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Laurasia

Laurasia was a major supercontinent in the northern hemisphere that existed from the late Paleozoic Era through the Mesozoic Era, primarily comprising the modern continents of North America (including Greenland), Europe, and Asia.^[1] It formed during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods through the assembly of earlier landmasses such as Laurentia (proto-North America) and Baltica (proto-Europe), which collided and accreted with other terranes to create a cohesive northern landmass by around 300 million years ago.^[2] This assembly culminated in the formation of the even larger supercontinent Pangaea approximately 335 to 300 million years ago, when Laurasia collided with the southern supercontinent Gondwana along the Appalachian-Hercynian suture zone.^[3] Pangaea's subsequent rifting beginning in the Late Triassic, around 225 to 200 million years ago, separated Laurasia from Gondwana, with the widening Tethys Sea marking their divergence.^[3] Laurasia itself began to fragment during the Cretaceous, as rifting developed in the proto-North Atlantic between North America and Eurasia, leading to seafloor spreading around 55 million years ago.^[4] Further breakup continued through the Cretaceous and Cenozoic eras, with India detaching from Gondwana and eventually colliding with southern Asia around 50 million years ago, while the ongoing spreading of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans shaped the current positions of Laurasia's former components.^[5] Geologically, Laurasia played a critical role in global tectonics, paleoclimate, and biogeography, influencing events such as the Late Paleozoic Ice Age and the distribution of Mesozoic flora and fauna across its vast, arid interiors and coastal regions.^[2] Its assembly and disassembly are key to understanding the supercontinent cycle, a hypothesis proposing recurring episodes of continental aggregation and dispersal over hundreds of millions of years.

Terminology and Historical Development

Etymology and Naming

The term Laurasia originates from the fusion of "Laurentia," the name for the Precambrian core of the North American craton, and "Asia," reflecting the assembly of northern continental blocks. Swiss geologist Émile Argand coined the related term "Laurussia" in 1924 within his comprehensive analysis of Asian tectonics, employing it to denote a vast northern landmass comprising Laurentia and Eurasian elements, positioned in opposition to the southern supercontinent Gondwana. This nomenclature emphasized the paleogeographic separation of northern versus southern Paleozoic landmasses, aligning with early mobilist interpretations of continental configurations that built upon Alfred Wegener's continental drift hypothesis. By the mid-20th century, the terminology shifted to "Laurasia" in geological literature, as popularized by South African geologist Alexander du Toit in his 1937 treatise on continental displacement, where it described the northern counterpart to Gondwana following the breakup of Pangaea. This evolution standardized the term for the northern supercontinent, incorporating broader Eurasian components while retaining the Laurentian foundation.

Wegener's Hypothesis and Early Concepts

In 1912, German meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift, suggesting that Earth's continents were once joined in a single supercontinent he named Pangaea, which included the northern landmasses of what would later be recognized as Laurasia.^[6] Wegener's hypothesis was based on observations of matching coastlines, such as between South America and Africa, fossil distributions like the Glossopteris flora across southern continents, and geological similarities in rock formations and mountain ranges, which he argued indicated a historical connection among the continents, particularly the northern ones comprising Eurasia and North America. Although Wegener lacked a convincing mechanism for continental movement—proposing centrifugal and tidal forces—he emphasized the unity of the northern continents as part of this drifting process in his seminal work, The Origin of Continents and Oceans, first published in 1915.^[7] Building on Wegener's ideas in the 1920s and 1930s, South African geologist Alexander du Toit provided key refinements to the continental drift theory, advocating for a division of the supercontinent into two primary landmasses: a northern Laurasia, encompassing North America, Greenland, and Eurasia, and a southern Gondwanaland.^[3] Du Toit's support stemmed from his fieldwork in southern Africa, where he identified stratigraphic and paleontological correlations with South America and India, reinforcing Wegener's linkages while proposing that Laurasia represented a coherent northern entity separated by the Tethys Sea.^[8] In his 1937 book Our Wandering Continents, du Toit argued that these two supercontinents had drifted apart, with Laurasia forming through the aggregation of northern blocks, thus laying the conceptual groundwork for Laurasia as a distinct paleogeographic unit despite initial skepticism from the geological community.^[3] The concept of Laurasia gained renewed traction in the 1960s with the development and acceptance of plate tectonics theory, which provided a mechanistic explanation for continental drift through seafloor spreading and subduction.^[3] By the late 1960s, evidence from paleomagnetism, ocean floor mapping, and earthquake distributions validated Wegener's and du Toit's ideas, establishing Laurasia as the northern supercontinent that emerged from the breakup of Pangaea approximately 200 million years ago during the Early Jurassic.^[3] This revival transformed Laurasia from a speculative construct into a cornerstone of modern paleogeography, highlighting its role as a fragmented entity that later dispersed into present-day North America, Europe, and Asia.^[8]

Proto-Laurasia and Early Supercontinents

Pre-Rodinia Assembly

During the late Archean to early Proterozoic eras, from approximately 2.5 to 1.8 billion years ago, the Earth's continental lithosphere consisted of numerous stable cratons that formed the nuclei of future continents, including Laurentia (the core of North America), Baltica (precursor to northern Europe), and Siberia, which remained largely independent and separated by ocean basins.^[9] These cratons, stabilized through Archean crustal growth and early Proterozoic stabilization, featured Archean greenstone-granite belts and tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) suites, with minimal tectonic interaction until later collisional phases.^[10] The initial coalescence of these northern cratons occurred within the framework of two successive supercontinent cycles: the hypothetical Kenorland assembly in the Neoarchean around 2.7–2.5 billion years ago, involving the aggregation of Archean blocks such as the Superior and Slave cratons within proto-Laurentia, followed by the more robust Nuna (or Columbia) supercontinent in the Paleoproterozoic.^[11] Kenorland represented a transient union of select Archean cratons, potentially including elements of Laurentia and Baltica, driven by subduction-related orogenesis, though its extent and stability remain debated due to sparse paleogeographic constraints.^[12] By contrast, Nuna's formation around 1.8 billion years ago marked the primary union of the northern blocks, with Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia converging through prolonged subduction and collision, forming a supercraton that encompassed much of the planet's landmass at low to mid-latitudes.^[9] Paleomagnetic studies provide key evidence for these pre-Rodinia configurations, revealing apparent polar wander paths that align for Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia between 2.45 and 1.8 billion years ago, indicating their proximity during Nuna's assembly with minimal relative motion post-1.8 Ga.^[13] Supporting geological records include orogenic belts such as the Trans-Hudson Orogen in central Laurentia, a 1.9–1.8 billion-year-old collisional zone that welded Archean microcontinents like the Superior, Wyoming, and Hearne cratons into a coherent proto-Laurentia through arc magmatism, sedimentation, and high-grade metamorphism.^[14] Similar orogenic signatures in Baltica's Svecofennian belt and Siberia's Akitkan belt further corroborate the timing and style of these unions, characterized by juvenile arc additions and crustal thickening.^[15] This fragmented yet progressively unifying northern landmass during the Nuna cycle laid the groundwork for the subsequent integration into Rodinia around 1.3–1.0 billion years ago.^[16]

Rodinia Supercontinent

Rodinia was a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that assembled approximately 1.1 billion years ago through the Grenville Orogeny, a global collisional event that amalgamated major cratons including Laurentia, Baltica, and Amazonia.^[17]^[18] This orogeny involved intense tectonic convergence, with Laurentia's southeastern margin suturing against Amazonia and Baltica's southwestern margin aligning with Laurentia's eastern flank, forming the structural core of the supercontinent.^[19]^[20] These collisions produced extensive mountain belts and metamorphic provinces that stabilized the assembly, marking a pivotal phase in Proterozoic continental evolution. The supercontinent persisted in various configurations for several hundred million years, enduring until around 750 million years ago.^[21] Proposed paleogeographic models suggest Rodinia's landmasses were clustered near the equator during much of its existence, a positioning that contributed to climatic extremes, including the initiation of Cryogenian "snowball Earth" glaciations through enhanced weathering and carbon sequestration.^[22]^[23] Such configurations imply a compact, inward-facing arrangement of cratons, with surrounding oceans facilitating nutrient upwelling and biological productivity in rift basins as early rifting commenced. Paleomagnetic reconstructions consistently position Laurentia at Rodinia's core, with Baltica and Amazonia as intact northern and adjacent blocks that remained sutured to it throughout the supercontinent's stability.^[24]^[25] These northern components, particularly Laurentia and Baltica, later formed foundational elements of Laurasia, underscoring Rodinia's role as a precursor supercontinent that preserved key cratonic linkages for subsequent Paleozoic assemblies. Its eventual breakup around 750 million years ago paved the way for the transient Pannotia configuration.

Pannotia Configuration

Pannotia assembled around 600 million years ago from dispersed fragments of the preceding Rodinia supercontinent, primarily through collisional tectonics that temporarily connected southern Gondwanan blocks—such as those comprising proto-East and West Gondwana—with northern margins including Laurentia and Baltica.^[26]^[27] This configuration represented a transitional phase in supercontinent evolution, bridging the breakup of Rodinia with later assemblies by aligning these cratonic elements along a quasi-linear arrangement from the polar regions toward the equator.^[28] The supercontinent endured for only about 50 million years, disintegrating in the early Cambrian around 550 million years ago due to renewed rifting and dispersion of its components.^[27]^[29] This brevity underscores Pannotia's role as an ephemeral entity, contrasting with the more stable durations of earlier supercontinents like Rodinia.^[26] Central to Pannotia's formation was the Pan-African Orogeny, a protracted series of Neoproterozoic events spanning roughly 700 to 550 million years ago, involving widespread continental collisions that fused East Gondwana (including India, Antarctica, and Australia) with West Gondwana (encompassing Africa and South America).^[30]^[31] These orogenic processes not only consolidated the southern blocks but also briefly integrated them with northern proto-Laurasian elements; however, Pannotia's subsequent fragmentation isolated Laurentia and associated cratons as precursors to Laurasia, while the southern assembly persisted as Gondwana.^[26]^[27] This isolation set the stage for distinct Paleozoic tectonic interactions in the northern hemisphere.

Formation of Laurussia

Late Paleozoic Assembly

The assembly of Laurussia began in the late Silurian to early Devonian with the collision between the cratons of Laurentia and Baltica, driven by the closure of the Iapetus Ocean during the Caledonian Orogeny around 400 million years ago.^[32]^[33] This event formed the initial core of Laurussia, characterized by extensive thrust faulting and metamorphism along the suture zone, now preserved in the Caledonian-Appalachian mountain belt.^[34] The collision involved oblique convergence, with Baltica subducting beneath Laurentia, leading to the development of high-pressure metamorphic rocks and granitic intrusions that stitched the two continents together.^[35] Subsequent tectonic events in the Devonian to early Carboniferous added the Avalonia terrane to this core, completing the primary framework of Laurussia by approximately 370–350 million years ago through the Acadian phase of the Caledonian Orogeny and early stages of the Variscan Orogeny. Avalonia, a peri-Gondwanan fragment that had previously accreted to Baltica, collided with the Laurentia-Baltica margin along what is now the eastern seaboard of North America and western Europe, resulting in renewed deformation and magmatism.^[36] The Variscan Orogeny, peaking around 350–300 million years ago, further consolidated this assembly by incorporating additional small terranes along the southern margin and inducing widespread folding and thrusting, particularly evident in the Hercynian zones of central Europe.^[37] Paleogeographic reconstructions place Laurussia in the northern hemisphere's low latitudes during this period, with its elongated form spanning from equatorial to subtropical positions, as inferred from the alignment and sedimentological signatures of the Appalachian and Hercynian mountain belts.^[38] These belts, representing the deformational fronts of the collisions, exhibit similar structural trends and paleocurrent directions indicative of a cohesive northern landmass facing southward toward the Rheic Ocean. This configuration later facilitated Laurussia's integration into the broader Pangaea supercontinent.^[36]

Integration into Pangaea

The final closure of the Rheic Ocean, spanning approximately 300 to 250 million years ago during the late Carboniferous to early Permian periods, united the northern landmass of Laurussia with the southern Gondwanan plates through subduction and continental collision, thereby assembling the supercontinent Pangaea.^[39]^[40] This process involved the progressive consumption of oceanic crust along convergent margins, culminating in the suturing of continental margins and the elimination of the Rheic seaway that had separated these cratons since the Devonian.^[41] Tectonic evidence for this integration is prominently preserved in the Alleghanian Orogeny, a major collisional event along the eastern margin of Laurentia where it impinged against the northern Gondwanan margin, particularly the African promontory.^[39] Occurring primarily from the late Mississippian to Pennsylvanian epochs (about 323 to 299 million years ago), the orogeny generated intense deformation, including thrust faulting and folding of Paleozoic sedimentary sequences, which now form the core of the Appalachian Mountains.^[39]^[42] Complementing this, the contemporaneous Variscan and Ouachita orogenies further facilitated the merger, resulting in the uplift of the Central Pangean Mountains—a sprawling equatorial range that traced the suture zone across Pangaea and influenced regional paleoclimate through elevated topography.^[43]^[44] In the assembled Pangaea configuration, Laurussia formed the stable northern core, positioned above the paleoequator, while the newly formed Tethys Sea extended to the south and east as a broad embayment that indented the supercontinent's margins and facilitated ongoing tectonic interactions with adjacent terranes.^[45]^[46] This northern positioning of Laurussia within Pangaea established it as the foundational element for the subsequent Laurasian supercontinent.

Laurasia as a Northern Supercontinent

Core Components

Laurasia's central structure was primarily composed of three foundational cratonic blocks: Laurentia, encompassing the Precambrian core of North America and Greenland; Baltica, including the Fennoscandian Shield of Scandinavia and northern Europe; and Kazakhstania, a Paleozoic amalgamated terrane in present-day central Asia.^[47] These cratons had coalesced during the late Paleozoic Uralian orogeny, with Kazakhstania colliding against the eastern margin of Baltica around 300–250 million years ago, forming the stable backbone of the northern supercontinent.^[48] By approximately 200 million years ago, following the initial rifting of Pangaea during the Late Triassic, Laurasia's core exhibited a robust structural configuration with extensive stable interiors dominated by Archean and Proterozoic cratons that experienced minimal post-assembly deformation.^[49] These interiors included the Canadian Shield in Laurentia, the Baltic Shield in Baltica, and the Kazakh Shield in Kazakhstania, which served as rigid platforms resisting tectonic disruption. Peripheral orogens framed these cores, such as the Appalachian-Caledonide belt along the southeastern margins of Laurentia and Baltica—remnants of earlier Silurian-Devonian collisions—and the Uralide fold-thrust system delineating the suture between Baltica and Kazakhstania.^[50]^[51] Paleomagnetic studies provide robust evidence for the cohesion of these core blocks throughout the early Mesozoic. Triassic paleopoles from Laurentia, derived from sedimentary sequences in the Newark Supergroup, cluster around 54°N, 102°E (A95 ≈ 5°), while contemporaneous poles from Baltica in European basins yield similar positions at approximately 50°N, 105°E (A95 ≈ 7°), indicating latitudinal and rotational stability with relative displacements less than 500 km. Early Jurassic poles further reinforce this unity, with Laurentian data from the Fundy Basin plotting near 65°N, 95°E and Baltica poles from the Paris Basin at 62°N, 100°E, both supporting a coherent Laurasian apparent polar wander path without evidence of major internal rifting until the mid-Jurassic.^[52] Limited paleomagnetic data from Kazakhstania, including Devonian-extendable poles adjusted for oroclinal bending, align with this path, confirming its integration into the stable core by the early Mesozoic.^[53] This paleomagnetic consistency underscores the structural integrity of Laurasia's foundational cratons amid the broader fragmentation of Pangaea.

Asian Block Accretion

The closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean between approximately 250 and 200 million years ago marked a pivotal phase in the eastward expansion of Laurasia, incorporating the Siberian, Tarim, and North China cratons through a series of subduction and collisional events recorded in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB).^[54] This ocean basin, which separated Siberia from the southern cratonic blocks, underwent prolonged northward subduction beneath the Siberian margin starting in the Devonian, leading to the accretion of numerous island arcs, microcontinents, and oceanic terranes over hundreds of millions of years.^[55] By the late Permian, the final subduction of the Paleo-Asian oceanic lithosphere triggered widespread deformation, magmatism, and high-pressure metamorphism across the CAOB, culminating in the collision of the Tarim and North China cratons with the amalgamated Siberian-Kazakhstania assembly. The Uralian Orogeny, active from the Late Carboniferous to early Permian (roughly 320–250 million years ago), further solidified these connections by linking the Baltica craton—already part of the core Laurussia—to Siberia via oblique collision involving the intervening Kazakhstania terrane.^[56] This event involved the subduction of the Uralian Ocean beneath the eastern margin of Baltica, followed by continental collision that produced the Ural Mountains, extensive fold-thrust belts, and a suture zone extending over 2,000 kilometers from the Aral Sea to the Arctic.^[57] The orogeny not only welded Siberia to the western blocks but also transmitted stresses that influenced the final stages of Paleo-Asian Ocean closure, integrating the eastern cratons into a unified northern landmass.^[58] By the onset of the Triassic, these accretions had transformed Laurasia into a vast composite supercontinent, stretching continuously from North America, across Europe and Siberia, to the eastern margins of Asia encompassing the Tarim and North China cratons.^[58] This configuration stabilized the northern Pangaean realm, setting the stage for subsequent rifting while preserving a mosaic of Precambrian cratons sutured by younger orogenic belts.^[54]

Tectonic Evolution and Breakup

Mesozoic Rifting

The rifting of Laurasia commenced approximately 200 million years ago during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, marked by the initiation of seafloor spreading in the Central Atlantic Ocean, which progressively separated the North American craton from the Eurasian plate.^[59] This event represented the initial fragmentation of the northern supercontinent, driven by extensional forces that exploited pre-existing weaknesses in the Pangaean lithosphere. The Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), a vast large igneous province, erupted synchronously around 201 Ma, providing a temporal benchmark for the rifting onset and contributing to crustal weakening through voluminous basaltic volcanism. Mantle plumes played a pivotal role in facilitating this rifting, with geochemical evidence indicating upwelling of hot, enriched mantle material that induced lithospheric thinning and partial melting beneath the proto-Atlantic margins.^[60] This plume-related activity, combined with far-field extensional tectonics from plate divergence, generated normal faulting and crustal extension along a NE-trending rift system spanning from present-day eastern North America to northwest Africa.^[61] The interaction of these forces promoted asymmetric half-graben development, with subsidence rates accelerating as the rift evolved from continental to oceanic stages.^[62] Early rift basins, such as those comprising the Newark Supergroup in eastern North America, formed as intramontane depocenters filled with continental sediments and volcaniclastics, recording the initial phases of Laurasia's division.^[63] These basins, spanning Late Triassic to Early Jurassic time (approximately 235–175 Ma), exhibit syn-rift sedimentation patterns with lacustrine, fluvial, and eolian deposits up to 6 km thick in places, directly linked to the extensional regime preceding Atlantic opening.^[64] The Newark Supergroup's preserved record highlights how localized extension created isolated pull-apart structures, setting the stage for the supercontinent's broader disassembly.

Final Fragmentation

The final fragmentation of Laurasia during the Cenozoic era marked the culmination of its tectonic disassembly, transitioning from the initial Mesozoic rifts to the establishment of modern continental configurations. A pivotal event was the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean around 55 million years ago (Ma), which fully separated Greenland from Eurasia. This breakup in the earliest Eocene was preceded by extensive extensional deformation since the late Paleozoic, resulting in deep sedimentary basins up to 12 km thick filled with Cretaceous to Paleocene units. The process involved oblique rifting relative to pre-existing structures, accompanied by voluminous igneous activity influenced by a mantle plume that weakened the lithosphere, creating magma-rich margins particularly near Iceland.^[65] Concurrently, the collision between the Indian plate and Eurasia around 50 Ma profoundly influenced Asian deformation, as India—originally part of Gondwana—impacted the southern margin of the Laurasian remnant; however, the precise timing remains debated, with estimates ranging from ~55 Ma to earlier in the Paleocene based on sedimentary and paleomagnetic data.^[66] Palaeomagnetic evidence from the Xigaze forearc basin in southern Tibet indicates the initial contact occurred at approximately 24°N latitude, with minimal northward displacement of southern Asia (about 1.4° ± 5.9°) until around 34 Ma. This event resisted India's northward push for roughly 16 million years, leading to the consumption of Greater India and subsequent northward drift of Asia by about 6°, which triggered widespread crustal thickening and uplift across the region. The collision deformed vast areas of central and eastern Asia, including the extrusion of continental blocks and the formation of fold-thrust belts.^[67]^[68] Ongoing tectonics in the Alpine-Himalayan belt serve as enduring remnants of Laurasia's structural integrity, reflecting continued convergence between Eurasian and African-Arabian plates derived from the supercontinent's legacy. This orogenic belt, extending from the Mediterranean to Southeast Asia, accommodates active deformation through thrust faulting, strike-slip motion, and seismicity, with the India-Eurasia interaction driving uplift rates of several millimeters per year in the Himalayas. The belt's evolution underscores the persistent influence of post-Laurasian plate interactions, including the closure of Tethyan remnants and lateral expulsion of terranes, shaping modern Eurasian topography and seismic hazards.^[69]

Paleobiology and Environments

Characteristic Flora

During the Mesozoic era, the flora of Laurasia was predominantly characterized by gymnosperms, which thrived in the northern supercontinent's temperate to subtropical zones. Conifers, including early members of the Pinaceae family, formed extensive forests across midlatitudinal regions, adapting to seasonal climates and contributing to the structural backbone of ecosystems.^[70] Cycads, originating in Laurasia during the late Paleozoic and proliferating through the Triassic and Jurassic, were particularly abundant in warmer, coastal lowlands, with fossil records showing diverse species like Crossozamia in northern Pangean deposits.^[71] These gymnosperms, alongside ginkgos and bennettitales, dominated landscapes from the Arctic to equatorial margins, reflecting Laurasia's fragmented but interconnected paleogeography. A significant evolutionary shift occurred in the Cretaceous period, as angiosperms began to diversify and encroach on gymnosperm habitats within Laurasia. Early magnoliids, an ancient lineage of flowering plants, emerged prominently, with fossils indicating endemism to northern continents; for instance, Archaeanthus from Albian-aged strata in North America links directly to modern Magnoliaceae, showcasing primitive floral structures like spirally arranged tepals.^[72] This transition marked a gradual replacement of cycad-conifer assemblages in riparian and upland environments, driven by angiosperm advantages in reproduction and dispersal, though gymnosperms persisted in drier or higher-latitude settings.^[73] By the Late Cretaceous, magnoliid diversity had expanded, with additional fossils from European and Asian sites underscoring Laurasia's role as a key center for early angiosperm radiation.^[74] Fossil evidence from key Laurasian formations, such as the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation in western North America, illustrates pronounced latitudinal diversity gradients in plant assemblages. In this deposit, spanning midlatitudes around 30–40°N paleolatitude, flora includes abundant conifer foliage (e.g., Araucariaceae), cycad fronds, and ferns, with diversity peaking in these temperate zones compared to lower-diversity equatorial equivalents elsewhere in Laurasia. Such patterns, preserved in overbank mudstones and coal seams, highlight how seasonal monsoonal climates fostered heterogeneous vegetation belts, from fern-dominated floodplains to conifer woodlands on uplands, providing a snapshot of pre-angiosperm dominance.^[75] These records not only affirm gymnosperm prevalence but also foreshadow Cretaceous floral turnover through rare early angiosperm pollen traces.

Dominant Fauna

During the Triassic and Jurassic periods, Laurasia's terrestrial ecosystems were dominated by archosaurian reptiles, particularly dinosaurs, which radiated across the northern supercontinent following the breakup of Pangaea. Theropod dinosaurs, such as coelophysoids and early tetanurans, exhibited widespread distribution in North America and Asia, with fossils like those of Dilophosaurus from the Kayenta Formation in North America and similar forms in the Lufeng Formation of China illustrating intercontinental connectivity yet regional variations due to emerging barriers.^[76] Early mammals, represented by small, shrew-like docodonts and multituberculates, coexisted in these environments but remained subordinate to reptilian dominants, with genera like Morganucodon known from both North American and Eurasian deposits, underscoring Laurasia's role in their initial diversification.^[77] This faunal assemblage reflected biogeographic isolation from southern Gondwana, as tectonic rifting limited faunal exchange and fostered endemic adaptations in northern habitats.^[78] In the Cretaceous, Laurasia's fauna saw further evolution, with birds emerging as key aerial components alongside the persistence of non-avian dinosaurs until the K-Pg boundary. Avian diversification accelerated in the Late Cretaceous, with enantiornithines and early ornithurines like Hesperornis documented in North American and Asian strata, contributing to a more complex trophic structure within the supercontinent's varied environments.^[79] Placental mammals, originating in Laurasia near the K-Pg boundary, underwent rapid post-extinction radiation, with eutherian lineages such as archaic ungulates and carnivoramorphs appearing in Paleocene deposits across North America and Eurasia, filling niches vacated by dinosaurs.^[80] Genomic analyses confirm this Laurasian cradle for placental orders, with diversification rates increasing markedly after 66 million years ago, leading to the establishment of modern mammalian clades.^[81] The Holarctic faunal province, encompassing Laurasia's northern realms, exemplified biogeographic isolation through distinct endemism in Late Cretaceous and early Paleogene assemblages. Fossils from the Hell Creek and Lance Formations in North America, dating to the Maastrichtian, preserve a characteristic northern fauna including tyrannosaurid theropods like Tyrannosaurus, hadrosaurids such as Edmontosaurus, and early mammals like Purgatorius, highlighting endemism tied to the Western Interior Seaway's barriers and cooler climates.^[82] These formations, spanning Montana and Wyoming, yield over 28 dinosaur genera alongside diverse multituberculates and leptictids, demonstrating Laurasia's role in fostering isolated evolutionary trajectories that persisted into the Cenozoic.^[83] Such patterns of northern endemism contrasted with southern distributions, reinforcing Laurasia's influence on Holarctic biogeography.^[84]

Geological Legacy

Evidence in Modern Continents

The continuity of Laurasia is evidenced by matching orogenic belts across modern northern continents, particularly the Appalachian Mountains in North America and the Caledonides in Europe, which formed during the Late Paleozoic assembly of Pangaea and preserve structural and metamorphic similarities indicative of their former adjacency. These belts exhibit parallel deformational histories, with both featuring polyphase folding, thrust faulting, and high-grade metamorphism from the Devonian to Carboniferous periods, suggesting they were part of a unified orogenic system before the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. Geological correlations, including identical sequences of Silurian-Devonian sedimentary rocks and shared plutonic intrusions, further support this connection, as reconstructed fits align the southern Appalachians with the Irish and Scottish Caledonides.^[85]^[86] Paleomagnetic data from rocks in North America and Eurasia reveal congruent apparent polar wander paths for the Mesozoic era, when these landmasses formed Laurasia, demonstrating that their magnetic remanence directions align only when the continents are repositioned to their pre-drift configuration. For instance, Permian to Jurassic volcanic and sedimentary rocks in the North American craton and the Siberian platform show paleolatitudes that match within 5-10 degrees when Laurasia is restored, confirming relative immobility within the supercontinent. Complementary isotopic signatures, such as neodymium (Nd) ratios in basement gneisses and sediments, exhibit similar εNd values (typically -10 to -20) across these regions, indicating a shared provenance from ancient Archean-Proterozoic crustal sources that were amalgamated during Laurasia's formation. These geochemical matches, derived from Sm-Nd dating, underscore the common tectonic evolution without significant post-breakup alteration.^[87]^[88] Seismic tomography images of the upper mantle beneath modern North America and Eurasia detect high-velocity anomalies interpreted as remnants of ancient subduction zones active along Laurasia's margins during the Mesozoic, particularly related to the closure of the Paleo-Tethys and early Neo-Tethys oceans. These slab fragments, visible as P-wave velocity perturbations exceeding +1% at depths of 400-660 km, trace the sinking lithosphere from the Permian-Triassic convergence that shaped Laurasia's southern boundary, with linear features extending beneath the European Alps through the Mediterranean region to beneath Iran and Tibet. Such geophysical evidence correlates with surface geology, revealing fossilized Benioff zones that influenced the supercontinent's internal stresses and eventual rifting.^[89]^[90]

Influence on Global Tectonics

Laurasia's fragmentation during the Mesozoic era played a pivotal role in the Wilson Cycle, the recurring process of ocean basin opening and closing driven by plate tectonics. The rifting that separated North America from Eurasia, beginning in the Early Jurassic around 201 million years ago with the emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, initiated the expansion of the Atlantic Ocean, marking a new phase of continental divergence following the assembly of Pangaea. This event exemplifies the cycle's rift-to-drift transition, where passive and active rifting mechanisms, influenced by mantle upwelling and slab pull, perpetuated the global pattern of supercontinent disassembly and reassembly. The breakup of Laurasia also imprinted lasting patterns on mantle convection, influencing the long-term dynamics of Earth's interior and the trajectory toward future supercontinent formation. Subducting slabs from the disassembly of Pangaea and its northern component, Laurasia, generated density anomalies in the mantle that drove large-scale flow, mechanically coupling surface plate motions with deep convection currents. Numerical simulations demonstrate that these historical plate reorganizations sustain ongoing drift, projecting the convergence of Laurasia's modern fragments—such as Eurasia and North America—with other continents to form Amasia within approximately 250 million years, primarily through downwelling flows rather than upwelling plumes.^[91] Furthermore, Laurasia's interactions with surrounding subduction zones during the Cenozoic profoundly shaped global mountain-building episodes by facilitating continental collisions and crustal deformation. The northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic lithosphere beneath the southern margin of Eurasia, a remnant of Laurasia, triggered the India-Eurasia collision around 50 million years ago, leading to the uplift of the Himalayan orogen through ongoing convergence and thickening of the continental crust. Similarly, subduction along the northern Tethyan margins contributed to the Alpine orogeny, where the African plate's convergence with Eurasian fragments resulted in the folding and thrusting that formed the European Alps starting in the Eocene. These processes highlight how Laurasia's inherited tectonic framework directed widespread Cenozoic orogenies, altering global topography and influencing present-day plate boundaries evident in continental margins.^[92]^[93]

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Sep 22, 2016 · Reconstruction of Gondwana for the Palaeozoic Era according to du Toit (1937, fig. ... Laurasia and Gondwana-Land then con- tinued to break ...
[8]
Assembly and breakup of the core of Paleoproterozoic ...
May 1, 2011 · We integrate tectonostratigraphic records and paleomagnetic data from Siberia, Laurentia, and Baltica to produce a quantitative reconstruction of the core of ...
[9]
Early Proterozoic Assembly and Growth of Laurentia - Annual Reviews
Gibb (1978b, 1983) suggests a genetic link between the Kapuskasing uplift and the parallel Thompson belt of the Trans-Hudson orogen, 1250 km to the northwest.
[10]
Two Neoarchean supercontinents? Evidence from the ...
Williams et al. (1991)proposed the name `Kenorland' for a speculative Neoarchean supercontinent comprising the Archean provinces in North America.
[11]
Ephemeral supercontinents or long-lived supercratons | Geology
Mar 22, 2021 · A single, large supercontinent, putatively named “Kenorland” (Williams et al., 1991), represents one end-member model for this ancestral ...
[12]
[PDF] Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Supercontinents – A Paleomagnetic View
Interestingly, the Superior craton from Laurentia and the. Karelia craton from Baltica lie near the equator whereas the Ur fragments, Yilgarn from. Australia ...
[13]
Tectonic model for the Proterozoic growth of North America
Aug 1, 2007 · TRANS-HUDSON OROGEN: REWORKED ARCHEAN CRUST WITH BELTS OF 1.9–1.8 Ga JUVENILE CRUST. The Trans-Hudson orogen represents the 1.85–1.78 Ga ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
The Palaeoproterozoic Trans-Hudson Orogen - Lyell Collection
The Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO) of North America is one of the earliest orogens in Earth's history that evolved through a complete Wilson Cycle.
[15]
Reconstructing pre-Pangean supercontinents | GSA Bulletin
Nov 1, 2013 · Prior to the assembly of Nuna, various “supercraton” connections such as Vaalbara, Superia, and Sclavia are only beginning to take form.
[16]
Orogenic climax of Earth: The 1.2–1.1 Ga Grenvillian superevent
Jul 1, 2013 · The data indicate a rise in these geochemical proxies from ca. 3.0 Ga to a statistically significant peak at 1.2–1.1 Ga during the amalgamation ...
[17]
Laurentia-Baltica-Amazonia relations during Rodinia assembly
Laurentia, Baltica and Amazonia are key building blocks of the end Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia.
[18]
Rodinia without Baltica? Constraints from Sveconorwegian orogenic ...
The core of the Rodinia supercontinent has long been considered to have consisted of three cratons – Baltica, Laurentia and Amazonia – amalgamated along the ...
[19]
Potential terrane relationships between Laurentia and Amazonia ...
Jan 23, 2023 · Most proposals for paleogeographic relationships during the assembly of Rodinia juxtapose the southeastern Laurentian Grenville margin against ...
[20]
Rodinia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Rodinia is defined as a Neoproterozoic supercontinent that began to assemble around 1200 million years ago and dispersed by about 700 million years ago ...
[21]
On the initiation of a snowball Earth - Schrag - 2002 - AGU Journals
Jun 27, 2002 · The Snowball Earth hypothesis explains the development of glaciation at low latitudes in the Neoproterozoic, as well as the associated iron ...
[22]
Snowball Earth climate dynamics and Cryogenian geology-geobiology
Enhanced CO2 consumption and global cooling due to the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent and the emplacement of a temporal cluster of LIPs (174, 186, 196, ...
[23]
Tracking Rodinia Into the Neoproterozoic: New Paleomagnetic ...
Feb 6, 2024 · As a result, Laurentia maintained a low-latitude position throughout the duration of the Grenvillian orogeny which sutured continents together ...
[24]
Linking collisional and accretionary orogens during Rodinia ...
Sep 1, 2016 · Orogenesis commenced as early as 1.4 Ga in northeast Laurentia (e.g., Dickin et al., 2010), peaking at 1.08 to 0.98 Ga here and in Baltica and ...
[25]
A tale of two supercontinents: the assembly of Rodinia, its break-up ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The rifted fragments of Rodinia sequentially collided during the Pan- African Orogeny (700-550 Ma) forming a new supercontinent, Pannotia.
[26]
UCSB Science Line
Laurasia and Gondwana joined approximately 275 million years ago to form the supercontinent of Pangea. The breakup of Pangea is still going on today and ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[27]
Supercontinents and the case for Pannotia | GeoScienceWorld Books
Nov 11, 2019 · Pannotia is proposed to have formed during the late Neoproterozoic as a consequence of Pan-African orogenesis, widely recognized in many ...
[28]
Pannotia: in defence of its existence and geodynamic significance
600 Ma could be interpreted as a lingering mantle structure of Rodinia, with the assembly of Gondwana viewed as an early stage in the assembly of Pangaea and ...
[29]
[PDF] Evolution of the East African and related orogens, and the assembly ...
It appears that the final collision between East and West Gondwana most likely followed the closure of the Mozambique. Ocean, forming the East African Orogen.
[30]
The assembly of Gondwana 800-550 Ma - ScienceDirect
Gondwana assembly involved three orogenic events: East Africa Orogeny (800-650 Ma), Brasiliano orogeny (600-530 Ma), and Kuunga Orogeny (around 550 Ma).
[31]
Evolution of continents
400 Ma ( Acadian and Caledonian orogenies) - Laurentia collides with Baltica and forms contintent of Laurussia. 340 Ma (Variscan orogeny) - Collision of ...
[32]
[PDF] Geological Society, London, Memoirs
The Caledonian Orogeny resulted from the collision of Baltica with Laurentia as Baltica moved rapidly westward towards the relatively stationary Laurentia.
[33]
Structure of the Central Scandinavian Caledonides and ... - NASA ADS
The Caledonian orogenic belt was formed between 540 and 400 Ma, when ... In the collision, Baltica was pressed down beneath Laurentia and sedimentary ...
[34]
[PDF] Understanding continental subduction: A work in progress S:
fragment that was subducted beneath Laurentia during the broadly defined. Caledonian orogeny as a consequence of the collision and continental sub- duction ...
[35]
[PDF] The Variscides: An old collisional orogen
Closure of the Iapetus Ocean between Baltica/ Avalonia and Laurentia occurred in the Late Devonian, after which Laurussia remained in equatorial paleolatitudes ...
[36]
[PDF] The Rheic Ocean: Origin, Evolution, and Significance
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[37]
Paleozoic Paleogeography - NASA ADS
... formation of the Ouachita, Appalachian, Mauritanide, and Hercynian foldbelts. Readjustments along the former Baltica-Laurentia collision zone took the form ...
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GEOL 102 The Late Paleozoic: The Carboniferous & Permian
Jan 16, 2025 · Eastern Laurentia-Gondwana (Africa) collision closes Rheic Ocean producing Alleghanian Orogeny (late Mississippian-Pennsylvanian): · Southern ...
[39]
Iberian-Appalachian connection is the missing link between ...
Feb 12, 2020 · The collision between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Late Devonian-early Permian was a key event in the amalgamation of Pangaea and resulted ...
[40]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7015919/
[41]
[PDF] pre-alleghanian extension and post-alleghanian brittle
The Devonian-Mississippian Acadian-Neoacadian orogeny (~410-345 Ma) involved transpressional tectonic as the Rheic ocean closed and Peri-Gondwanan superterranes ...
[42]
Geoscience Walking Tour
The original mountain chain, or Central Pangean Mountains, formed when two supercontinents, Laurentia and Gondwana, collided between 340 and 290 mya to form the ...Missing: Pangaea | Show results with:Pangaea
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Carboniferous Period - University of Missouri
Geologically, the Variscan-Alleghanian-Ouachita orogeny took place during the Carboniferous Period, responsible for building the Central Pangean Mountains.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Climate of the Supercontinent ~angea'
Laurasia was relatively dry during the Late Tri- assic, but on the evidence of the onset of wide- spread coal deposition in eastern Laurasia, appears to ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[45]
[PDF] APPLICATIONS TO PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The elements of Pangea are the northern supercontinent Laurasia ... Laurasia and Gondwana are separated on their eastern sides by the intervening Tethys Ocean.Missing: Pangaea Laurussia
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Balkatach hypothesis: A new model for the evolution of the Pacific ...
Sep 11, 2017 · ... Laurussia (e.g., Ziegler, 1989; Cocks and Torsvik, 2011). We ... 9A) (e.g., Argand, 1924; Norin, 1937, 1946). The Precambrian geology ...
[47]
Neoproterozoic to Early Ordovician Evolution of the Paleo-Asian ...
... Laurasia about 300–250 Ma ago. As supported by voluminous evidence from reliable geological, paleomagnetic and paleontological data, configurations of major ...
[48]
CHAPTER 5 EARLY MESOZOIC PLATE REORGANIZATION
Crustal extension and later sea-floor spreading in the Central. Atlantic and in the Piedmont-Ligurian Basin induced a sinistral translation between Laurasia and ...
[49]
Baltica from the late Precambrian to mid-Palaeozoic times
The old terrane of Baltica occupies the mass of northern Europe eastwards to the Urals and lies mostly to the north of the Trans-European Suture Zone.
[50]
Unraveling the early–middle Paleozoic paleogeography of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Palaeomagnetic data presently available for the Ordovician of Kazakhstan are sparse, with most obtained from the Late Ordovician rocks of North ...
[51]
Late Triassic‐earliest Jurassic geomagnetic polarity sequence and ...
Aug 10, 1995 · Geomagnetic polarity intervals range from about 0.03 to 2 m.y., have a mean duration of about 0.5 m.y., and show no significant polarity bias.
[52]
Paleomagnetic constraints on the paleogeography and oroclinal ...
Paleomagnetic data from Kazakhstania reveal that the present-day ... Laurentia, Baltica, and Gondwana. The extensional events are probably plume ...
[53]
Closure of the Paleo‐Asian Ocean in the Middle‐Late Triassic ...
Jul 3, 2021 · The collision between Central Asian arcs and the Tarim and North China cratons led to the final closure of the PAO and formation of proto-Asia ...
[54]
Final closure of the Paleo Asian Ocean basin in the early Triassic
Oct 31, 2022 · Available data suggests that the South Tianshan Ocean, an accessory ocean basin to the Paleo-Asian Ocean, could close in the early Triassic.
[55]
The Serpukhovian–Bashkirian Amalgamation of Laurussia and the ...
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[56]
The evolution of the Uralian orogen - GeoScienceWorld
... collision between Baltica (Laurussia) and Siberia loose blocks united into Pangaea. The effects of this collision are well exposed in the Pai-Khoy Range ...Missing: Laurasia | Show results with:Laurasia
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The formation of Pangea - ScienceDirect.com
The making of Pangea is the result of large-scale amalgamation of continents and micro-continents, which started at the end of the Neoproterozoic with the ...Review Article · Introduction · Origin Of Gondwana<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Breakup of Pangaea and plate kinematics of the central Atlantic and ...
These observations suggest that the first oceanic crust in the central Atlantic formed at ∼200 Ma in the area bounded by the Blake Spur and Atlantis fracture ...
[59]
Supercontinental inheritance and its influence ... - AGU Publications
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[60]
CAMP - MantlePlumes.org
Tectonic activity along much of the Pangaean rift zone of the incipient central Atlantic Ocean started in the Middle Triassic at least 25 Ma before CAMP and ...
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[PDF] Stratigraphic Nomenclature of the Newark Supergroup of
Rift basins formed during the early phases of the continental rifting that ... ---1980b, The latest Triassic and Early Jurassic formations of the Newark.Missing: Laurasia | Show results with:Laurasia
[62]
Sedimentary facies and depositional environments of early ...
The early Mesozoic Newark Supergroup consists of continental sedimentary rocks and basalt flows that occupy a NE-trending belt of elongate basins exposed in ...Missing: rifting Laurasia
[63]
High-resolution stratigraphy of the Newark rift basin (early Mesozoic ...
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[64]
Tracing the Iceland plume and North East Atlantic breakup ... - Nature
Dec 6, 2023 · In the NE Atlantic (NEA), the successful breakup between Greenland and Eurasia at about 55 Ma was preceded by a long history of near-orthogonal ...
[65]
India-Asia collision was at 24°N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof ...
Dec 5, 2012 · Later, during Cenozoic time, the India-Asia collision occurred, contributing to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and also deforming large parts ...
[66]
Greater India Basin hypothesis and a two-stage Cenozoic collision ...
Because the Tibetan Himalaya collided with Asia at or before approximately 50 Ma, and the deformation of the Lesser Himalaya is Miocene in age (43), 50–25 Ma ...Missing: Laurasia | Show results with:Laurasia
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Cenozoic Tethyan changes dominated Eurasian animal evolution ...
Nov 9, 2021 · During the Jurassic, the breakup of Pangea into Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south resulted in a gradual opening of the Tethys Sea ...Missing: Pangaea Laurussia position
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Comparative Chloroplast Genomics Reveals the Evolution of ... - NIH
Our age estimates indicate that the Late Mesozoic (or Cretaceous) and Laurasia were the respective time and space that the Pinaceae ancestor started diverging ...
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Reconciling fossils with phylogenies reveals the origin and ...
Cycadales likely originated in the northern part of Pangea (Laurasia). This result agrees with the most ancient cycad fossil lineage, Crossozamia Pomel, ...
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Integrating Cretaceous Fossils into the Phylogeny of Living ...
Here we analyze nine putatively magnolialean fossils, including four from the first half of the Late Cretaceous.Missing: endemics | Show results with:endemics
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[PDF] Fossil calibration of Magnoliidae, an ancient lineage of angiosperms
The rich fossil record of the group, beginning in the Cretaceous, has a global distribution. Among the hundred extinct species of Magnoliidae described, several ...
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(PDF) Integrating Early Cretaceous fossils into the phylogeny of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Over the past 25 years, discoveries of Early Cretaceous fossil flowers, often associated with pollen and sometimes with vegetative parts, ...
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[PDF] plant taphonomy and climate of the Morrison Formation (Upper ...
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A brief review of non-avian dinosaur biogeography: state-of-the-art ...
Oct 30, 2024 · We outline the main ideas and debates in non-avian dinosaur biogeography, including their geographic origin, the tectonic and eustatic factors.
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The Triassic Period: Pangean World | GeoScienceWorld Books
Jan 1, 2017 · Troodontid is a small-bodied, maniraptoran theropod, predominantly restricted to North America, Europe, and Asia. Discovery of a troodontid ...<|separator|>
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(PDF) Mesozoic Biogeography of Dinosauria - ResearchGate
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(PDF) Avian Diversification Patterns across the K-Pg Boundary
Dec 2, 2015 · Birds represent the most diverse extant tetrapod clade, with ca. 10,000 extant species, and the timing of the crown avian radiation remains ...
[78]
Phylogenomic Analysis Resolves the Interordinal Relationships and ...
Placental mammal diversification and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary ... Cretaceous eutherians and Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary.
[79]
Genomic evidence reveals a radiation of placental mammals ... - NIH
Aug 14, 2017 · A birth-death-shift analysis suggests that placental mammals underwent a continuous radiation across the KPg boundary without apparent ...Results · A Placental Tree Based On... · Dating The Mammalian Tree
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[PDF] A Census of Dinosaur Fossils Recovered From the Hell Creek and ...
Dinosaurs of the Hell Creek and Lance Formations: To date, over 28 named genera of dinosaurs have been reported in these formations, with new specimens ...Missing: endemism | Show results with:endemism
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[PDF] Last of the Dinosaurs: Hell Creek Rocks - USDA Forest Service
Mar 5, 2024 · The Hell Creek Formation contains remarkably diverse fossilized life forms at the close of the Mesozoic. Era, the Age of Dinosaurs. The Mesozoic ...
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(PDF) Late Cretaceous dinosaur biogeography and endemism in ...
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[83]
New perspectives on the Caledonides of Scandinavia and related ...
The Caledonian orogen can be traced for several thousand kilometres from the Arctic region southward on both sides of the North Atlantic Ocean.
[84]
[PDF] geology of the appalachian-caledonian orogen in canada and ...
The Appalachian region is a Paleozoic geological mountain belt or orogen. This means that its rocks have been affected by orogeny, the combined effects of ...
[85]
Pre-drift extension of the Atlantic margins of North America and ...
We reconstruct the relative configuration of North America and Europe prior to separation using paths of apparent polar wander (APW) for the interval 300 to 200 ...
[86]
Dual provenance signatures of the Triassic northern Laurentian ...
Dec 1, 2016 · Two excursions to more positive εNd isotopic values occurred during the Late Triassic–earliest Jurassic and Late Cretaceous (Fig. 3). Patchett ...
[87]
(PDF) Subduction history of the Tethyan region derived seismic ...
Aug 8, 2025 · We investigate the Mesozoic-Cenozoic subduction history of the region by integrating independent information from mantle tomography and tectonic ...
[88]
[PDF] Atlas of the underworld_ Slab remnants in the mantle, their sinking ...
Seismic tomography has provided a breakthrough in the analysis of plate tectonic history by allowing to trace now-subducted ancient li- thosphere in the Earth's ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[89]
Formation of a future supercontinent through plate motion–driven ...
Sep 1, 2016 · In this paper we report on series of 3-D numerical simulations of mantle convection with highly viscous, deformable continental lithospheres ...Missing: Laurasia Pangaea
[90]
Subsidence history of the Tethys Himalaya - ScienceDirect.com
This intra-oceanic subduction system was well-established from Cretaceous time in the India–Eurasia convergence zone in the NeoTethys, which was consumed ...
[91]
Continental/Continental: The Himalayas - The Geological Society
At this time Tethys Ocean floor would have been subducting northwards beneath Asia and the plate margin would have been a Convergent oceanic-continental one ...<|control11|><|separator|>