2020
2020 was a common year designated as the Year of the Rat in the Chinese zodiac, but it became globally infamous for the rapid escalation of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, first identified in Wuhan, China, in late 2019, which prompted the World Health Organization to declare a public health emergency of international concern on January 30 and a pandemic on March 11.[1][2] By December 31, confirmed deaths worldwide exceeded 1.8 million, with excess mortality estimates suggesting even higher tolls due to direct and indirect effects.[2][3]
Governments worldwide enacted stringent lockdowns, travel restrictions, and social distancing mandates, triggering the deepest global economic recession since World War II, with gross domestic product contracting by 3 to 5.2 percent amid massive unemployment and supply chain disruptions.[4][5] In the United States, the year featured the presidential election on November 3, where Democrat Joe Biden defeated Republican incumbent Donald Trump, garnering 306 electoral votes to Trump's 232 amid record voter turnout and subsequent legal challenges alleging irregularities in key states.[6][7]
Domestically, the May 25 death of George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota, at the hands of police officer Derek Chauvin, who knelt on Floyd's neck for over nine minutes, ignited nationwide protests against perceived police misconduct, evolving into the Black Lives Matter movement's largest mobilization, though many demonstrations devolved into riots causing billions in property damage, hundreds of injuries to law enforcement, and at least six fatalities linked to the unrest.[8][9] Other notable occurrences included Australia's catastrophic bushfires early in the year, SpaceX's first crewed orbital flight in May, and ongoing geopolitical tensions such as India-China border clashes, underscoring a period of profound disruption across health, economy, and society.[10][11]
Politics and Governance
United States Presidential Election and Controversies
The 2020 United States presidential election pitted incumbent Republican President Donald Trump, seeking re-election with Vice President Mike Pence, against Democratic nominees former Vice President Joe Biden and Senator Kamala Harris. Held on November 3, 2020, the contest centered on issues including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, economic recovery from lockdowns, criminal justice, foreign policy, and immigration. Voter turnout reached 66.8% of the citizen voting-age population, the highest rate for a presidential election since 1900, with over 158 million ballots cast.[12][13] The pandemic prompted procedural changes in many states, including expanded no-excuse absentee and mail-in voting, extended early voting periods, and relaxed signature verification in some jurisdictions, often via executive orders or legislation to facilitate safer participation. For instance, Pennsylvania and Michigan broadened mail-in access without prior excuse requirements, while Georgia permitted drop boxes and automatic absentee ballot applications for certain voters. These shifts increased mail-in ballots to about 43% of total votes nationwide, up from 23% in 2016, though in-person voting remained predominant in most Republican-leaning states.[14][15] Joe Biden secured victory with 306 electoral votes to Trump's 232, flipping key battleground states such as Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. In the popular vote, Biden received 81,283,501 votes (51.3%), while Trump garnered 74,223,975 (46.8%), a margin of over 7 million votes. Official certification by states proceeded amid delays in counting mail-in ballots, which initially favored Trump on Election Night due to heavier in-person voting in Republican areas, followed by shifts as urban and absentee votes were tallied.[6][13] Trump and his campaign contested the results, alleging widespread irregularities and fraud, particularly in mail-in voting processes, including claims of improper ballot harvesting, unsecured drop boxes, late-night unmonitored additions of votes in urban centers, and failures in signature matching or observer access. Trump publicly declared the election "stolen" on November 4, 2020, refusing to concede and directing efforts to challenge certifications in battleground states. Supporters cited affidavits from poll watchers and statistical anomalies, such as disproportionate Biden vote surges in specific precincts, as evidence of manipulation.[16] The Trump campaign and allies filed over 60 lawsuits across state and federal courts seeking to invalidate ballots, halt certifications, or mandate recounts. At least 86 judges, including Trump appointees, dismissed or rejected these suits, primarily for lack of standing, procedural deficiencies, or insufficient evidence of fraud sufficient to alter outcomes. Notable rulings included the Pennsylvania federal district court's rejection of claims against mail-in extensions and Georgia's manual recount confirming Biden's 11,779-vote margin. Trump's own Attorney General William Barr stated on December 1, 2020, that the Justice Department found no evidence of fraud on a scale to affect the election result.[17][18][16] Investigations by Republican-led state legislatures, cybersecurity officials, and independent audits, such as Arizona's Maricopa County review, affirmed the results without uncovering systemic fraud, though isolated violations—like a few hundred improper ballots in Georgia—were identified and did not impact statewide tallies. The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, under Trump's administration, described the election as "the most secure in American history" on November 12, 2020. Persistent claims, amplified by some media and figures like Rudy Giuliani, fueled distrust, with polls showing about 30% of Republicans believing fraud decided the outcome, despite court and official findings to the contrary.[19][16] These disputes culminated in congressional certification on January 6, 2021, delayed by protests at the U.S. Capitol, where Trump supporters gathered to demand investigation of alleged irregularities. Vice President Pence presided over the joint session, rejecting objections from Republican senators and representatives, and certified Biden's win at 306-232 electoral votes early on January 7. No credible evidence emerged post-election to substantiate claims of outcome-altering fraud, though procedural critiques of pandemic-era voting expansions influenced subsequent state laws tightening verification and deadlines.[13][20]Impeachment of Donald Trump
The Senate trial of President Donald Trump on two articles of impeachment—abuse of power and obstruction of Congress—began on January 16, 2020, after House impeachment managers delivered the charges adopted by the Democrat-controlled House of Representatives on December 18, 2019.[21] The articles arose from a whistleblower complaint filed in August 2019 concerning Trump's July 25, 2019, telephone conversation with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy, in which Trump urged investigations into Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden and his son Hunter's activities with Ukrainian energy firm Burisma; at the time, the Trump administration had placed a temporary hold on $391 million in congressionally approved military aid to Ukraine.[22] The whistleblower, an intelligence official who had not personally listened to the call but reviewed a rough transcript and related materials, alleged improper use of presidential authority to pressure Ukraine for political benefit.[23] Trump maintained the conversation was a routine discussion of corruption concerns and denied any quid pro quo, noting the aid hold was lifted on September 11, 2019, without Ukraine initiating the requested investigations.[24] The trial, presided over by Chief Justice John Roberts, featured presentations from House managers led by Representative Adam Schiff and Trump's defense team, including White House Counsel Pat Cipollone and personal attorneys such as Alan Dershowitz; proceedings spanned from January 21 to February 5, 2020, without new evidence or sworn testimony beyond the House inquiry record.[21] A key dispute centered on subpoenas for additional witnesses like former National Security Adviser John Bolton, whose manuscript claimed Trump explicitly linked aid to investigations; Senate Republicans, holding a 53-seat majority, voted 51–49 on January 31 against allowing witness depositions, arguing the House had ample opportunity during its partisan inquiry and that further delays would politicize the process ahead of the November presidential election.[25] Democrats contended the refusal obstructed truth-finding, while Republicans highlighted the whistleblower's secondhand knowledge and lack of direct proof tying aid release to Ukrainian actions, viewing the impeachment as an attempt to overturn the 2016 election results.[26] On February 5, 2020, the Senate acquitted Trump on both counts, falling short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction and removal. Article I (abuse of power) saw 48 senators vote guilty—including all Democrats and one Republican, Mitt Romney of Utah, who cited moral grounds—and 52 vote not guilty, primarily along party lines.[24] Article II (obstruction of Congress) resulted in 47 guilty votes and 53 not guilty, with no Republican defections.[26] The outcome preserved Trump's presidency, though it intensified partisan divisions; subsequent analyses noted the trial's brevity compared to prior impeachments like Bill Clinton's in 1999, reflecting Republican control and skepticism toward the charges' evidentiary basis amid unproven claims of explicit extortion.[21]Other National and International Political Events
The U.S. Senate confirmed Amy Coney Barrett as an associate justice of the Supreme Court on October 26, 2020, by a 52-48 party-line vote, following President Donald Trump's nomination on September 26 after the death of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg on September 18.[27] [28] This appointment established a 6-3 conservative majority on the court, altering its ideological balance amid partisan debates over the timing relative to the presidential election.[29] On January 3, 2020, a U.S. drone strike authorized by President Trump killed Iranian Major General Qasem Soleimani, commander of the Quds Force, and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, a senior Iraqi militia leader, at Baghdad International Airport.[30] Iran responded on January 8 with ballistic missile attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq, injuring over 100 American troops with traumatic brain injuries but causing no fatalities, after which de-escalation followed without further direct military confrontation.[30] [31] The United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union on January 31, 2020, at 11:00 p.m. GMT, concluding 47 years of membership and initiating a transition period until December 31 during which EU law continued to apply while negotiations on future trade and security arrangements proceeded.[32] [33] China's National People's Congress Standing Committee promulgated the Hong Kong National Security Law on June 30, 2020, which took effect on July 1, imposing penalties up to life imprisonment for offenses including secession, subversion, terrorism, and collusion with foreign entities.[34] [35] The law, applied extraterritorially in some cases, prompted the arrest of numerous pro-democracy activists and legislators, the dissolution of opposition groups, and international condemnation for undermining Hong Kong's promised autonomy under the "one country, two systems" framework.[36] [34] In Belarus, the August 9, 2020, presidential election saw incumbent Alexander Lukashenko officially receive 80% of the vote against opposition challenger Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, who claimed widespread fraud including ballot stuffing and coerced voting.[37] This triggered sustained mass protests across the country, met with a severe crackdown by security forces involving thousands of arrests, beatings, and at least four protester deaths, solidifying Lukashenko's hold on power with Russian backing.[37] [38] The Abraham Accords, facilitated by U.S. mediation, marked diplomatic normalization between Israel and several Arab states: Israel and the United Arab Emirates announced agreement on August 13, 2020, followed by Bahrain on September 11, Sudan on October 23, and Morocco on December 10, with formal treaties signed at the White House on September 15 encompassing the UAE and Bahrain pacts.[39] [40] These deals included commitments to cooperation in investment, tourism, security, and technology, bypassing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as a precondition.[41] The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War erupted on September 27, 2020, when Azerbaijan launched offensives to recapture territories held by Armenian-backed forces in Nagorno-Karabakh, resulting in over 6,000 military deaths and civilian casualties before a Russia-brokered ceasefire on November 10.[42] [43] The agreement deployed 1,960 Russian peacekeepers and ceded significant areas to Azerbaijani control, including the Lachin corridor under Russian oversight, marking a decisive shift from the 1994 Minsk ceasefire.[44] [45]Public Health and Pandemics
Origins and Global Spread of COVID-19
The first laboratory-confirmed cases of COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, emerged in Wuhan, Hubei Province, China, with illness onset traced to December 1, 2019, for the index patient; by mid-December, patients presented at hospitals with pneumonia-like symptoms, including unusual white spots on lung scans.[46] [47] On December 31, 2019, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported a cluster of 27 pneumonia cases of unknown etiology, initially linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, though subsequent epidemiological reviews indicated that up to half of early cases had no direct market exposure.[48] [49] The virus was sequenced and identified as a novel betacoronavirus by January 7, 2020, sharing 96% genetic similarity with bat-derived RaTG13 coronavirus strains studied at the Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV).[50] The origins of SARS-CoV-2 remain unresolved, with two primary hypotheses: zoonotic spillover from animal reservoirs, potentially at the Huanan market, versus a laboratory-associated incident at the WIV, located approximately 12 kilometers from the market.[51] Proponents of natural emergence cite environmental samples from the market testing positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA alongside animal DNA (e.g., raccoon dogs), but no live intermediate host has been identified despite extensive searches, and the virus's furin cleavage site—a rare feature enhancing human transmissibility—is absent in closely related bat coronaviruses.[52] The lab leak hypothesis is supported by the WIV's documented research on bat coronaviruses, including gain-of-function experiments under biosafety level 2 conditions, reports of ill researchers in late 2019, and the absence of pre-2019 human cases globally despite the virus's apparent single spillover event—contrasting with multiple spillovers in prior pandemics like SARS-1.[53] U.S. intelligence assessments diverge: the FBI concluded with moderate confidence that a lab incident was likely, while the Department of Energy cited low confidence for the same; other agencies favor natural origins or remain undecided, amid criticisms of data opacity from Chinese authorities and potential institutional biases favoring zoonosis to deflect scrutiny of high-risk research funding.[52] A 2025 WHO Scientific Advisory Group report acknowledged evidentiary gaps in both hypotheses but emphasized the need for further access to early case data and lab records.[54] International spread began with the confirmation of the first case outside China on January 13, 2020, in Thailand, involving a traveler from Wuhan; additional early detections followed in Japan (January 16), South Korea, and the United States (January 21, a Washington state resident returning from Wuhan).[55] [48] By January 23, China imposed a lockdown on Wuhan, restricting movement for 11 million residents, yet cases exported via air travel continued, with community transmission emerging in Italy by late January (initially undetected) and Iran by February.[47] The WHO declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on January 30, 2020, citing 7,818 confirmed cases (mostly in China) and spread to 18 countries, urging containment without recommending broad travel bans.[56] Escalation accelerated in February and March 2020, driven by superspreader events such as the Diamond Princess cruise ship outbreak (712 cases by March) and unchecked transmission in Europe; Italy reported its first death on February 21, followed by exponential growth exceeding 20,000 cases by early March.[57] Globally, cases rose from under 10,000 outside China in late January to 118,000 across 114 countries by March 11, when the WHO characterized the situation as a pandemic, noting a 13-fold increase in non-China cases and threefold rise in affected nations.[58] [55] This period marked the shift from focal outbreaks to sustained community transmission worldwide, facilitated by asymptomatic spread and delayed detection.[51]Government Responses, Lockdowns, and Empirical Critiques
Governments worldwide implemented non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, including travel restrictions, mask mandates, and social distancing measures, following the World Health Organization's declaration of a public health emergency on January 30, 2020, and pandemic status on March 11, 2020. China's lockdown of Wuhan on January 23, 2020, confined 11 million residents and served as an early model, though it involved severe enforcement. In Europe, Italy imposed a nationwide lockdown on March 9, 2020, prompting similar measures across the continent, such as France and Spain by mid-March. In the United States, 43 states enacted stay-at-home orders between March and April 2020, with California's order on March 19 marking the first, aiming to flatten the curve amid rising cases.[55][59] Lockdowns typically restricted non-essential movement, closed schools and businesses, and limited gatherings, with durations varying from weeks to months; for instance, New York's order began March 22, 2020, and lifted in phases by June. Proponents argued these measures reduced transmission by lowering mobility, as evidenced by initial drops in case growth rates in some jurisdictions. However, implementation faced challenges, including uneven compliance and economic disruptions, with U.S. unemployment surging to 14.8% in April 2020 partly due to closures. Sweden diverged by avoiding mandatory lockdowns, instead recommending voluntary distancing, keeping schools open for younger children, and focusing on protecting the elderly, which public health officials claimed preserved societal function while achieving comparable early outcomes to stricter Nordic neighbors.[60][61] Empirical analyses have questioned the net benefits of lockdowns, revealing limited impacts on overall mortality despite short-term reductions in incidence. A 2024 meta-analysis of spring 2020 lockdowns across countries found a small effect on COVID-19 mortality, outweighed by economic and social costs, including increased non-COVID excess deaths from delayed care and mental health declines. Another study across models showed no consistent link between stringent NPIs and better epidemic outcomes, attributing variations more to demographics and voluntary behavior than mandates. Sweden's approach, with restrained fiscal responses and no school closures, resulted in lower excess mortality than many European peers by 2021, challenging claims of lockdown necessity; its COVID-19 deaths per capita were higher initially but converged without the sustained economic contraction seen elsewhere.[62][63][64] Critics, including epidemiologists behind the Great Barrington Declaration in October 2020, argued for targeted protection of vulnerable groups over blanket restrictions, citing evidence that lockdowns delayed rather than prevented spread, exacerbated inequalities, and caused collateral harms like educational losses and rising suicides. Peer-reviewed reviews highlight that while mobility reductions correlated with lower case rates, excess mortality analyses often show net increases in total deaths when accounting for non-COVID causes, with global estimates of lockdown-attributable harms exceeding direct viral fatalities in some models. These findings underscore debates over causal attribution, as confounding factors like testing regimes and demographics complicate isolating lockdown effects, prompting calls for cost-benefit frameworks in future crises.[65][66]Vaccine Development and Medical Advances
The SARS-CoV-2 viral genome was first sequenced and shared publicly by Chinese researchers on January 10, 2020, enabling global efforts to design vaccines targeting the spike protein. This foundational data facilitated the rapid adaptation of existing platforms, including mRNA technology developed over prior decades for other pathogens.[67] By March 16, 2020, Moderna and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases initiated the first U.S. Phase 1 clinical trial of mRNA-1273, an mRNA vaccine encoding the stabilized spike protein, enrolling 45 healthy adults.[67] On May 15, 2020, the U.S. launched Operation Warp Speed, a public-private partnership allocating approximately $18 billion to accelerate vaccine candidates through parallel manufacturing, regulatory review, and distribution logistics, with a target of 300 million doses by January 2021.[68] The initiative supported multiple platforms, including mRNA (Moderna), viral vector (Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca), and protein subunit (Novavax), while emphasizing at-risk production to mitigate supply delays.[69] Pfizer-BioNTech, though independent of direct funding, benefited from aligned regulatory streamlining and manufacturing investments. Preliminary Phase 1/2 data from Moderna's trial, published May 18, 2020, demonstrated antibody responses without severe adverse events, paving the way for larger efficacy studies. Interim results from Pfizer-BioNTech's Phase 3 trial, involving over 43,000 participants, announced November 9, 2020, indicated 95% efficacy against symptomatic COVID-19 after two doses, based on 170 confirmed cases. The U.K. granted temporary authorization for the BNT162b2 vaccine on December 2, 2020, followed by U.S. FDA Emergency Use Authorization on December 11 for individuals 16 years and older, marking the first such approval for a COVID-19 vaccine.[70] Moderna's mRNA-1273 received FDA authorization on December 18, 2020, after Phase 3 data showed 94.1% efficacy in 30,000 participants, with common side effects including injection-site pain and fatigue but rare severe reactions.[71] These mRNA vaccines represented a paradigm shift, leveraging lipid nanoparticles for delivery and eliciting robust T-cell and antibody responses, though long-term data remained pending at year's end.[72] Beyond vaccines, 2020 saw recognition of foundational advances in gene editing with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded on October 7 to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna for developing CRISPR-Cas9, a precise DNA-cutting tool derived from bacterial immunity systems, enabling targeted therapeutic edits for genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia.[73] Early clinical applications included ongoing trials for inherited disorders, building on 2012 demonstrations of programmable editing in eukaryotic cells.[74] Other non-vaccine progress included improved prostate cancer diagnostics via MRI-targeted biopsies, reducing unnecessary procedures by 28% in targeted screenings, and advancements in spinal cord injury therapies showing functional recovery in rodent models via neural stem cell grafts.[75] These developments underscored empirical progress in precision medicine, independent of pandemic pressures.Social Unrest and Cultural Movements
George Floyd Incident, BLM Protests, and Associated Riots
On May 25, 2020, George Floyd, a 46-year-old Black man, died during an arrest by Minneapolis Police Department officers in Minneapolis, Minnesota, after a convenience store clerk reported him for allegedly using a counterfeit $20 bill to buy cigarettes.[76] Officer Derek Chauvin knelt on Floyd's neck for approximately 9 minutes and 29 seconds while Floyd was handcuffed and prone on the ground, repeatedly stating he could not breathe; three other officers—Thomas Lane, J. Alexander Kueng, and Tou Thao—assisted in restraining Floyd or managing bystanders but did not intervene to stop Chauvin.[77] The official time of death was recorded as 9:25 p.m., with an autopsy performed the following day confirming homicide as the manner of death, though contributing factors included arteriosclerotic and hypertensive heart disease, fentanyl intoxication, and recent methamphetamine use.[78] Video footage recorded by a bystander went viral, prompting widespread public outrage over perceived police brutality. Chauvin was arrested on May 29, 2020, and initially charged with third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter by Hennepin County authorities; the charges were upgraded on June 3 to include second-degree murder, with the three other officers charged with aiding and abetting.[79] The Minneapolis Police Department's initial statement described Floyd's death as resulting from a "medical incident" during the arrest, but this was revised amid scrutiny.[80] The incident ignited protests framed under the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, beginning in Minneapolis on May 26 and rapidly spreading to over 2,000 U.S. cities and towns, as well as internationally in at least 60 countries, with demonstrations peaking on June 6 when an estimated 500,000 participants gathered in nearly 550 U.S. locations alone.[81] Overall participation estimates ranged from 15 million to 26 million people in the U.S. by mid-2020, marking one of the largest protest movements in American history.[82] While many demonstrations remained peaceful, a subset escalated into riots involving arson, looting, and vandalism, particularly in urban centers like Minneapolis, Portland, Seattle, Kenosha, and New York City, with violence persisting in some areas for months.[83] Empirical analyses, such as those from the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project (ACLED), indicate that over 93% of BLM-related events from May to August 2020 involved no violence, but the violent incidents—concentrated in fewer than 10% of protest locations—accounted for disproportionate impacts, including over 570 cases of riots, looting, or attacks on law enforcement and civilians as tracked by major cities' police chiefs.[84] Insured property damages from these riots totaled $1–2 billion nationwide between May 26 and June 8 alone, surpassing the previous U.S. record for civil unrest set during the 1992 Los Angeles riots and including widespread destruction of businesses, many minority-owned.[85] [86] Law enforcement responses resulted in at least 14,000 arrests by late June 2020, with federal charges filed against over 300 individuals for crimes including arson and rioting.[87] At least 19–25 deaths were linked to the unrest, including protesters, bystanders, and police officers, often from shootings during chaotic nights rather than direct protest actions.[88] Cities deployed National Guard units in over 20 states, with Minnesota mobilizing 7,100 troops at its peak to quell fires and looting that destroyed or damaged hundreds of buildings in Minneapolis-Saint Paul.[89] The riots exacerbated urban crime trends, coinciding with a national homicide spike of over 30% in 2020, though causal links remain debated amid concurrent factors like pandemic-related policing reductions.[83]Broader Domestic and Global Protests
In the United States, protests against COVID-19 lockdown measures emerged in early April 2020, primarily in response to state-imposed stay-at-home orders and business closures aimed at curbing the virus's spread.[90] Demonstrations occurred in state capitals such as Lansing, Michigan; Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; and Sacramento, California, where participants rallied against perceived overreach by governors, emphasizing economic hardship, loss of personal freedoms, and doubts about the efficacy of restrictions.[91] These events, often numbering in the hundreds to low thousands per location, were organized by libertarian-leaning groups like the Michigan Liberty group and received indirect encouragement from President Donald Trump, who tweeted support for "LIBERATE" states on April 17.[90] Unlike larger movements, these protests remained relatively small-scale and decentralized, with minimal reported violence, though cellphone mobility data later indicated potential virus transmission from rally attendees traveling interstate.[92] Globally, the 2020 Belarusian protests erupted following the August 9 presidential election, where incumbent Alexander Lukashenko claimed victory amid widespread allegations of fraud, prompting hundreds of thousands to demonstrate in Minsk and other cities for democratic reforms and his ouster.[37] The movement, one of Europe's largest in decades, featured nonviolent tactics like strikes and women's marches but faced severe repression, including beatings, arbitrary arrests, and over 30,000 detentions by year's end, as documented by human rights monitors.[38] Authorities deployed riot police and internal troops, resulting in at least four protester deaths from excessive force, though official narratives attributed fatalities to unrelated causes.[37] In Nigeria, the #EndSARS protests began in October 2020 as a youth-led campaign against the Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS), a police unit accused of extrajudicial killings, extortion, and brutality, initially amplified via social media before drawing tens of thousands to streets in Lagos, Abuja, and other cities.[93] The government announced SARS's disbandment on October 11, but demonstrations persisted, demanding accountability and systemic reform; on October 20, security forces fired on unarmed protesters at Lagos's Lekki Toll Gate, killing at least 12 and injuring dozens in a massacre confirmed by judicial panels and international observers.[94][95] While largely peaceful, some protests saw looting and clashes, leading to a curfew and internet shutdowns, with Amnesty International reporting at least 56 total deaths from security force actions.[93] India's farmer protests ignited in September 2020 after Parliament passed three agricultural reform bills deregulating markets, which critics argued would undermine minimum support prices and favor corporations over smallholders.[96] By November, tens of thousands of farmers, mainly from Punjab and Haryana, blockaded Delhi's borders with tractors and tents, forming prolonged sit-ins that disrupted highways and supply chains into 2021.[97] The demonstrations, involving over 250 million participants in a single-day strike on November 26, remained predominantly nonviolent despite clashes with police using tear gas and barricades, culminating in the government's repeal of the laws in November 2021.[98] Thailand witnessed youth-driven pro-democracy protests from July 2020 onward, fueled by opposition to Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha's military-backed government and calls for monarchy reform, including lèse-majesté law abolition, amid post-coup autocracy and COVID-19 curbs.[99] Bangkok rallies drew up to 100,000 at peaks, employing creative tactics like flash mobs and three-finger salutes, but authorities responded with water cannons, arrests of over 1,800 by December, and sedition charges, marking the largest unrest since the 2014 coup.[100] The movement highlighted generational divides, with student leaders pushing for constitutional changes, though it waned by late 2020 under repression and pandemic fatigue.[101]Economy and Financial Impacts
Recession Triggers and Policy Responses
The 2020 recession in the United States was precipitated by government-mandated lockdowns and business closures implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which abruptly halted non-essential economic activities across sectors such as retail, hospitality, travel, and manufacturing. These measures, beginning in mid-March 2020 in many states, led to a contraction in real gross domestic product (GDP) of 31.4 percent at an annual rate in the second quarter, the sharpest quarterly decline since the Great Depression.[102] [103] The unemployment rate surged to 14.8 percent in April 2020, the highest level since the Bureau of Labor Statistics began tracking in 1948, with over 20 million jobs lost in that month alone due to shutdowns rather than voluntary behavioral changes alone.[104] [105] Empirical analyses attribute the recession's depth primarily to policy-induced supply and demand disruptions, as evidenced by cross-country comparisons where stricter lockdowns correlated with greater GDP falls independent of infection rates, though virus-related uncertainty amplified voluntary reductions in activity.[106] [107] Central bank and fiscal authorities responded aggressively to mitigate the fallout. On March 3 and March 15, 2020, the Federal Reserve cut its target federal funds rate by a cumulative 150 basis points to a range of 0 to 0.25 percent, while expanding its balance sheet through unlimited quantitative easing, purchasing at least $500 billion in Treasury securities and $200 billion in agency mortgage-backed securities.[108] [109] The Fed also established emergency lending facilities, including the Primary Market Corporate Credit Facility and the Municipal Liquidity Facility, to support corporate and state borrowing, injecting trillions in liquidity to prevent broader credit market freezes.[109] Congress passed the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act on March 27, 2020, authorizing approximately $2.2 trillion in spending—about 10 percent of annual GDP. Key provisions included direct payments of up to $1,200 per adult and $500 per child to most households, a temporary $600 weekly boost to unemployment insurance benefits extending through July 31, 2020, and the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP), which provided forgivable loans totaling over $650 billion to small businesses for payroll retention.[110] [111] These interventions cushioned household incomes and prevented deeper insolvencies, with estimates indicating the CARES Act reduced the Q2 GDP contraction by up to 7 percentage points, though they also elevated federal debt and set the stage for subsequent inflationary pressures.[112] Subsequent legislation, such as the December 2020 Consolidated Appropriations Act adding $900 billion, extended enhanced unemployment benefits and additional direct payments of $600 per person.[111]| Policy Measure | Key Details | Approximate Scale |
|---|---|---|
| Federal Funds Rate Cut | Reduced to 0-0.25% on March 15, 2020 | N/A (monetary policy)[108] |
| Quantitative Easing | Unlimited purchases of Treasuries and MBS | $700 billion initial, expanded indefinitely[109] |
| CARES Act Direct Payments | $1,200/adult, $500/child | $290 billion[111] |
| Enhanced Unemployment Insurance | +$600/week through July 2020 | $260 billion[111] |
| Paycheck Protection Program | Forgivable loans for payroll | $670 billion appropriated[110] |
Long-Term Economic Consequences and Recovery Signals
The 2020 COVID-19-induced recession, exacerbated by widespread lockdowns, resulted in a global GDP contraction of approximately 3.0% that year, marking the sharpest downturn since the Great Depression and equivalent to a loss of about $7.4 trillion in output.[113][114] Lockdown measures disrupted supply chains and labor markets, leading to persistent sectoral scarring, with hospitality and retail facing higher business failure rates compared to technology sectors that adapted via remote work.[115] Empirical analyses of historical pandemics indicate long-term reductions in GDP per capita of 3-10% persisting for decades, driven by diminished human capital accumulation and altered demographic trends such as lower fertility rates.[116] Massive fiscal stimuli, totaling over $5 trillion in the U.S. alone through measures like the CARES Act, averted deeper short-term collapse but contributed to excess demand pressures by boosting goods consumption without commensurate supply expansion.[117] [118] This fueled a post-2020 inflation surge, with fiscal actions accounting for roughly half of aggregate demand-driven price increases, peaking at 9.1% CPI in June 2022 before monetary tightening moderated it.[119] [120] Public debt levels rose sharply, with U.S. federal debt-to-GDP exceeding 120% by 2021, heightening risks of future inflationary episodes and crowding out private investment through elevated interest costs projected to surpass defense spending by 2025.[121] Recovery signals emerged rapidly in advanced economies, particularly the U.S., where real GDP surpassed pre-pandemic levels by Q2 2021 and stood 5% above 2019 trends by 2023, outperforming G10 peers due to aggressive fiscal-monetary support and vaccine rollout enabling service sector reopening.[122] [123] Unemployment fell from 14.8% in April 2020 to 3.7% by late 2023, though labor force participation remained below pre-2020 peaks at around 62.5%, reflecting early retirements and disability claims among older workers.[124] Corporate profit margins rebounded post-2020, signaling resilient household balance sheets, while digital technology adoption accelerated productivity in knowledge-based industries.[125] However, uneven recovery amplified inequality, with low-income households experiencing slower wage gains and higher debt burdens amid persistent supply vulnerabilities.[126]Environment, Disasters, and Climate Events
Natural Disasters and Their Causes
The year 2020 saw a record 22 weather and climate disasters in the United States each exceeding $1 billion in damages, surpassing the previous record of 16 set in 2017 and 2020 combined, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These included seven tropical cyclone events, the highest number on record, alongside severe storms, droughts, wildfires, and a derecho. Globally, notable events encompassed ongoing Australian bushfires, East African locust swarms, Central Vietnam floods, and several major earthquakes.[127][128] Wildfires dominated in Australia and the western United States. The 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season, extending into early 2020, burned over 18 million hectares and was driven by prolonged drought, low soil moisture, high wind speeds, low relative humidity, heat waves, and reduced dead and live fuel moisture content, creating highly flammable conditions. Poor prescribed burning practices and fuel accumulation from historical fire suppression contributed to the fire's intensity and spread, independent of long-term climate trends in the immediate causal chain. In the U.S., California wildfires alone scorched nearly 4.4 million acres, with over 4,400 structures destroyed; approximately 60% ignited from human sources such as power lines, vehicles, and arson, while dry fuels exacerbated by a wet prior winter (leading to excess vegetation) and extreme heat fueled rapid growth. Oregon and Washington fires added over 1 million acres burned, often sparked by lightning amid hot, dry conditions. Forest management failures, including inadequate thinning and historical suppression policies, allowed fuel loads to build, amplifying fire severity beyond ignition alone.[129][130] Severe storms included the August 10 Midwest derecho, a fast-moving thunderstorm complex producing hurricane-force winds up to 140 mph across Iowa, Illinois, and neighboring states, damaging or destroying millions of acres of crops and causing $11 billion in agricultural losses alone. It originated from a mesoscale convective system fueled by high atmospheric instability, warm moist air from the south, and strong wind shear, sustaining damaging gusts for 30–60 minutes over a 770-mile path—longer than typical derechos. Hurricane Laura, a Category 4 storm making landfall near Lake Charles, Louisiana, on August 27 with 150 mph winds, stemmed from an African easterly wave developing into a tropical depression in the Gulf of Mexico, intensified by warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear; it caused 42 deaths and $19 billion in damage through storm surge up to 15 feet and wind devastation. The Atlantic season's record 30 named storms reflected similar meteorological drivers: above-average sea temperatures and the La Niña phase enhancing activity.[131][132] Earthquakes in 2020 included the magnitude 7.8 Simeonof event off Alaska's Alaska Peninsula on July 22, resulting from strike-slip faulting on the plate boundary between the Pacific and North American plates, with a foreshock-aftershock sequence including a magnitude 7.6 event. The magnitude 6.4 Puerto Rico quake on January 7 occurred on oblique-thrust faults in a tectonically active zone near the plate boundary, triggering landslides and over 3,000 aftershocks. The October 30 magnitude 7.0 Aegean Sea quake near Samos, Greece, arose from normal faulting in the overriding Eurasian plate amid subduction zone extension. These events underscore tectonic plate motions as the primary causal mechanism, with no evidence of anthropogenic influence. Biological disasters like East African desert locust swarms, peaking in early 2020 and affecting 20 million people via crop devastation, were triggered by unusual rainfall from cyclones and climate oscillations like the Indian Ocean Dipole, enabling breeding cycles.[133][134][135]Environmental Policy Debates
In 2020, environmental policy debates were heavily influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic's economic fallout, the U.S. presidential election, and extreme weather events like Australian bushfires and U.S. wildfires, which intensified arguments over regulatory approaches versus market-driven adaptations. Proponents of aggressive intervention, including Democratic candidate Joe Biden, advocated for rejoining the Paris Agreement—with Biden pledging on January 27, 2020, to reverse the U.S. withdrawal initiated under President Trump—and investing trillions in clean energy transitions, framing climate change as an existential threat requiring net-zero emissions by 2050.[136][137] In contrast, the Trump administration highlighted empirical reductions in U.S. energy-related CO2 emissions by 12% since 2005, attributing them to deregulation, expanded natural gas production via fracking, and energy independence policies that lowered costs without heavy-handed mandates.[138] Debates over "green recovery" stimulus packages dominated policy discussions amid global fiscal responses totaling trillions, with advocates arguing for prioritizing renewables, electrification, and carbon pricing to achieve dual economic and environmental goals. Economists at institutions like Vivid Economics analyzed $3.5 trillion in environmentally relevant funds across 17 major economies by June 2020, finding only a fraction aligned with low-carbon pathways, prompting calls for reforms like subsidies for green infrastructure over fossil fuel bailouts.[139] Critics, however, contended that such measures risked delaying recovery by favoring unproven technologies over immediate job-creating sectors like manufacturing and aviation, noting historical evidence that broad stimulus without structural incentives leads to emission rebounds rather than sustained cuts.[140] The U.S. CARES Act, passed in March 2020, included limited green elements amid broader relief, fueling partisan divides where Biden allies pushed for a "Green New Deal"-inspired framework, while Republicans emphasized fossil fuel support for energy security.[141] The pandemic's lockdowns sparked empirical debates on human activity's causal role in emissions, with global daily CO2 emissions dropping 17% (range: 11-25%) by early April 2020 compared to 2019 means, driven roughly half by reduced transportation and half by industrial slowdowns, equating to an annual decline of about 2.4 billion tonnes.[142][143] This temporary effect—concentrated in urban areas and reversing post-lockdown—underscored challenges in replicating such reductions through policy without economic disruption, as rebound consumption and supply chain shifts often offset gains; for instance, China's emissions rebounded sharply by mid-2020.[144] Skeptics of stringent regulations cited these data to argue against coercive measures like travel restrictions or de-growth policies, favoring innovation in adaptation (e.g., resilient infrastructure) over mitigation targets that overlook natural variability and historical emission trends decoupled from GDP growth in developed nations.[145] Internationally, the EU advanced its Green Deal with a €750 billion recovery fund proposal in May 2020 emphasizing decarbonization, but debates persisted on feasibility given reliance on intermittent renewables and potential trade-offs with energy affordability.[146]Science, Technology, and Exploration
Space Milestones and Innovations
On May 30, 2020, SpaceX successfully launched the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39A, marking the first crewed orbital flight from American soil since the Space Shuttle program's end in 2011 and the debut of NASA's Commercial Crew Program.[147] Astronauts Douglas Hurley and Robert Behnken docked with the International Space Station on May 31, conducted a 62-day mission testing spacecraft systems, and splashed down off the Florida coast on August 2, demonstrating reliable human spaceflight capabilities with reusable Falcon 9 boosters.[148] [149] China's Chang'e 5 mission achieved the first lunar sample return since the Soviet Luna 24 in 1976, launching on November 23, 2020, from Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site aboard a Long March 5 rocket.[150] The probe landed in Oceanus Procellarum on December 1, collected approximately 1,731 grams of basaltic regolith from a geologically young site estimated at 2 billion years old, and returned the samples to Inner Mongolia on December 17 via automated ascent, rendezvous, and Earth reentry.[151] [152] This success validated China's robotic lunar exploration technologies and provided fresh material for analyzing volcanic activity and space weathering processes.[150] The July 2020 Earth-Mars alignment enabled a trio of interplanetary launches, intensifying global robotic exploration of the Red Planet.[153] The United Arab Emirates' Hope orbiter departed July 19 on a Japanese H-IIB rocket to study Mars' atmosphere over a full Martian year.[153] China's Tianwen-1 mission launched July 23 on a Long March 5, carrying an orbiter, lander, and rover for comprehensive mapping, landing, and surface operations.[153] NASA's Perseverance rover, launched July 30 via United Launch Alliance's Atlas V from Cape Canaveral, targeted Jezero Crater to cache samples for potential Earth return and test oxygen production via the MOXIE instrument.[154] SpaceX set a company record with 26 Falcon 9 orbital launches in 2020, surpassing the prior year's 21 and emphasizing rapid reusability, as boosters achieved up to seven flights each with turnaround times under weeks.[155] [156] These included deployments of over 800 Starlink satellites for global broadband constellations, advancing commercial satellite internet infrastructure. On December 9, SpaceX conducted the first high-altitude test of its Starship prototype SN8 from Boca Chica, Texas, reaching 12.5 kilometers before a controlled descent that informed future fully reusable heavy-lift designs.[155] NASA advanced the Artemis program in 2020, selecting SpaceX's Starship as the Human Landing System for lunar surface missions and awarding contracts for sustainable lunar infrastructure, aligning with goals to return humans to the Moon by 2024 while preparing for Mars.[157] These efforts reduced U.S. dependence on foreign launchers for crew transport and prioritized scalable propulsion technologies over legacy expendable systems.[158]Other Technological and Scientific Developments
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton, and Charles M. Rice for the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus, enabling blood screening and antiviral treatments that have saved millions of lives. Alter's work in the 1970s identified non-A, non-B hepatitis transmitted via blood transfusion, while Houghton developed methods to clone the virus genome in the 1980s, and Rice confirmed its replication mechanism in 1989. This recognition highlighted decades of virology advancing diagnostics and therapies for a pathogen affecting over 70 million people globally. In Chemistry, Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna received the prize for developing CRISPR-Cas9, a precise genome-editing tool derived from bacterial immune systems, revolutionizing genetic research and potential therapies.[159] Their 2012 method uses guide RNA to direct the Cas9 enzyme to cut DNA at specific sites, enabling insertions, deletions, or replacements with high accuracy.[73] By 2020, CRISPR had advanced to clinical trials for conditions like sickle cell disease, though ethical concerns over germline editing persisted.[160] The Physics Nobel went to Roger Penrose for theoretical proof of black hole formation from collapsing stars, and to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez for observations confirming a supermassive black hole at the Milky Way's center using stellar orbits. Penrose's 1960s theorems bridged general relativity and quantum mechanics implications, while Genzel and Ghez's decades-long infrared imaging yielded evidence of a 4 million solar mass object via stars orbiting at speeds up to 3% of light speed. The COVID-19 pandemic spurred unprecedented vaccine development, with mRNA platforms achieving emergency authorizations by December.[72] Pfizer-BioNTech initiated Phase 1/2 trials on April 23, reporting 95% efficacy in Phase 3 data on November 9 from over 43,000 participants, leading to FDA emergency use approval on December 11.[161] Moderna's mRNA-1273 vaccine followed, with Phase 1 dosing on March 16 and 94.1% efficacy announced November 30 from 30,000 participants, approved December 18.[67] These built on prior mRNA research for Zika and cancer, accelerated by Operation Warp Speed's $10 billion investment, though long-term data remained limited at rollout.[162] In artificial intelligence, OpenAI released GPT-3 on June 11, a transformer-based language model with 175 billion parameters trained on vast internet text, demonstrating emergent abilities in natural language generation, translation, and code writing.[163] Unlike predecessors, GPT-3 required minimal fine-tuning for tasks via few-shot learning, achieving human-like performance in benchmarks like SuperGLUE, though it raised concerns over biases in training data and energy-intensive computation.[164] This scaled approach marked a shift toward larger models driving AI capabilities, influencing subsequent developments in generative systems.[165] CRISPR applications advanced with the first in vivo human editing trial starting March 2020 for Leber congenital amaurosis, using subretinal delivery to edit retinal cells.[160] SHERLOCK, a CRISPR-based diagnostic, received FDA emergency use authorization in May for rapid SARS-CoV-2 detection, leveraging Cas13 for isothermal amplification and colorimetric readout without specialized equipment.[166] These steps underscored CRISPR's diagnostic and therapeutic potential amid the pandemic, building on the Nobel-recognized foundational tool.[167]Culture, Sports, and Entertainment
Cultural Shifts and Media Narratives
The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly altered cultural consumption patterns, accelerating the shift toward digital media and remote entertainment as lockdowns confined populations worldwide beginning in March 2020. Streaming services saw unprecedented surges, with Netflix reporting a 61% increase in viewing hours in Q2 2020 compared to the prior year, exemplified by the viral phenomenon of Tiger King which amassed over 34 million U.S. households in its first 10 days.[168] This transition highlighted a broader cultural pivot from live events to virtual experiences, including online concerts and social media-driven fads like the "cottagecore" aesthetic, which romanticized rural simplicity amid urban isolation.[169] The death of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, at the hands of Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin ignited nationwide protests under the Black Lives Matter banner, drawing an estimated 15 to 26 million participants in the U.S. alone—the largest protest movement in American history.[10] Mainstream media outlets, including CNN and The New York Times, framed the events predominantly as a moral imperative against systemic racism, with coverage emphasizing peaceful demonstrations while often minimizing associated violence; for instance, riots in over 140 cities caused approximately $1-2 billion in insured damages, the costliest civil unrest in U.S. history.[168] This narrative alignment, critiqued by outlets like The Wall Street Journal for underreporting looting and arson, reflected institutional media's left-leaning tendencies, contributing to polarized public perceptions where 67% of Democrats viewed protests favorably versus 16% of Republicans per contemporaneous polls. Cancel culture intensified in 2020, manifesting in high-profile backlash against public figures for perceived ideological infractions. Author J.K. Rowling faced sustained online condemnation in June after tweeting skepticism toward the erosion of sex-based rights in favor of gender identity, leading to boycott calls against her works despite her defense rooted in biological realities.[170] Similarly, comedian Ellen DeGeneres' talk show ended amid allegations of a toxic workplace, amplified by social media campaigns, while brands like Goya Foods endured boycotts after CEO Robert Unanue praised President Trump in July.[170] These episodes underscored a cultural norm of swift social ostracism, often bypassing due process, with Pew Research indicating that 44% of Americans in 2021 retrospectively viewed such actions as accountability mechanisms, though critics argued they stifled dissent.[171] Media trust eroded further amid 2020's compounding crises, with Gallup data showing overall confidence in mass media for accurate reporting dropping to 40% by late 2020 from 51% pre-pandemic, driven largely by Republican skepticism amid perceived partisan bias in COVID and election coverage. The presidential election amplified this, as social media platforms censored the New York Post's October 14 exposé on Hunter Biden's laptop, which contained emails verified authentic by subsequent FBI analysis and forensic experts; Twitter blocked sharing and locked the Post's account, while Facebook throttled distribution pending fact-checks that never materialized as disinformation.[172] Internal Twitter communications later revealed executives' awareness of lacking evidence for suppression yet proceeded, citing fears of political repercussions, a decision CEO Jack Dorsey admitted as a "mistake" in congressional testimony.[173] This episode, alongside Biden administration pressures on platforms to curb COVID "misinformation," exemplified Big Tech's role in shaping narratives, fostering accusations of collusion that deepened cultural divides over information reliability.[174]Sports Disruptions and Adaptations
The COVID-19 pandemic led to widespread suspensions and cancellations of major sports events starting in March 2020, as leagues prioritized public health amid rising infections and testing limitations.[175] The National Basketball Association (NBA) suspended its season on March 11, 2020, following Utah Jazz center Rudy Gobert's positive test, halting play after teams had completed 63 to 67 of 82 regular-season games.[175] Major League Baseball (MLB) followed on March 12, suspending spring training and delaying the regular season indefinitely.[176] Major League Soccer (MLS) also paused operations on March 12 for an initial 30 days, later extended.[177] These actions cascaded globally, with the National Hockey League (NHL) suspending play on March 12 after completing 68 to 71 games per team.[178] International competitions faced similar fates, underscoring the pandemic's borderless impact. The International Olympic Committee postponed the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics on March 24, 2020, rescheduling them for July 23 to August 8, 2021, to allow athlete preparation amid quarantines and venue closures.[179] UEFA announced the postponement of UEFA Euro 2020 on March 17, 2020, shifting the tournament—originally set for June 12 to July 12 across 12 European host cities—to June 11 to July 11, 2021, while retaining the "Euro 2020" branding.[180] Wimbledon, the All England Club's grass-court Grand Slam, was canceled on April 1, 2020, marking the first such interruption since World War II due to logistical challenges in maintaining a virus-free environment on outdoor courts.[181] Adaptations emphasized bio-secure protocols to resume play without fans and under strict isolation. The NBA pioneered a "bubble" at Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida, where 22 teams reconvened on July 7, 2020, for the remainder of the regular season and playoffs in a controlled campus with daily testing, social distancing, and no external visitors; the Los Angeles Lakers won the championship on October 11, 2020.[182] MLB compressed its 60-game season starting July 23, 2020, with expanded playoffs and neutral-site games, enforcing mask mandates and roster quarantines.[176] The NHL adopted dual bubbles in Edmonton and Toronto for its playoffs from August 1, 2020, culminating in the Tampa Bay Lightning's Stanley Cup victory on September 28, 2020.[178] MLS launched the MLS is Back Tournament on July 8, 2020, in Orlando as a group-stage competition doubling as regular-season games, with the Portland Timbers claiming the title. These measures prevented further outbreaks but drew criticism for uneven competitive equity, as not all teams participated and travel restrictions favored certain franchises.[183]Notable Births
[Notable Births - no content]Notable Deaths
Awards and Recognitions
The Nobel Prizes in 2020 were conferred upon twelve laureates across six categories for contributions benefiting humankind. In Physics, Roger Penrose was awarded half the prize for demonstrating that black hole formation is a robust prediction of general relativity, while Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez shared the other half for discovering a supermassive compact object at the Milky Way's center. The Chemistry Prize went to Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna for developing CRISPR-Cas9, a method for genome editing.[159] In Physiology or Medicine, Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton, and Charles M. Rice received the award for discovering the Hepatitis C virus. The Literature Prize was bestowed upon Louise Glück "for her unmistakable poetic voice that with austere beauty makes individual existence universal." The Peace Prize recognized the United Nations World Food Programme for its efforts to combat hunger and foster peace in conflict zones.[191] In Economic Sciences, Paul R. Milgrom and Robert B. Wilson were honored for improvements to auction theory and inventions of new auction formats.| Category | Laureate(s) | Key Contribution |
|---|---|---|
| Physics | Roger Penrose; Reinhard Genzel, Andrea Ghez | Black holes and galactic center object |
| Chemistry | Emmanuelle Charpentier, Jennifer A. Doudna | CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing |
| Physiology or Medicine | Harvey J. Alter, Michael Houghton, Charles M. Rice | Hepatitis C virus discovery |
| Literature | Louise Glück | Poetic voice on existence |
| Peace | World Food Programme | Combating hunger in conflicts |
| Economic Sciences | Paul R. Milgrom, Robert B. Wilson | Auction theory advancements |