov angle resolutions of 0.18 mrad and 0.17 mrad, respectively, preserving particle identification performance across momenta up to 100 GeV/c despite increased track multiplicities.[50]Installation of the upgraded components occurred progressively during LS2, with major work from 2019 to 2021, including VELO insertion in 2021 and SciFi commissioning, followed by final integrations like the Upstream Tracker in the 2022/2023 extended year-end technical stop. The detector received its first proton beams in July 2022 at the Run 3 center-of-mass energy of 13.6 TeV, achieving stable operations by 2023 with data-taking efficiencies exceeding 90%. As of November 2025, during Run 3, LHCb has recorded over 15 fb^{-1} of integrated luminosity, demonstrating the upgrade's effectiveness. The total cost of Upgrade I was approximately 57 million Swiss francs, positioning LHCb to accumulate an integrated luminosity of about 50 fb^{-1} by the end of Run 4 around 2034.[51][52][53]
Upgrade II Planning
The LHCb Upgrade II is planned as a comprehensive overhaul of the detector to adapt to the High-Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) era, addressing the increased instantaneous luminosity of up to $1 \times 10^{34} cm^{-2} s^{-1} and pileup of approximately 40 interactions per bunch crossing.[54][55] This upgrade responds to the HL-LHC's demands by enabling the collection of an integrated luminosity goal of around 300 fb^{-1}, significantly expanding the dataset for flavour physics studies while preserving the experiment's forward acceptance.[56][54]Key research and development efforts focus on high-granularity calorimetry using SpaCal technology for the PicoCal electromagnetic calorimeter, advanced silicon trackers such as thinned VELO sensors with 50 ps timing resolution and DMAPS-based Upstream Pixel and Mighty-Tracker systems, and radiation-tolerant ASICs fabricated in 28 nm technology to handle elevated radiation levels and data rates.[57][54][56] The scoping document, released in 2025 and endorsed by the CERN Research Board in April of that year under the "Middle" scope, proposes a potential full replacement of the tracking and calorimeter systems to mitigate radiation damage and occupancy issues from higher track densities up to 5.9 hits/cm² per bunch crossing.[55][54]The primary goals of Upgrade II include maintaining particle identification (PID) precision through enhancements like the TORCH detector with 15 ps timing and refurbished RICH with SiPM arrays, alongside vertexing accuracy via the new VELO positioned at 7.2 mm from the beamline, all supported by a 40 MHz readout system for real-time analysis.[56][54] Drawing brief lessons from Upgrade I, such as the success of triggerless readout, the planning emphasizes iterative improvements in electronics density and software integration.[56]The timeline targets technical design reports by the end of 2026, with a key decision point in 2027 for mass production initiation, followed by component delivery by mid-2032 and installation during Long Shutdown 4 from 2034 to 2035, enabling operations from Run 5 in 2036.[55][54] Major challenges encompass managing elevated power consumption from denser electronics, requiring advanced cooling solutions, and coordinating with concurrent HL-LHC infrastructure upgrades during LS4.[56][54]
Operations and Data Handling
Trigger Systems
The LHCb trigger system in its initial configuration during Run 1 was a two-stage process designed to select events containing b-hadron decays from the 40 MHz LHC bunch crossing rate. The Level-0 (L0) trigger, implemented in custom hardware, performed a fast decision based on regions of interest (ROIs) from the calorimeter and muon systems, reducing the rate to 1 MHz within a latency of about 4 μs.[58][59]The High-Level Trigger (HLT) then processed these events on a CPU farm of approximately 1,000 multi-core nodes, performing partial and full event reconstruction to further reduce the rate to around 2 kHz for storage. The HLT consisted of two stages: HLT1 for quick confirmation of L0 candidates using tracking information, and HLT2 for detailed reconstruction and selection of displaced vertices indicative of b-hadron decays. The overall trigger efficiency exceeded 90% for b-hadron decays, particularly in muonic channels, with machine learning techniques in HLT2 helping to reduce false positives by improving background rejection in selections like inclusive b-hadron candidates.[58][60][48]Following Upgrade I, completed during Long Shutdown 2, the LHCb trigger evolved to a fully software-based system without a hardware L0 stage, enabling readout of all events at an effective rate of 30 MHz for visible proton-proton interactions. This triggerless approach relies on immediate event building and real-time processing in the HLT, with improvements in detector alignment and timing—drawing inputs briefly from subdetectors like the Vertex Locator (VELO)—to enhance vertex finding accuracy. The Data Acquisition (DAQ) system supports this with PCIe40 readout boards featuring FPGA-based processing for high-speed data handling, achieving a peak data volume of approximately 1 TB/s across the event builder network.[61][62]In 2025, during Run 3 operations, enhancements to VELO pixel equalization were implemented to further refine time alignment, optimizing cluster reconstruction and overall trigger performance for the increased luminosity environment.[63]
Data-Taking Runs
The LHCb experiment commenced data-taking operations with Run 1 of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) from 2010 to 2012, primarily collecting proton-proton (pp) collision data at center-of-mass energies of 7 TeV in 2010–2011 and 8 TeV in 2012.[64] This period focused on acquiring low-pileup datasets, yielding a total integrated luminosity of approximately 3 fb^{-1}, which enabled initial studies of beauty and charm hadron decays with reduced background contamination.[65] The trigger systems played a crucial role in selectively recording events of interest from the collision stream.[66]Run 2, spanning 2015 to 2018, operated at a higher center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV, facilitating enhanced sensitivity to rare decay processes through increased production rates of heavy quarks.[67] LHCb recorded about 6 fb^{-1} of integrated luminosity during this phase, doubling the dataset from Run 1 and supporting precision measurements in flavor physics.[65] The experiment achieved high operational reliability, with data-taking efficiency exceeding 90% across the runs up to this point.[68]Run 3 began in 2022 following the Upgrade I, with pp collisions initially at a center-of-mass energy of 13.6 TeV, though early commissioning occurred at lower energies up to 6.8 TeV per beam.[69] By late 2025, LHCb had collected over 25 fb^{-1} in pp mode as of November 2025, surpassing initial targets and enabling advanced electroweak precision tests.[70][71] Additionally, dedicated heavy-ion runs, including lead-lead (Pb-Pb) collisions at approximately 5 TeV per nucleon pair, supported investigations into heavy-ion flavor physics, with integrated luminosities on the order of 1 nb^{-1} accumulated across such campaigns.[72]Cumulatively, by the end of 2025, LHCb had gathered around 35 fb^{-1} of pp data across all runs as of November 2025, with overall data-taking efficiency above 85% and scheduled downtime below 5%, reflecting robust operational performance. In 2025, the experiment achieved its most productive year to date, recording 12.5 fb^{-1}.[70] Looking ahead, Run 3 has been extended to mid-2026, and Run 4 is planned to commence after Long Shutdown 3, operating at 13.6 TeV from 2030 onward, with a goal of collecting 50 fb^{-1} to further probe CP violation and rare processes.[73][74]
Scientific Results
Hadron Spectroscopy
LHCb has significantly advanced the understanding of hadron spectroscopy through precise measurements of charmonium states and the discovery of exotic hadrons containing heavy quarks. These studies leverage the experiment's high-resolution tracking and vertexing capabilities to reconstruct invariant masses with exceptional precision, enabling the identification of narrow resonances. The focus on decays involving b-hadrons provides clean environments for spectroscopy, revealing both conventional quarkonia and unconventional multi-quark configurations.A prominent example is the X(3872), whose properties strongly support its interpretation as a loosely bound molecular state of a D^0 and \overline{D}^{*0} meson pair. The LHCb measurement of its mass in the decay B^+ \to X(3872) K^+ yields 3871.69 \pm 0.17 , \mathrm{MeV}/c^2, precisely at or below the D^0 \overline{D}^{*0} threshold, favoring the molecular picture over a conventional charmonium assignment.[75] The quantum numbers J^{PC} = 1^{++}, determined from angular analysis of the same decay, are consistent with this molecular structure.[75] Further evidence comes from the line-shape analysis in B^+ \to X(3872) K^+ decays, where the observed asymmetry near threshold aligns with expectations for a hadronic molecule rather than a compact tetraquark or pure charmonium state.LHCb has also pioneered the observation of hidden-charm pentaquark states, expanding the spectrum beyond conventional hadrons. In the decay \Lambda_b^0 \to J/\psi , p , K^-, three narrow structures were identified as peaks in the J/\psi p invariant mass distribution: P_c(4312)^+, P_c(4440)^+, and P_c(4457)^+, with statistical significances exceeding 5\sigma. These states, with masses around 4.3--4.5 , \mathrm{GeV}/c^2 and widths below 10 , \mathrm{MeV}, suggest pentaquark configurations such as tightly bound [c \overline{u} u \overline{u} c] or molecular \Sigma_c \overline{D} systems, challenging models of quark confinement.[76]Tetraquark candidates, such as the Z_c(3900), represent another class of exotic states studied in the context of charmonium-like spectroscopy, often arising in processes akin to double charmonium production. Observed as a charged resonance decaying to J/\psi \pi^+, the Z_c(3900) exhibits quantum numbers J^P = 1^+ and a mass near the D \overline{D}^* threshold, supporting a tetraquark interpretation like [c \overline{c} u \overline{d}]. While primarily identified in e^+ e^- collisions, LHCb searches in proton-proton data probe its production and properties, confirming its role as a non-conventional hadron without evidence for compact diquark-antidiquark dominance.Precision measurements of conventional charmonium states, such as the \chi_c family, have been refined by LHCb using large datasets from b-hadron decays. The \chi_c^0, \chi_c^1, and \chi_c^2 mesons are reconstructed via \chi_c \to J/\psi \gamma, with the \chi_c^0 width determined to \Gamma(\chi_c^0) < 10 , \mathrm{MeV} at 95% confidence level, highlighting the narrow nature of these P-wave states and aiding lattice QCD validations. These results provide benchmarks for potential models, emphasizing the dominance of radiative transitions in charmonium spectroscopy.As of 2025, analyses incorporating Run 3 data have improved the spectroscopy of the \psi(2S) state, yielding enhanced precision on its mass and production rates without uncovering new exotic structures. Refinements to quantum number assignments for nearby resonances, informed by amplitude analyses, further solidify the conventional 1^{--} assignment for \psi(2S) while constraining interpretations of potential hybrids in the spectrum.[77]
CP Violation and Mixing
The LHCb experiment has made significant contributions to the study of CP violation and mixing in b-hadron systems, providing precise tests of the Standard Model (SM) predictions through time-dependent analyses of beauty meson decays. These measurements probe the CKM matrix phases and oscillation frequencies, where deviations could indicate new physics. Key observables include the mixing-induced CP-violating phase \phi_s and the mass difference \Delta m_s in the B_s^0 system, as well as \sin(2\beta) in the B_d^0 system, extracted from golden channels like B_s^0 \to J/\psi \phi and B_d^0 \to J/\psi K_S^0.In the B_s^0 system, LHCb has measured the CP-violating phase \phi_s = -0.039 \pm 0.022 \pm 0.006 rad using the decay B_s^0 \to J/\psi \phi with 6 fb^{-1} of Run 2 data, corresponding to approximately 349,000 signal events; this result is consistent with the SM expectation of nearly zero but achieves a precision of about 6% of the phase value.[78] The world's most precise determination of the B_s^0-\overline{B}_s^0 mixing frequency is \Delta m_s = 17.7656 \pm 0.0057 ps^{-1}, obtained from an analysis of B_s^0 \to D_s^- \pi^+ decays using 5.4 fb^{-1} of integrated luminosity, combining multiple LHCb datasets to reach a relative uncertainty of 0.03%.[79] These parameters quantify the oscillation between B_s^0 and \overline{B}_s^0 mesons, with \Delta m_s reflecting the mass splitting driven by box diagram contributions in the SM.For the B_d^0 system, LHCb's measurement of the mixing-induced CP asymmetry yields \sin(2\beta) = 0.691 \pm 0.017, dominated by the B_d^0 \to J/\psi K_S^0 channel, aligning well with the global CKM fit and providing a benchmark for unitarity triangle constraints. Additionally, direct CP violation is evident in charmless B \to K \pi decays, where LHCb reports A_{CP}(B^0 \to K^+ \pi^-) = -0.088 \pm 0.011 \pm 0.008 using 1 fb^{-1} of data, indicating a 3\sigma tension with certain SM calculations due to penguin pollution effects.Run 3 analyses are ongoing and expected to further improve precision on these parameters. These results underscore LHCb's role in constraining new physics contributions to b-hadron mixing, with future data expected to probe phases at the percent level.
Rare Decays
Rare decays of b-hadrons, particularly those mediated by flavor-changing neutral currents (FCNC) such as b → s transitions, are highly suppressed in the Standard Model (SM) due to the absence of tree-level FCNC processes and reliance on loop diagrams. These decays offer a window into physics beyond the SM by probing short-distance contributions at scales above the electroweak scale, with LHCb's high-precision measurements exploiting its forward geometry to collect large samples of b-hadrons. Observables in these modes, including branching fractions and angular distributions, can reveal deviations from SM predictions if new particles or interactions contribute significantly.One of the cleanest FCNC processes studied by LHCb is the B_s^0 → μ^+ μ^- decay, a purely leptonic mode dominated by axial-vector and pseudoscalar operators in the effective Hamiltonian. Using proton-proton collision data corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 9 fb^{-1}, LHCb measured the branching fraction as \mathcal{B}(B_s^0 \to \mu^+ \mu^-) = (3.09^{+0.46}_{-0.43} \pm 0.15) \times 10^{-9}, where the first uncertainty is statistical and the second systematic; this result agrees with the SM expectation of (3.66 \pm 0.14) \times 10^{-9} but constrains supersymmetric extensions, limiting the parameter space for models with enhanced Higgs couplings to down-type quarks.[80]In semileptonic decays like B^0 → K^{*0} μ^+ μ^-, LHCb performs detailed angular analyses to extract up to 40 observables from the decay amplitude, providing sensitivity to the dilepton invariant mass squared q^2 and transversity amplitudes. Key observables include the forward-backward asymmetry A_{FB}, which changes sign near q^2 \approx 4 GeV^2/c^4 in the SM, and the transverse asymmetry S_3, both of which are particularly sensitive to the Wilson coefficients C_9 and C_{10} that encode short-distance physics in the operator product expansion. Recent LHCb measurements using Run 1 and Run 2 data (up to 9 fb^{-1}) show mild tensions with SM predictions for A_{FB} and S_3 in low-q^2 regions (1 < q^2 < 6 GeV^2/c^4), with local significances up to 3σ, potentially indicating new physics contributions to right-handed currents or modified C_9^{NP}.The radiative decay b → s γ, exemplified by B → K γ, proceeds dominantly via an electromagnetic penguin loop involving the top quark and W boson, with the branching fraction providing a benchmark for SM flavor dynamics. LHCb's measurement yields \mathcal{B}(B \to K \gamma) = (4.06 \pm 0.35) \times 10^{-5}, derived from data up to 3 fb^{-1} and normalized to the well-measured B → K^{*0} γ mode, in excellent agreement with the SM prediction and placing limits on charged Higgs or supersymmetric contributions to the magnetic dipole operator.For inclusive b → s \ell^+ \ell^- transitions, LHCb integrates over multiple hadronic final states to measure the dilepton mass spectrum d\Gamma / dq^2, revealing local excesses over SM expectations at low q^2 (around 4-6 GeV^2/c^4) with significances of 2-3σ in combined global fits. These anomalies, observed in differential distributions from decays like B → K \mu^+ \mu^- and B → K^{*0} \mu^+ \mu^-, suggest possible enhancements in scalar or pseudoscalar operators and have motivated interpretations involving Z'-like mediators.As of 2025, analyses of Run 3 data (2022 onward, with luminosities exceeding 10 fb^{-1} projected) are tightening constraints on leptoquark models that could simultaneously address low-q^2 anomalies and lepton flavor universality violations. Some of these rare modes also offer sensitivity to CP-violating phases through interference effects, providing complementary insights into the CKM matrix elements.
Lepton Flavor Universality
Lepton flavor universality (LFU) is a fundamental symmetry of the Standard Model (SM) that predicts equal coupling strengths of the electroweak force to all three generations of charged leptons (electrons, muons, and taus). In the context of b-hadron decays, LHCb probes this symmetry through rare b → sℓ⁺ℓ⁻ transitions, where ℓ denotes a charged lepton, by measuring ratios of branching fractions that cancel many theoretical uncertainties. These ratios, such as R_K = \frac{\mathcal{B}(B^+ \to K^+ \mu^+ \mu^-)}{\mathcal{B}(B^+ \to K^+ e^+ e^-)} and R_{K^*} = \frac{\mathcal{B}(B^0 \to K^{*0} \mu^+ \mu^-)}{\mathcal{B}(B^0 \to K^{*0} e^+ e^-)} in the low dilepton invariant mass squared region $1.0 < q^2 < 6.0 GeV², are expected to equal unity in the SM.[81]LHCb's measurement of R_K in this q^2 range yields $0.846 \pm 0.044, deviating from the SM prediction by approximately 3σ. This result combines data from LHC Runs 1 and 2, incorporating improved electron identification and form-factor inputs. Similarly, the measurement of R_{K^*} shows $0.685 \pm 0.113, indicating further tension with the SM at around 3.4σ when combined with other observables. These deviations suggest a possible violation of LFU, preferentially affecting muon channels over electron ones.[81]Theoretical models beyond the SM, such as those involving Z' gauge bosons or leptoquarks, can accommodate these anomalies by introducing new interactions that suppress muon-mediated decays by about 20%, while preserving consistency with other flavor observables.With data from LHC Run 3, LHCb is refining these tests, achieving measurements of R_{K^{(*)}} (ee/μμ) with precision improving to around 5%, enabling more stringent probes of LFU in the coming years.[82]
Other Key Discoveries
In June 2025, the LHCb collaboration reported the first dedicated measurement of the Z boson mass at the LHC using Z → μ⁺μ⁻ decays from proton-proton collisions at √s = 13 TeV, analyzing a sample of approximately 174,000 events.[7] The result yielded m_Z = 91.1842 ± 0.0095 GeV, consistent with the previous world average from LEP and providing valuable forward-rapidity constraints that contribute to the global electroweak fit.[83] This measurement leverages LHCb's unique acceptance in the pseudorapidity range 2 < η < 5, enhancing precision on electroweak parameters beyond central detectors.[84]LHCb has also measured the W boson mass using forward leptons from W → μν decays, with a 2021 analysis yielding m_W = 80.354 ± 0.032 GeV, fully consistent with Standard Model predictions.[85] Updated studies in 2025 employed differential cross-sections in the forward region to refine this determination, confirming agreement with the world average and setting constraints on new physics contributions to electroweak boson production. Additionally, forward-backward asymmetries in Z/γ* → μ⁺μ⁻ and W decays have been quantified, with the 2024 measurement of A_FB in Z decays enabling a precise extraction of the effective weak mixing angle sin²θ^eff_W = 0.23142 ± 0.00030 ± 0.00042, aligning with electroweak theory.[86]In heavy-ion collisions, LHCb has probed quark-gluon plasma effects through quarkonium production. Measurements of the nuclear modification factor R_AA for J/ψ in Pb-Pb collisions at √s_NN = 5.02 TeV reveal significant suppression at forward rapidities, with R_AA ≈ 0.5 in central collisions for p_T > 6.5 GeV/c, attributed to color screening and partonic energy loss in the medium.[87] Similar suppression is observed for ψ(2S), stronger than for J/ψ by a factor of about 2, indicating sequential melting of charmonium states.[88]The transverse production polarization of Λ_b^0 baryons has been measured using Λ_b^0 → J/ψ Λ decays, yielding P_Λ_b = 0.06 ± 0.11 ± 0.04, consistent with zero and providing insights into spin dynamics in forward hadron production.[89] This null result challenges models of polarization transfer from quarks to baryons and supports perturbative QCD expectations for unpolarized proton beams.[90]LHCb has conducted searches for dark matter and other beyond-Standard-Model signatures using displaced vertices, yielding no significant signals and setting limits on models involving long-lived particles.