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Muon

The muon (μ⁻) is an elementary subatomic particle classified as a lepton in the Standard Model of particle physics, analogous to the electron but with a mass approximately 207 times greater, at 105.6583755 ± 0.0000023 MeV/c².^[1] It exists in two charge states: the negatively charged muon (μ⁻) and its positively charged antiparticle, the antimuon (μ⁺), both possessing a spin of 1/2 and interacting via the electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational forces but not the strong nuclear force.^[1] Muons are unstable, with a mean lifetime of (2.1969811 ± 0.0000022) × 10⁻⁶ seconds in their rest frame, primarily decaying into an electron, an electron antineutrino, and a muon neutrino (μ⁻ → e⁻ ν̄_e ν_μ) with nearly 100% branching ratio.^[1] Discovered in 1936 by Carl D. Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer through observations of cosmic ray interactions in the Earth's atmosphere, muons were initially puzzling as they did not fit expectations for electrons or protons, marking a key milestone in revealing the diversity of fundamental particles.^[2] Muons play a crucial role in probing the fundamental laws of physics, serving as sensitive tests of the Standard Model through experiments measuring their anomalous magnetic moment, known as the g-2 parameter, which quantifies deviations from the expected Dirac magnetic moment due to quantum electrodynamic effects.^[3] The final results from the Muon g-2 experiment at Fermilab, building on prior work at Brookhaven National Laboratory and CERN and announced in June 2025, achieve a world-leading precision of 0.14 parts per million and are consistent with updated Standard Model predictions incorporating lattice QCD calculations for hadronic contributions, resolving previous tensions though debates on theoretical inputs persist.^[4] On Earth, muons are copiously produced by cosmic ray collisions with atmospheric nuclei, reaching sea level at fluxes of around 1 per cm² per minute, and their relativistic speeds—often near the speed of light—demonstrate time dilation effects predicted by special relativity.^[5] Beyond fundamental research, muons enable practical applications in fields like materials science and security due to their penetrating power, which allows them to pass through dense materials that stop other particles.^[3] In muon tomography, cosmic ray muons are used to image the internal structures of objects such as cargo containers for detecting nuclear materials or volcanoes for eruption forecasting, leveraging multiple Coulomb scattering to reconstruct density maps.^[3] Additionally, muon spin spectroscopy exploits the particle's spin polarization to study magnetic properties in condensed matter, providing insights into superconductors and other exotic materials at facilities like the Paul Scherrer Institute.^[6] These diverse roles underscore the muon's significance as a versatile tool in both particle physics and applied sciences.

Properties

Basic characteristics

The muon is a fundamental elementary particle classified as a second-generation lepton within the Standard Model of particle physics, belonging to the lepton family that also includes the first-generation electron and the third-generation tau lepton.^[7] Like other leptons, it is a point-like fermion that does not participate in the strong nuclear force.^[8] The muon possesses key quantum numbers that define its behavior: an electric charge of −1 (in units of the elementary charge e) for the negatively charged muon (μ⁻) and +1 for its antiparticle, the positively charged muon (μ⁺); a spin of 1/2 ħ; an isospin quantum number I = 0; and a lepton number L = +1 for μ⁻ (L = −1 for μ⁺).^[8] These properties place the muon in the charged lepton sector, distinct from its neutral partner, the muon neutrino. The muon interacts via the weak force, participating in both charged-current processes (mediated by W bosons) and neutral-current processes (mediated by Z bosons), but it is unaffected by the strong interaction due to its lack of color charge. The muon's mass is precisely measured as m_\mu = 105.6583755(23) MeV/c^2, approximately 207 times the electron mass of 0.511 MeV/c^2.^[9] This rest mass corresponds to a rest energy of

E = m_\mu c^2 \approx 105.7~\mathrm{MeV},

which underscores the muon's significantly greater inertia compared to the electron while maintaining similar electroweak coupling strengths.^[9] Although unstable, the muon has a mean lifetime at rest of \tau = 2.1969811(22) \times 10^{-6} s, determined from precision decay experiments.^[9] Relativistic effects, such as time dilation, extend this lifetime for muons in motion, allowing them to travel appreciable distances before decaying. The muon closely resembles the electron in charge and spin but differs markedly in mass and lifetime, highlighting generational distinctions within the lepton family.^[7]

Relation to other leptons

The leptons in the Standard Model are classified into three generations, or families, each comprising a charged lepton and its corresponding neutrino. The muon serves as the charged lepton of the second generation, forming a weak isospin doublet with the muon neutrino (ν_μ), and possesses a distinct lepton flavor separate from that of the electron (e) in the first generation and the tau (τ) in the third generation. This generational structure ensures that weak interactions primarily couple within each family, preserving individual lepton numbers (L_e, L_μ, L_τ) to a high degree, although neutrino oscillations introduce minor mixing among flavors.^[10] The charged leptons display a pronounced mass hierarchy across generations, with the muon's mass (m_μ ≈ 105.66 MeV/c²) being roughly 207 times that of the electron (m_e ≈ 0.511 MeV/c²), while the tau's mass (m_τ ≈ 1777 MeV/c²) is approximately 17 times greater than the muon's. Within the Standard Model, this hierarchy lacks a simple theoretical explanation and is instead parameterized by generation-specific Yukawa couplings to the Higgs field, which generate masses upon electroweak symmetry breaking; no deeper mechanism for the observed ratios is predicted.^[10] In the Standard Model, flavor-changing neutral currents (FCNC) for leptons, such as μ → eγ transitions, are strongly suppressed by the absence of right-handed neutrinos and an analogue of the Glashow-Iliopoulos-Maiani (GIM) mechanism, rendering their rates unobservably small (e.g., Br(μ → eγ) ≪ 10^{-50}). In contrast, charged current interactions, mediated by the charged W boson, permit flavor-changing processes like the muon's decay, where the V-A (vector minus axial-vector) structure of the weak coupling dictates the helicity of emitted particles. Muon decay experiments have precisely verified this V-A form, confirming the left-handed nature of weak interactions and supporting electroweak unification, as the same coupling constant governs both charged and neutral currents across lepton generations.^[10]^[11] The muon neutrino (ν_μ), the neutral partner to the muon, is nearly massless (with mass differences from oscillations on the order of 10^{-3} eV²) and exclusively left-handed in its interactions, forming part of the SU(2)_L doublet with the left-handed muon. It mixes with the electron and tau neutrinos through the Pontecorvo-Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (PMNS) matrix, enabling neutrino flavor oscillations, but this mixing does not affect charged leptons. Consequently, charged muons do not undergo flavor oscillations, as charged lepton flavor is conserved in Standard Model processes, distinguishing them sharply from the oscillatory behavior observed in neutrinos.^[12]

History

Discovery

The muon was first observed in 1936 by physicists Carl D. Anderson and Seth H. Neddermeyer at the California Institute of Technology, using a cloud chamber to study cosmic rays.^[13] Their experiments, conducted at high altitude and near sea level, revealed tracks of charged particles that penetrated lead plates more deeply than expected for electrons, indicating a particle with greater mass—initially estimated at about 200 times that of the electron—yet still ionizing matter similarly to an electron. This unexpected finding puzzled researchers, as it did not match predictions for known particles and was initially misinterpreted as a possible electron variant under relativistic effects. Independent confirmation came in 1937 from J. C. Street and E. C. Stevenson at Harvard University, who used a similar cloud chamber setup exposed to cosmic rays at high altitude, observing particles with comparable penetrating power and mass estimates between that of an electron and a proton.^[14] Their data provided stronger evidence by demonstrating consistent curvature in magnetic fields and reduced scattering, solidifying the existence of this intermediate-mass particle.^[14] The particle was initially dubbed the "mesotron" in 1938 by Anderson and Neddermeyer, reflecting its presumed role as the meson predicted by Hideki Yukawa to mediate the strong nuclear force, given its mass positioned between the electron and proton. Following the 1947 discovery of the true Yukawa meson—the charged pion (π meson)—by Cecil F. Powell and colleagues at the University of Bristol using nuclear emulsion plates exposed to cosmic rays, the distinction became clear: pions decayed rapidly into the longer-lived "mesotrons," which were then redesignated as mu-mesons to differentiate them. In the late 1940s, the term evolved to "mu-meson," and by the early 1950s, it was shortened to "muon," emphasizing its lepton nature rather than any mesonic properties.^[15] Anderson's 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics, shared with Victor Hess for the discovery of cosmic rays, recognized his positron work but laid the groundwork for the muon observation in the same experimental framework; no dedicated Nobel was awarded for the muon itself, though Powell received the 1950 prize for pion detection, which clarified the muon's origins in cosmic ray decays.^[16]

Evolution in particle physics

In the 1950s, studies of muon decay played a pivotal role in establishing the vector-axial vector (V-A) structure of the weak interaction. Experimental measurements of the positron energy spectrum from muon decay confirmed predictions of the V-A theory proposed by Richard Feynman and Murray Gell-Mann, which posited a universal form for the Fermi interaction involving left-handed currents. Key to this validation were precise determinations of the Michel parameters, particularly ρ ≈ 0.75, which aligned with V-A expectations and ruled out alternative scalar or tensor interactions through analyses of decay spectra.^[17] During the 1960s and 1970s, the muon advanced the understanding of weak interactions through neutrino-muon scattering experiments. The Gargamelle bubble chamber at CERN, utilizing a muon-neutrino beam from pion decay, provided the first direct observation of weak neutral currents in 1973 by detecting elastic scattering events without charge exchange, such as ν_μ e → ν_μ e and ν_μ N → ν_μ N, where N denotes nucleons.^[18] These results supported the emerging electroweak unification model by Glashow, Weinberg, and Salam, demonstrating parity-violating neutral current processes mediated by the Z boson and bridging electromagnetic and weak forces. In the 1980s, muons served as crucial signatures in the discovery of the W and Z bosons at CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron. The UA1 and UA2 experiments identified W boson production through high-transverse-momentum single leptons (electrons or muons) plus missing transverse energy from W → ℓ ν decays, with UA1 announcing the discovery in 1983 based on events exhibiting clear lepton signatures. Similarly, Z boson events were observed via μ^+ μ^- pairs with invariant masses around 95 GeV, confirming the particles' properties and validating the electroweak theory's predictions for their masses and couplings. These observations, reliant on muon's clean detection in hadron colliders, marked a cornerstone in particle physics by experimentally realizing the gauge bosons of the weak force.^[19] From the 1990s to the 2000s, muons were instrumental in probing CP violation and flavor physics at B-factories. The BaBar experiment at SLAC and Belle at KEK measured time-dependent CP asymmetries in B^0 → J/ψ K_S decays, with Belle's 2001 observation of sin(2β) ≈ 0.99 providing the first evidence of CP violation in B-meson systems beyond the kaon sector. These results, often involving muonic decays like B → J/ψ (→ μ^+ μ^-) K, confirmed the Kobayashi-Maskawa mechanism within the Standard Model. At the LHC, the CMS and ATLAS detectors leveraged advanced muon identification—achieving efficiencies above 95% for high-p_T muons—to reconstruct signatures in Higgs boson searches, culminating in the 2012 discovery via H → γγ and H → ZZ → 4ℓ channels, where ℓ includes muons, and in hunts for new physics beyond the Standard Model.^[20] In the 2010s, muons contributed to neutrino physics by enabling oscillation studies in accelerator-based beams derived from pion decays. The MINOS experiment at Fermilab used a muon-neutrino beam to measure disappearance oscillations, reporting Δm^2_{32} ≈ 2.41 × 10^{-3} eV^2 from ν_μ → ν_τ transitions over 735 km. Similarly, T2K in Japan employed an off-axis muon-neutrino beam to observe ν_μ → ν_e appearance, with a 2011 result indicating θ_{13} > 0 at 2.5σ, later refined to sin^2(2θ_{13}) ≈ 0.1 by 2013. These experiments highlighted the muon's role in producing and detecting neutrino flavors, advancing the three-neutrino mixing framework. Up to 2023, muons have continued to underpin precision electroweak tests through high-accuracy measurements of decay parameters and lifetimes, which constrain the Fermi constant G_F to 1.1663787(6) × 10^{-5} GeV^{-2} and inform global fits of the Standard Model's gauge sector. As of 2025, ongoing precision measurements, including the final Muon g-2 result, continue to test electroweak parameters without significant deviations from model predictions. Such contributions, integrated into electroweak analyses alongside Z-pole data from LEP, have tightened bounds on radiative corrections and the Higgs sector, with no significant deviations from model predictions observed.^[4]

Production

Natural sources

Muons are primarily produced in the Earth's atmosphere through interactions of cosmic ray primaries, which consist predominantly of protons (about 89% of the flux), with helium nuclei making up around 10% and heavier elements the remainder. These high-energy primaries collide with atmospheric nuclei, initiating hadronic showers that generate charged pions via processes such as proton-nucleon interactions.^[21] The resulting pions, moving at relativistic speeds, decay almost exclusively into muons and neutrinos, with the dominant channels being π⁺ → μ⁺ + ν_μ and π⁻ → μ⁻ + ν̄_μ, each occurring with a branching ratio of (99.98770 ± 0.00004)%.^[22] The short lifetime of pions (τ_π ≈ 2.6 × 10^{-8} s) ensures that most decay before interacting further, leading to muons dominating the charged particle flux at sea level, while neutrinos escape undetected.^[21] In the rest frame of the pion, the kinematics of the two-body decay determine the muon's energy as

E_\mu = \frac{m_\pi^2 + m_\mu^2}{2 m_\pi} \approx 29.8 \, \text{MeV},

where m_\pi \approx 139.6 \, \text{MeV}/c^2 and m_\mu \approx 105.7 \, \text{MeV}/c^2, with the neutrino carrying away the remaining energy. Due to the relativistic boost from the pion's high velocity in the lab frame, atmospheric muons acquire energies typically ranging from hundreds of MeV to several GeV, with time dilation extending their 2.2 μs proper lifetime sufficiently for many to reach the surface despite energy losses from ionization (about 2 GeV on average).^[21] At sea level, the integral muon flux exceeds 1 cm⁻² min⁻¹, with the vertical component above 1 GeV/c measured at approximately 70 m⁻² s⁻¹ sr⁻¹ (or ~1 cm⁻² min⁻¹ when integrated over solid angle).^[21]^[23] The energy spectrum peaks around 1 GeV and follows a power law dN/dE_μ ∝ E_μ^{-2.7} up to ~100 GeV, extending to TeV scales for high-energy events, reflecting the primary cosmic ray spectrum softened by atmospheric interactions.^[21] The flux exhibits a strong zenith angle dependence, distributed approximately as cos²θ for muons around 3 GeV, arising from the increased path length through the atmosphere for inclined trajectories and relativistic effects on decay probabilities.^[21] While pions account for the majority (~90%) of atmospheric muons, secondary contributions arise from kaon decays (K⁺ → μ⁺ + ν_μ and K⁻ → μ⁻ + ν̄_μ), which become more significant at TeV energies due to kaons' higher production thresholds and longer lifetimes, contributing up to ~10% of the total flux at sea level.^[21] Direct decays of primary protons or other hadrons are negligible, as their lifetimes are far longer than the atmospheric traversal time.^[21]

Accelerator-based sources

Muons for experimental purposes are primarily generated in particle accelerators through the decay of pions, which are produced by directing high-energy proton beams onto a target material, such as carbon or beryllium. The protons, accelerated to energies typically ranging from hundreds of MeV to GeV, collide with the target nuclei, creating a cascade of secondary particles including pions via processes like charge-exchange reactions. These pions, with lifetimes around 26 ns, then decay in flight into muons and neutrinos, yielding muon beams with energies up to several hundred MeV. This method allows for controlled, high-purity muon production, contrasting with the unpredictable flux from natural cosmic sources. To achieve high-intensity and low-emittance muon beams suitable for precision experiments, cooling techniques are essential due to the initial beam's large phase space from pion production. Ionization cooling, the primary method, involves passing the muon beam through low-Z absorbers like liquid hydrogen or lithium hydride, where muons lose energy through ionization while maintaining transverse momentum via radiofrequency cavities that restore longitudinal momentum. This process reduces the beam's emittance (a measure of beam quality) by factors of up to 10^6 in multi-stage setups, enabling brighter beams for applications like muon scattering or storage rings. Emittance reduction is quantified by the cooling equation, where the normalized emittance ε_N decreases as ε_N' = ε_N (1 - (dE/E) / β^2), with dE/E being the fractional energy loss and β the velocity factor. Key facilities worldwide produce muon beams using these techniques. The ISIS Neutron and Muon Source at Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL) in the UK delivers pulsed muon beams from its 800 MeV proton synchrotron, with surface muon fluxes up to 10^8 μ/s per pulse for low-energy (around 4 MeV) experiments in condensed matter physics. In contrast, the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) in Switzerland operates a continuous beam from its 590 MeV cyclotron, achieving the world's highest muon intensity of up to 10^8 μ/s, corresponding to an annual yield of approximately 3 × 10^{15} muons, primarily for μSR (muon spin rotation) studies. The High-Intensity Muon Beams (HIMB) project at PSI, ongoing as of 2025, aims to boost intensities to around 10^{10} μ/s for future experiments.^[24] Fermilab in the US provides muon beams for the Muon g-2 experiment using a dedicated storage ring, where protons at 8 GeV produce pions that decay into muons stored at 3.1 GeV/c for magnetic moment measurements. Polarized muon beams are routinely produced exploiting the parity-violating nature of pion decay, where positive pions (π⁺ → μ⁺ + ν_μ) yield muons with longitudinal polarization exceeding 90% at the moment of decay, aligned opposite to the pion's spin direction due to the V-A weak interaction. For negative muons from π⁻ decay, the polarization is similarly high but reversed. This intrinsic polarization, preserved in the beam line with minimal depolarization, is crucial for spin-dependent experiments without additional polarizing magnets. Beam intensities at facilities like PSI reach 10^8 μ/s, but the muons' short lifetime of 2.2 μs (in the lab frame at rest) poses significant challenges for storage and transport, limiting effective use to distances under 100 meters without relativistic time dilation. Future developments aim toward high-energy muon colliders, with proposals in the 2023 U.S. Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5) report outlining paths to 10 TeV center-of-mass collisions, necessitating intermediate neutrino factories to produce and cool intense muon beams from pion sources.^[25] These concepts build on ionization cooling demonstrations at facilities like MICE (Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment) at RAL.

Decay

Primary decay modes

The primary decay mode of the muon is the charged-current weak interaction process μ⁻ → e⁻ + ν̄_e + ν_μ, mediated by the exchange of a virtual W⁻ boson at tree level in the Standard Model. This mode accounts for approximately 99.999% of all muon decays, with the corresponding process for the antimuon being μ⁺ → e⁺ + ν_e + ν̄_μ via W⁺ exchange.^[9] The Feynman diagram involves the muon coupling to the W boson, which then decays into the electron and electron antineutrino, while the muon neutrino is emitted directly; higher-order loop corrections contribute to subtle anomalies but do not alter the dominant tree-level structure. As a three-body decay, the process produces a continuous energy spectrum for the charged lepton (electron or positron), with the maximum kinetic energy reaching m_μ/2 ≈ 52.8 MeV, where m_μ ≈ 105.7 MeV/c² is the muon rest mass. The shape of this spectrum, known as the Michel spectrum, is described by the differential decay rate

\frac{d\Gamma}{dx} \propto x^2 (3 - 2x),

where x = 2E_e / m_μ is the scaled electron energy and Γ is the total decay width; this form arises from the vector-axial vector (V-A) structure of the weak interaction.^[26] Electromagnetic and strong interaction contributions to the decay are negligible, as the muon is a charged lepton without strong charge and electromagnetic decays are flavor-diagonal, prohibiting tree-level μ → e γ transitions within the Standard Model. Polarization effects in the decay provide a key probe of the weak interaction's chirality: in the muon's rest frame, the charged lepton is preferentially emitted antiparallel to the muon spin direction for high energies, with an asymmetry parameter approaching -1 due to the left-handed nature of the V-A coupling. Among rare modes, the lepton-flavor-violating decay μ⁻ → e⁻ γ has been searched for extensively, with an upper limit on its branching ratio of < 1.5 \times 10^{-13} at 90% confidence level from the MEG II experiment (as of 2025), serving as a stringent test of new physics beyond the Standard Model.^[27]

Lifetime and rates

The mean lifetime of the muon has been measured to high precision as \tau = 2.1969811(22) \times 10^{-6} s, corresponding to a relative uncertainty of approximately 1 ppm.^[1] This value is obtained from experiments such as the MuLan collaboration at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which achieved 1.0 ppm precision by analyzing decay time distributions in a superconducting magnet. In the Standard Model, the total decay width \Gamma = 1/\tau for the dominant leptonic decay is given by \Gamma = \frac{G_F^2 m_\mu^5}{192 \pi^3} f(\rho, \delta), where G_F is the Fermi coupling constant, m_\mu is the muon mass, \rho = (m_e / m_\mu)^2 \approx 2.3 \times 10^{-5}, and f(\rho, \delta) incorporates phase-space factors and radiative corrections, approximately f \approx 1 + \frac{\alpha}{2\pi} \ln(m_\mu / m_e) at leading order.^[26] Quantum electrodynamic (QED) radiative corrections to this formula have been computed up to three loops analytically, with higher-order contributions estimated numerically; these introduce an uncertainty of less than 0.3 ppm in the theoretical prediction. Hadronic contributions to the lifetime are negligible, at the level of 10^{-10} or smaller, unlike their more significant role in the muon's anomalous magnetic moment.^[26] Due to special relativity, the observed lifetime of muons in the laboratory frame is dilated by the Lorentz factor \gamma = E / m_\mu c^2, yielding \tau_\mathrm{lab} = \gamma \tau. This effect is crucial for cosmic-ray muons produced high in the atmosphere, which typically have energies of several GeV (\gamma \approx 10) and thus extended lifetimes allowing them to reach sea level despite the short proper lifetime.^[28] The theoretical prediction agrees with the experimental lifetime to within 0.4 ppm, providing a stringent test of the Standard Model's electroweak sector and the V-A structure of weak interactions.^[26]

Forbidden processes

In the Standard Model of particle physics, lepton flavor violation (LFV) processes involving muons, such as the decay \mu \to e \gamma, are forbidden at tree level and occur only at extremely suppressed rates through higher-order loop diagrams involving neutrino mixing, with a predicted branching ratio below $10^{-54}. This negligible rate arises from the Glashow-Iliopoulos-Maiani (GIM) mechanism, which ensures flavor conservation in charged-lepton interactions despite small neutrino mass differences. Experimental searches for such processes provide stringent tests of the Standard Model and probes for new physics beyond it. The radiative decay \mu^+ \to e^+ \gamma has been extensively searched for by the MEG II experiment at the Paul Scherrer Institute, which in 2025 reported no excess events and set the world's most stringent upper limit on the branching ratio of B(\mu^+ \to e^+ \gamma) < 1.5 \times 10^{-13} at 90% confidence level (CL), improving upon the previous MEG limit of < 4.2 \times 10^{-13}.^[27] Similarly, the related process \mu^- \to e^- \gamma is bounded by the charge-conjugate symmetry of the interactions. Other LFV channels, such as the three-body decay \mu \to e e e, are prohibited in the Standard Model at observable levels; the current experimental upper limit is B(\mu^+ \to e^+ e^+ e^-) < 1.0 \times 10^{-12} at 90% CL from the 1986 SINDRUM experiment, with the ongoing Mu3e experiment at PSI aiming to reach sensitivities of $10^{-15} in Phase I and $10^{-16} in Phase II by collecting over $10^{15} muon decays.^[29] Coherent muon-to-electron conversion in nuclear fields, \mu^- + N(A,Z) \to e^- + N(A,Z), represents another key LFV signature, where the muon converts to an electron while the nucleus remains in its ground state. The SINDRUM II experiment at PSI established the tightest limit to date on this process in muonic gold, with a conversion ratio R_{\mu e} < 7 \times 10^{-13} at 90% CL.^[30] The COMET experiment at J-PARC, which began operations in late 2024, targets a Phase I sensitivity of $3 \times 10^{-15} for aluminum nuclei, with Phase II aiming for $10^{-17}, potentially improving limits by four orders of magnitude.^[31] These LFV processes can be enhanced in extensions of the Standard Model, such as supersymmetric theories where slepton mixing induces flavor-violating dipole operators, or leptoquark models that couple quarks to different lepton generations, potentially raising branching ratios to observable levels if the new particles have masses around 1 TeV. Current null results from muon LFV searches impose strong bounds on such models; for instance, supersymmetric scenarios with large trilinear couplings are constrained to slepton mass scales above several TeV, while scalar leptoquarks mediating \mu \to e transitions must exceed 10-100 TeV depending on the coupling strength.^[32] In 2024 and 2025, no signals have emerged from ongoing experiments, but upgrades to detectors and increased muon intensities are expected to tighten limits by a factor of 10 or more in the coming years, further constraining new physics parameter spaces.^[33]

Muonic systems

Muonic atoms

Muonic atoms are formed when low-energy negative muons (μ⁻) are decelerated and stopped in a material target, where they are captured by the atomic nucleus into an excited orbital state, displacing an inner-shell electron.^[34] This process occurs preferentially in the K-shell or higher orbits of atoms with atomic number Z > 1, with the muon's large mass—approximately 207 times that of the electron—resulting in orbits much closer to the nucleus.^[35] The reduced mass of the muon-nucleus system is \mu_\mathrm{red} = \frac{m_\mu m_N}{m_\mu + m_N} \approx m_\mu (since m_N \gg m_\mu), leading to binding energies that scale proportionally with \mu_\mathrm{red} and a Bohr radius roughly 207 times smaller than the electron's Bohr radius of 0.529 Å.^[35] Following capture, typically in states with high principal quantum number n \approx 14 and high orbital angular momentum l, the muon undergoes a rapid atomic cascade to the 1S ground state. This deexcitation involves a combination of radiative transitions (emitting photons), Auger processes (ejecting electrons), and characteristic K-shell X-ray emissions, with the cascade completing in picoseconds to nanoseconds depending on the atomic environment. The close proximity of the muon to the nucleus during these transitions enhances sensitivity to finite nuclear size effects, which are negligible in ordinary electronic atoms. Muonic transitions produce X-ray photons with energies on the order of several MeV, far exceeding the keV range of electronic X-rays, allowing for precise spectroscopy of nuclear charge distributions and electromagnetic moments. In muonic hydrogen (\mu^- p), the 2S–2P fine-structure splitting is particularly sensitive to the proton's charge radius due to the muon's small orbital radius, which probes the nuclear interior more directly.^[36] Laser spectroscopy measurements of the 2P–2S Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen from 2010 to 2018 yielded a proton root-mean-square charge radius of approximately 0.841 fm, about 4% smaller than the CODATA value from electronic hydrogen spectroscopy, sparking the "proton radius puzzle" and prompting reevaluations of quantum electrodynamics and nuclear structure theory.^[36]^[37] In nuclear physics applications, muonic atoms serve as probes for studying interatomic transfer processes, where the muon is transferred from a lighter host atom to a heavier one via collisions, with rates depending on atomic number differences and collision energies.^[38] For instance, muon transfer rates from muonic hydrogen to oxygen atoms have been experimentally determined to range from $10^{11} to $10^{12} s⁻¹ at thermal energies, providing data on molecular dynamics and screening effects without involving fusion mechanisms.^[38] These studies elucidate nuclear capture and transfer kinetics essential for understanding muon behavior in complex targets.

Muonium and catalyzed fusion

Muonium is an exotic atom consisting of a positive muon (μ⁺) bound to an electron (e⁻), analogous to a hydrogen atom but with the proton replaced by the lighter muon.^[39] The reduced mass of this system is approximately equal to the electron mass (m_r ≈ m_e), due to the muon's mass being about 207 times that of the electron, resulting in a Bohr radius and binding energy very similar to those of hydrogen.^[40] Precision laser spectroscopy has measured the ground-state hyperfine splitting in muonium at 4463.302 MHz, providing a sensitive test of quantum electrodynamics (QED) in lepton-bound systems.^[41] Muonium forms when a positive muon thermalizes in a medium and captures an electron, typically via the reaction μ⁺ + e⁻ → Mu, or through charge exchange with positronium in certain experimental setups.^[42] Its lifetime is limited by the muon's intrinsic decay, with a mean of 2.2 μs, during which the muonium atom behaves as a light isotope of hydrogen for spectroscopic studies.^[43] Positive muons also enable muon-catalyzed fusion, a process where they facilitate nuclear fusion reactions at near-room temperatures without requiring high plasma conditions. In a liquid deuterium-tritium (D-T) mixture, a muon binds to a deuteron or triton to form a muonic atom (dμ or tμ), which then collides with another nucleus to resonantly form a muonic molecule such as dμt.^[44] This dμt molecule has a reduced inter-nuclear separation of about 260 fm—over 200 times smaller than in electron-catalyzed systems—dramatically increasing the fusion probability via the reaction d + t → α + n + 17.6 MeV, releasing the muon to potentially catalyze further cycles.^[45] Resonant formation of dμ molecules enhances the overall reaction rate by aligning molecular states with incoming nuclei, optimizing the catalysis efficiency.^[46] The process was first observed serendipitously in the 1950s by Luis Alvarez and collaborators during bubble chamber experiments at the University of California, Berkeley, revealing unexpected fusion events in hydrogen-deuterium mixtures.^[45] Subsequent studies achieved peak cycle rates of approximately 10^8 s⁻¹ in D-T systems, with each muon catalyzing up to about 150 fusions before loss mechanisms dominate.^[47] The primary limitation is the sticking probability, where the muon binds to the alpha particle with about 0.9% probability per fusion (ω_s ≈ 0.009), removing it from the cycle; reactivation of stuck muons via processes like (αμ)^- + t → ^5Li + μ is possible but incomplete.^[48] These experiments have tested quantum chromodynamics (QCD) through nuclear wave functions and weak interaction rates in sticking and reactivation.^[49] In the 2020s, while no major breakthroughs have elevated muon-catalyzed fusion to practical energy production, ongoing research explores improved muon sources and high-density conditions to boost yields, maintaining its relevance as a probe for fusion concepts and fundamental nuclear physics. As of 2025, renewed interest includes theoretical models for reaction processes and efforts by companies like Acceleron Fusion to develop high-density fusion cells for enhanced catalysis efficiency.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Precision tests

Anomalous magnetic moment

The magnetic dipole moment of the muon arises from its spin angular momentum and is characterized by the Landé g-factor, for which the Dirac equation predicts g = 2 for fundamental spin-1/2 particles in the absence of radiative corrections. Quantum electrodynamics introduces a small deviation, quantified by the anomalous magnetic moment a_\mu = (g-2)/2, which encodes higher-order loop effects within the Standard Model. The Standard Model prediction for a_\mu^\text{SM} is the sum of quantum electrodynamic (QED), electroweak (EW), and hadronic contributions: a_\mu^\text{SM} = a_\mu^\text{QED} + a_\mu^\text{EW} + a_\mu^\text{had}, where the hadronic term further splits into vacuum polarization (HVP) and light-by-light (HLbL) scattering. The QED component, dominant and known to five loops, yields a_\mu^\text{QED} \approx 116584718.8 \times 10^{-11}. The EW contribution is smaller, at approximately $1.54 \times 10^{-10}, while the hadronic part, around $692 \times 10^{-11}, carries the largest theoretical uncertainty due to non-perturbative QCD effects. Recent advances in lattice QCD simulations, such as those from the FNAL/HPQCD collaborations, have achieved HVP precision at the $10^{-10} level. Tensions between lattice results and data-driven dispersive approaches have been resolved by adopting lattice QCD for the leading-order HVP, as detailed in the Muon g-2 Theory Initiative White Paper 2025, yielding an updated SM prediction of a_\mu^\text{SM} = 116592033(62) \times 10^{-11}.^[53] Experimental measurements of a_\mu probe these predictions with high precision using muon storage rings to observe the spin precession anomaly frequency. The Brookhaven National Laboratory E821 experiment in 2001 delivered the first measurement at 0.7 parts per million (ppm) precision, revealing an initial 2.7σ tension with the then-current Standard Model value. Fermilab's Muon g-2 experiment, starting in 2018, improved upon this with Run-1 data in 2021 and combined Runs 1–3 results in 2023 yielding a_\mu^\text{exp} = 116592061(41) \times 10^{-11} at 0.35 ppm, showing a discrepancy of about 4.2σ. In June 2025, Fermilab released its final combined measurement from all runs (Runs 1–6), achieving the world's most precise value of a_\mu^\text{exp} = 116592070(15) \times 10^{-11} at 0.127 ppm precision. This result agrees with the updated Standard Model prediction, with a difference of approximately 0.6σ, confirming consistency within the Standard Model and resolving prior tensions.^[54] This resolution, driven by refined lattice QCD calculations, indicates no compelling evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model from the muon g-2 measurement, though ongoing theoretical and experimental efforts continue to scrutinize the result.^[53]

Electric dipole moment

The electric dipole moment (EDM) of the muon, denoted d_\mu, quantifies any intrinsic charge separation within the particle, resulting in a torque when placed in an external electric field \mathbf{E}. This interaction induces an additional spin precession frequency given by \delta \omega = 2 d_\mu E / \hbar, which can be measured relative to the muon's cyclotron motion.^[55] In the Standard Model, d_\mu is predicted to be negligibly small, on the order of $10^{-36} e·cm, stemming from higher-order loop effects involving CKM phase-induced CP violation that are heavily suppressed.^[56] A non-zero value would indicate additional sources of CP violation beyond the Standard Model, such as contributions from PMNS matrix phases, supersymmetric extensions, or axion-like particles, offering potential clues to the baryon asymmetry of the universe. Searches for d_\mu primarily employ storage ring techniques with polarized muon beams, where the spin precession is monitored via decay electron distributions. The frozen-spin method, proposed for dedicated experiments at Fermilab using a modified g-2 storage ring, operates at the magic Lorentz factor \gamma = 29.3 to nullify the anomalous magnetic moment precession, isolating the EDM-induced effect through an applied radial electric field.^[57] Similar approaches are under development at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) with a compact all-electric ring.^[58] The most stringent experimental upper limit is |d_\mu| < 1.8 \times 10^{-19} e·cm at 95% confidence level, derived from spin precession data in the Brookhaven E821 muon g-2 experiment.^[55] Analyses of Fermilab Muon g-2 data through 2025 continue to yield null results with no evidence of a signal. Planned upgrades to frozen-spin setups at PSI and Fermilab target sensitivities of $10^{-21} e·cm in initial phases, with projections for $10^{-22} e·cm by 2030 through increased beam intensity and longer observation times.^[59] In comparison to neutron EDM searches, which probe primarily quark-level CP violation, the muon EDM offers unique sensitivity to weak interaction effects and charged lepton flavor physics, complementing constraints on new models due to the muon's direct coupling to electroweak bosons.^[60]

Applications

Imaging and tomography

Muon tomography, also known as muography, utilizes cosmic ray muons to non-destructively image the internal density variations of large-scale structures by exploiting their interactions with matter. The primary principle relies on multiple Coulomb scattering, where high-energy muons undergo small-angle deflections due to electromagnetic interactions with the atomic nuclei in the target material. The root-mean-square scattering angle θ scales inversely with the muon's momentum p as θ ∝ 1/p (approximately 1/E for relativistic muons), allowing reconstruction of density distributions through analysis of either muon transmission (attenuation) or scattering angles. This technique enables the mapping of low- to high-density regions without physical intrusion, as muons with energies above several GeV can penetrate substantial thicknesses of material.^[61]^[62]^[63] Detection systems in muon tomography typically employ tracking detectors to measure muon trajectories before and after interaction with the object. Common setups include scintillator-based trackers, which provide fast timing and high efficiency for position reconstruction, and drift tube chambers, offering sub-millimeter spatial resolution for precise angle measurements. These detectors achieve angular resolutions on the order of 1 milliradian, enabling the differentiation of scattering events from straight-line paths. Background rejection remains a key challenge, as low-energy muons, electrons, and other cosmic ray components can mimic signals, requiring sophisticated filtering algorithms to isolate high-quality tracks.^[64]^[65]^[61] A significant advantage of cosmic muons is their natural flux, which allows passive imaging without artificial sources; muons with energies exceeding 10 GeV can penetrate up to several kilometers of rock equivalent, providing sufficient statistics for large objects over extended exposure times. For instance, the flux at sea level is approximately 1 muon per cm² per minute for E > 1 GeV, decreasing with depth but remaining viable for deep structures. Spatial resolution in such systems typically reaches about 1 meter for objects spanning 100 meters, limited by scattering statistics and detector geometry, though finer details demand longer integrations or optimized arrays.^[66]^[67]^[68] Early applications of muon radiography emerged in the 1960s, with Luis Alvarez's team at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory using cosmic muons to search for hidden chambers in the Second Pyramid of Giza (Khafre), demonstrating the technique's potential for archaeology despite not finding voids. More recent efforts include the ScanPyramids project, initiated in 2015, which deployed muon detectors around the Great Pyramid of Khufu and identified a large void approximately 30 meters long above the Grand Gallery in 2017 through transmission measurements. In 2023, the same project revealed a corridor-shaped structure behind the north face chevrons, spanning about 9 meters, further highlighting muon's role in uncovering internal architectures without excavation. In November 2025, the ScanPyramids project identified air-filled anomalies in the Menkaure Pyramid using muon imaging, possibly pointing to a hidden entrance or internal voids.^[69]^[70]^[71] For volcanic imaging, the MURAVES experiment on Mount Vesuvius since 2018 has mapped density variations in the summit cone, building on earlier conceptual proposals from the 2000s.^[69]^[70] Advancements as of 2025 have incorporated artificial intelligence for enhanced reconstruction, such as deep learning models that accelerate track fitting and noise reduction, improving image quality and reducing exposure times for real-time applications. These AI techniques, including convolutional neural networks for scattering angle prediction, have been tested in simulations and prototypes, achieving up to 20% better resolution in dense environments. In practical domains, muon tomography supports cargo scanning at borders to detect high-Z materials like nuclear threats in shipping containers, with systems like those developed by Decision Sciences demonstrating feasibility for non-intrusive verification in minutes. Archaeological applications continue to expand, with portable detectors probing sites like ancient tombs, while industrial uses target reactor monitoring and infrastructure assessment.^[72]^[73]

Spectroscopy and materials science

Muon spin rotation, relaxation, and resonance (μSR) techniques utilize spin-polarized positive muons (μ⁺) implanted into condensed matter samples to probe local magnetic fields and dynamics at the atomic scale. The muons, produced with nearly 100% spin polarization from pion decay, stop within the sample and precess in local magnetic fields before decaying into a positron and neutrinos with a lifetime of 2.2 μs. The emitted positron is preferentially directed along the muon's spin at the decay instant, allowing measurement of the time-dependent asymmetry in positron emission between forward and backward detectors, which encodes information about the local environment.^[74] The positron asymmetry A(t) in a uniform magnetic field B is given by

A(t) = A_0 \cos(\gamma_\mu B t + \phi),

where A_0 is the initial asymmetry, \gamma_\mu is the muon gyromagnetic ratio (approximately 13.54 kHz/G), t is time, and \phi is the initial phase; relaxation effects may introduce exponential damping in inhomogeneous fields. This signal reveals internal fields as low as 0.1 G, providing microscopic insights into magnetism, superconductivity, and diffusion processes inaccessible to other techniques like NMR due to the muon's short lifetime and high sensitivity.^[75] Key μSR methods include zero-field μSR (ZF-μSR), which detects spontaneous internal fields without applied fields; transverse-field μSR (TF-μSR), where an external field perpendicular to the initial spin direction modulates precession to study applied field effects like Knight shifts; muon level crossing resonance (μLCR), which tunes external fields to induce energy level crossings between muon and nearby nuclear spins for probing hyperfine interactions; and muon spin resonance field (μSRF), which applies radiofrequency fields to drive resonances and map spin dynamics. These techniques are complementary, with ZF-μSR ideal for weak magnetism and TF-μSR for superconducting penetration depths.^[74] In superconductivity, μSR determines pairing symmetry by detecting time-reversal symmetry breaking or magnetic field distributions in vortex lattices; for example, in cuprate high-Tc superconductors like YBa₂Cu₃O₆₊ₓ, ZF-μSR has revealed d-wave pairing mediated by spin fluctuations through measurements of spontaneous fields below the transition temperature. In magnetism, μSR probes antiferromagnetic (AFM) order in manganites, such as La₀.₆₇Ca₀.₃₃MnO₃, where it detects inhomogeneous spin dynamics and phase separation in colossal magnetoresistance materials. For diffusion studies, μSR tracks μ⁺ or muonium (μ⁺e⁻) motion in battery electrodes, quantifying Li⁺ mobility in materials like Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ with diffusion coefficients around 10⁻¹⁰ cm²/s at room temperature, aiding optimization of ion transport pathways.^[76]^[77]^[78] Major facilities include the Swiss Muon Source (SμS) beamline at Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI), which provides the world's highest continuous muon flux for bulk and surface studies, alongside instruments at TRIUMF, ISIS, J-PARC, and RIKEN; worldwide, approximately 100 μSR instruments operate across these sites for user experiments. Depth profiling is achieved with low-energy muons (4–30 keV), implanting to depths of 0.1–1 mm, enabling layer-resolved measurements; muonium formation in specific elements like semiconductors allows element-selective probing of local environments via distinct stopping sites.^[79]^[80] Recent μSR studies (2024–2025) have focused on quantum materials and 2D magnets, such as investigating spin liquids in van der Waals Nb₃Cl₈ and absence of long-range order in altermagnetic RuO₂, without major breakthroughs but advancing understanding of emergent phenomena in low-dimensional systems.^[81]^[82]

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