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Alpine orogeny

The Alpine orogeny is a major collisional mountain-building event that formed the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, primarily through the subduction and closure of the Alpine Tethys Ocean between the Eurasian and African (including the Apulian microplate) tectonic plates.^[1] This process represents a prototype of continental collision orogeny, integrating subduction of oceanic lithosphere, continental margin underthrusting, and subsequent crustal thickening and metamorphism.^[2] The orogeny encompasses a complex architecture involving multiple paleogeographic domains, including remnants of Mesozoic oceans like the Meliata and Piemont-Ligurian basins, which were inverted during convergence.^[1] The orogenic evolution began with Permian-Triassic rifting that led to the opening of the Alpine Tethys in the Early Jurassic around 190 Ma, followed by initial subduction in the Early Cretaceous (approximately 145–125 Ma).^[3] Convergence between Africa and Europe accelerated in the Late Cretaceous (94–70 Ma), with peak collision and orogenic growth occurring in the Paleogene, particularly the Eocene (50–40 Ma), culminating in the closure of Tethys remnants by the late Eocene (around 35 Ma).^[3] This phase involved significant shortening, such as 111–165 km in the Pyrenees segment from the Santonian to Miocene (86–5 Ma), and produced high- and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in the Western and Central Alps between 62 and 35 Ma.^[3]^[2] Key structural features of the Alpine orogen include a two-phase development: an earlier Cretaceous phase closing the Meliata Ocean against Apulia, and a dominant Tertiary phase involving the Alpine Tethys between Apulia and Europe, resulting in nappe stacks, fold-thrust belts, and along-strike variations in architecture from the Western Alps to the Dinarides.^[1] Major units comprise the Penninic and Helvetic domains in the north, the Austroalpine units in the east, and southern belts like the Apennines and Betics-Rif, all shaped by subduction rollback, microcontinent involvement, and post-orogenic extension.^[3] Following the main collisional phase, Neogene back-arc extension (from 35 Ma onward) led to the opening of basins such as the Tyrrhenian Sea (20–10 Ma) and partial collapse of the orogen, influenced by ongoing Africa-Eurasia convergence.^[3] The study of the Alpine orogeny employs an integrated approach combining detailed field mapping, geochronology, geochemistry, and geophysical profiling (e.g., the TRANSALP seismic transect), revealing pre-Alpine Variscan basement inheritance and connections to broader Mediterranean tectonics.^[2] This event not only built Europe's highest peaks but also exemplifies how plate tectonics drives crustal growth and differentiation at convergent margins.^[4]

Overview

Definition and Scope

The Alpine orogeny refers to the mountain-building processes that occurred during the Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic era, primarily driven by the convergence and collision of the African, Arabian, and Eurasian plates, leading to the deformation and uplift of extensive mountain belts. This tectonic event encompasses the subduction of oceanic crust, continental collision, and associated crustal shortening, which transformed the former Tethys Ocean domain into a complex collage of folded and thrust terrains, involving multiple paleogeographic domains including the Apulian microplate and remnants of Mesozoic oceans like the Meliata and Piemont-Ligurian basins.^[5]^[6]^[1] Temporally, the orogeny initiated with subduction phases in the Early Cretaceous, approximately 140–130 million years ago, marking the onset of significant compressional tectonics, and continues to the present day with ongoing Quaternary uplift and seismicity in various segments of the belt. This extended timeframe highlights the protracted nature of the process, evolving from early oceanic closure to sustained continental convergence and post-collisional adjustments.^[6]^[4] Geographically, the Alpine orogeny is centered on the Mediterranean-Alpine-Himalayan belt, extending from the Atlantic margin of Iberia through the Alps, Carpathians, and Balkans to the Zagros Mountains and beyond into Asia, but it is distinct from earlier orogenies such as the Paleozoic Hercynian (Variscan) event, which involved different plate configurations and predated the breakup of Pangea. The orogeny's scope is thus confined to this Cenozoic-dominated system, excluding unrelated Paleozoic structures.^[6]^[7] As a multi-phase process, the Alpine orogeny involves initial subduction of lithospheric slabs, followed by continental collision that caused widespread crustal thickening through thrusting and folding, and later phases of extension in some regions, all contributing to the modern topographic relief.^[5]^[6]

Geological Significance

The Alpine orogeny played a pivotal role in the progressive closure of the western Tethys Ocean, a process that began in the Late Cretaceous and extended through the Cenozoic, ultimately shaping the modern Mediterranean Sea as a remnant basin.^[8] The convergence of the African and Eurasian plates drove the subduction and obduction of Tethyan oceanic lithosphere, with the northern Ligurian-Piemontese branch closing around 55 million years ago through northward-directed subduction beneath the European margin, while the southern Magrebian-Lucanian branch closed during the Oligocene to Miocene via northward subduction.^[8]^[9] This diachronous closure fragmented the Tethys into isolated marine realms, culminating in the Early Miocene with the accretion of microplates and the establishment of the Mediterranean as a confined, evaporative sea system.^[8] As part of the broader supercontinent cycle, the Alpine orogeny represents a key collisional phase following the Mesozoic breakup of Pangea around 200 million years ago, contributing to the reassemblage of continental fragments toward a future supercontinent configuration.^[10] Subduction along the Tethyan margins, integral to the Alpine system, facilitated the dispersal of Pangea's remnants by balancing extensional forces in the Atlantic with compressional closure in the Tethys, thereby influencing global plate motions and the transition from supercontinent fragmentation to renewed assembly.^[10] This orogenic event underscores the role of peripheral subduction in driving supercontinent dynamics, linking the Pangean cycle to subsequent tectonic reorganizations that affected Earth's long-term crustal evolution.^[10] In contemporary terms, the Alpine orogeny continues to pose significant seismic hazards in the Alps, where ongoing convergence between the European and Adriatic plates sustains brittle deformation in the upper crust, with seismicity extending to depths of up to 20 km and temperatures up to 600°C in the indenter-like Adriatic block.^[11] This activity, evidenced by over 4,500 events of magnitude greater than 2 between 2000 and 2018, reflects the orogen's incomplete stabilization and poses risks to densely populated regions.^[11] Additionally, the orogeny facilitated hydrocarbon resource formation in foreland basins, such as the North Alpine Molasse Basin, where Miocene burial beneath thrust sheets matured Oligocene source rocks like the Schöneck Formation, generating over 1 ton of hydrocarbons per square meter and enabling lateral migration into Eocene reservoirs trapped by Alpine-related faults.^[12]

Tectonic Setting

Involved Plates and Boundaries

The Alpine orogeny primarily results from the convergence between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate along a complex system of convergent boundaries that formed following the closure of the Tethyan Ocean.^[13] The African Plate, acting as the southern indenter, includes the Adria microplate (also known as Apulia), which functioned as a promontory protruding northward into the Eurasian margin, complicating the collision geometry in the central Mediterranean region.^[13] These boundaries transitioned from passive margins associated with the Mesozoic rifting of the Alpine Tethys to active convergent zones characterized by subduction and continental collision.^[13] In the eastern segment of the orogen, the Arabian Plate contributes to the convergence with the Eurasian Plate, particularly along the Zagros fold-thrust belt, where it overrides remnants of the Neotethys Ocean.^[14] Paleogeographic reconstructions depict the Tethys remnants as a series of oceanic basins and suture zones, including the Ligurian-Piemontese and Vahic ophiolitic sequences, that once separated the African (including Adria) and Eurasian plates, preserving evidence of their pre-collisional positions.^[13] Microplates such as Iberia further influence the western boundaries, where its detachment from the Eurasian Plate during the Mesozoic led to the formation of the Pyrenean convergent margin as part of the broader Alpine system. The Apulia/Adria microplate, integral to the African Plate, integrated with adjacent terranes like those in Greece and southwestern Turkey, enhancing the indentor effect and localizing deformation along irregular boundaries.^[13]

Subduction Mechanisms

The Alpine orogeny was initiated by the subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic crust, specifically the Alpine Tethys branch (also known as the Piedmont-Ligurian ocean), primarily beneath the African (Adriatic) continental margin starting in the Late Cretaceous around 100-80 Ma. This process involved the southeast-directed subduction of the oceanic lithosphere (attached to the European plate) beneath the Adria microplate (an extension of the African plate), driven by the overall convergence in the Tethyan realm. Paleogeographic reconstructions indicate that the Alpine Tethys was a narrow, slow-spreading ocean basin, approximately 400-700 km wide, which facilitated its relatively rapid consumption during this phase.^[15] A key dynamic in this subduction was slab rollback, where the descending Neo-Tethys slab retreated southward relative to the overriding plates, causing trench migration and extension in the back-arc regions. This rollback mechanism, particularly prominent in the central and eastern Alps, led to the formation of back-arc basins such as the Valais ocean and influenced the overall architecture of the orogen by promoting lateral tectonic escape and orogenic wedge development. Associated arc magmatism was limited, with sparse adakitic and calc-alkaline intrusions reflecting the shallow and transient nature of the magmatic processes, often attributed to the narrow slab width and rapid subduction rates that inhibited extensive melt generation.^[16]^[17]^[18] The transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision occurred in the Eocene around 50-35 Ma, as the buoyant continental margins of Adria and Eurasia impinged, halting further oceanic consumption and leading to the obduction of ophiolite complexes—fragments of Neo-Tethys crust thrust onto the continental margins. This obduction, evident in sequences like the Western Alpine ophiolites, marked a shift to compressional tectonics, with ophiolitic mélanges preserving evidence of intra-oceanic thrusting prior to continental involvement. The process was diachronous, progressing from west to east along the orogen, and involved a switch in subduction polarity around 35 Ma to northwest-directed rollback beneath the Europe-Iberian plate.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22] Subduction during these phases exhibited variable angles and velocities, with paleomagnetic data indicating convergence rates of approximately 7-9 mm/yr between Adria and Eurasia, influencing slab geometry—steeper dips (around 30-60°) in the western segments and shallower in the east due to inherited lithospheric heterogeneities. These variations controlled the depth of metamorphism and the timing of slab breakoff events, contributing to the segmented nature of the Alpine subduction system.^[23]^[24]

Chronology

Oligocene to Miocene Phases

The Oligocene phase of the Alpine orogeny initiated with the onset of continental collision between the Adria plate (part of the African plate) and the Eurasian plate, transitioning from oceanic subduction around 35–32 Ma.^[25] This contact led to initial crustal shortening, with convergence rates decreasing and accommodating early deformation through northward indentation of the Adriatic margin.^[25] In the western sectors, this phase involved the incorporation of continental crust into the subduction zone, marking a shift from subduction-dominated tectonics to collisional processes, with total convergence contributing to approximately 450 km of Africa-Europe relative motion since the late Eocene.^[26]^[27] During the Miocene, the main collision phase intensified, contributing to total crustal shortening estimated at 100–150 km in the Pyrenees and Provence regions from the Late Cretaceous to the Miocene, and up to 120 km in the central Alps since the late Oligocene.^[26]^[25] This shortening, varying from 21–95 km across transects in the central and eastern Alps, drove the development of early fold-thrust belts, particularly in the external zones like the South Pyrenean Zone and North Pyrenean Frontal Thrust, where N-S directed compression inverted Mesozoic rift basins.^[28]^[26] Concurrently, metamorphic core complexes began forming through exhumation of high-pressure units, such as blueschist-to-greenschist facies rocks in the Western Alps (exhumed 58–47 Ma, with Miocene continuation) and the Alpujarride Complex in the Betic Cordillera, linked to localized extension amid overall contraction.^[26]^[4] A pivotal event in the western sectors was the cessation of subduction between approximately 30 and 20 Ma, culminating in slab break-off of the subducting European lithosphere around 30–32 Ma.^[16] This break-off, occurring at depths of 80–150 km, facilitated rapid exhumation, backthrusting along the Insubric Line, and northward migration of the orogenic front by 80–100 km, while promoting delamination and crustal accretion.^[25]^[16] The process transitioned the tectonics toward indentation and rollback, influencing the overall architecture of the early collisional belt without significant post-Miocene uplift.^[16]

Pliocene to Quaternary Phases

During the Pliocene, the Alpine orogeny experienced an acceleration in the rate of convergence between the Nubian (African) and Eurasian plates, reaching approximately 7-8 mm/yr across the central Mediterranean region, which contributed to intensified compressional deformation and rock uplift in the Alpine edifice.^[29] This phase marked a transition to more rapid exhumation, with uplift rates estimated at 1.3-1.8 mm/yr (or ~1.3-1.8 km/Ma) in key areas of the northern Apennines and adjacent Alpine sectors between 6 and 4 Ma, as inferred from low-temperature thermochronometric data and intramontane sedimentation patterns.^[30] These elevated rates reflect ongoing crustal shortening superimposed on earlier Miocene deformation, driving the final stages of topographic buildup in the central and western Alps. A pivotal process during this interval (approximately 10-5 Ma) was the delamination of thickened lithospheric roots beneath the orogen, where dense mantle lithosphere detached and sank into the asthenosphere, leading to isostatic rebound and accelerated surface uplift.^[31] Evidence for this delamination is provided by thermochronological records showing a distinct "5 Ma event" of enhanced exhumation in the western and central Alps, correlated with increased sediment discharge and anomalous heat flow, though less pronounced in the eastern sectors.^[32] This tectonic adjustment replaced eclogitic lower crust and mantle with hotter asthenospheric material, facilitating ~1-2 km of localized uplift over a few million years and contributing to the modern crustal architecture observed in seismic profiles. In the Quaternary, glacial erosion during repeated ice ages profoundly modified the Alpine landscape, with intensified valley incision and mass wasting removing up to several hundred meters of material since the onset of major Pleistocene glaciations around 2.7 Ma.^[33] This erosional unloading triggered significant isostatic rebound, accounting for approximately 90% of the present-day geodetically measured rock uplift rates of 1-2 mm/yr in the central Alps, as modeled from viscoelastic Earth responses to Last Glacial Maximum deglaciation ~20 kyr ago.^[34] The combined effects of glacial processes and isostatic adjustment have shaped the rugged current topography, with deeper valleys and higher peaks emerging through enhanced relief amplification. Ongoing tectonics in the Quaternary to present continue to influence the Alps through persistent Africa-Eurasia convergence at ~5-6 mm/yr, accompanied by extensional collapse in peripheral back-arc regions such as the Ligurian-Tyrrhenian domain, where rollback of the Adriatic slab promotes normal faulting and basin formation.^[35] In the Alpine core, this manifests as localized extension along inherited shear zones, like the Periadriatic lineament, balancing compressional stresses and contributing to differential uplift patterns observed in GPS and leveling data.^[36] These dynamics underscore the Alps as an active orogen, with post-orogenic adjustments still modulating its geomorphology.

Resulting Structures

Major Mountain Ranges

The Alps serve as the type locality for the Alpine orogeny, representing the archetypal collisional mountain chain formed by the convergence of the European and African (Apulian) plates during the Cenozoic era. This range arcs across central Europe for approximately 1,200 km, from the Mediterranean coast to the Vienna Basin, with widths up to 280 km and maximum elevations reaching 4,808 m at Mont Blanc.^[37] The elevated topography of the Alps results from extensive crustal shortening, estimated at 250–350 km across the orogen, which thickened the crust to over 50 km in places and produced the prominent arcuate morphology aligned with the northeastward convergence direction. The Dinarides, extending southeastward along the eastern Adriatic margin, form another key segment of the Alpine orogenic belt, shaped by oblique convergence and strike-slip tectonics during the late Cretaceous to Miocene. This range spans about 645 km in length, with average elevations around 2,000 m and peaks up to 2,694 m at Maja e Jezercës, reflecting moderate differential shortening of roughly 100–150 km compared to the Alps.^[38]^[39] Their linear to slightly arcuate form correlates with the northwest-southeast convergence vector, influencing the development of thrust-dominated structures and associated foreland basins. The Pyrenees exhibit partial involvement in the Alpine orogeny, primarily through late-stage reactivation of earlier Mesozoic structures during Miocene convergence between Iberia and Eurasia.^[40] Stretching approximately 450 km along the France-Spain border, the range averages 80–100 km in width and features elevations exceeding 3,000 m, including Aneto at 3,404 m, with documented north-south shortening of about 111 km in the eastern sector.^[41] This limited Alpine-phase deformation contrasts with the range's dominant earlier Pyrenean orogeny, resulting in a more rectilinear morphology tied to the orthogonal convergence direction.^[40] The Apennines represent a subduction-related segment of the Alpine system, formed by the rollback of the Adriatic slab beneath Eurasia from the Oligocene onward.^[42] This chain extends roughly 1,500 km down the Italian Peninsula, with mean elevations of about 1,200 m rising to 2,912 m at Gran Sasso, and widths varying from 40 to 100 km, accommodating 200–250 km of arc-parallel shortening.^[43] The northeastward convexity of the Apennines reflects the changing convergence direction from orthogonal to oblique, driving asymmetric thrusting and ongoing extension in the hinterland.^[42] The Carpathians close the eastern arc of the Alpine orogenic belt, resulting from Miocene subduction and collision involving the European margin and intra-Carpathian blocks. Curving for approximately 1,500 km from Slovakia to Romania, the range reaches average elevations of 1,000–2,000 m and culminates at 2,655 m on Gerlachovský štít, with total shortening estimates of 150–200 km concentrated in the flysch nappes.^[39] Their tightly arcuate shape mirrors the eastward-oblique convergence, promoting lateral extrusion and the indentation of the surrounding basins. The Betics-Rif arc forms the westernmost segment of the Alpine-Himalayan belt in the western Mediterranean, resulting from the subduction and collision of the Iberian and African plates. This orogen extends approximately 800 km from southern Spain to northern Morocco, with widths of 50–200 km and elevations up to 3,478 m at Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada. It accommodated about 200 km of shortening through Oligocene to Miocene thrusting, influenced by slab rollback and toroidal flow around the Gibraltar arc.^[40] Across these ranges, variations in length, elevation, and overall morphology arise from differential shortening influenced by local plate kinematics, with higher, more compact chains like the Alps linked to greater convergence rates and magnitudes compared to the lower, more extended Apennines and Carpathians. The correlation between range geometry and convergence direction is evident in the progressive arcuation from the linear Pyrenees to the curved eastern segments, reflecting indentor tectonics and slab dynamics during the orogeny.

Fold-Thrust Belts and Nappes

The Alpine orogeny produced extensive fold-thrust belts and nappe systems through compressional deformation during continental collision between the European and Adriatic plates. These structures formed as sedimentary cover sequences and basement rocks were shortened and displaced northward, creating a complex stack of thrust sheets that define the internal architecture of the orogen. Thin-skinned thrust belts, characterized by detachment along weak layers in the sedimentary cover, predominated in the foreland regions, while thick-skinned deformation involving the crystalline basement occurred in the orogenic core.^[44] In the foreland, thin-skinned thrusting detached Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments from the underlying basement along horizons such as Triassic evaporites and Jurassic black shales, leading to the formation of imbricate fans and detachment folds. This style is exemplified in the Helvetic nappes of the Swiss Alps, where the sedimentary cover of the European margin was sheared off and transported northward over the foreland basin, with individual thrusts accommodating up to 50 km of displacement.^[44] In contrast, the orogenic core featured thick-skinned tectonics, where basement rocks participated directly in thrusting, often along inherited Mesozoic rift structures, resulting in the uplift of external crystalline massifs like the Aar and Mont Blanc. This basement involvement facilitated broader shortening and the inversion of pre-existing normal faults into thrusts.^[44] Nappe stacking in the Alps involved the progressive accretion and overthrusting of units derived from different paleogeographic domains, with the Helvetic nappes forming the basal layer and the Penninic nappes overlying them as higher allochthons. The Helvetic nappes, comprising Jurassic to Eocene sediments, were thrust as a series of klippes and sheets, while the Penninic nappes incorporated remnants of the Tethyan oceanic crust and Briançonnais platform, stacked in a south-to-north sequence during Oligocene to Miocene collision. Overall horizontal displacement across major thrusts reached 100-200 km, particularly in the Penninic system, reflecting the scale of convergence.^[45]^[16] A key aspect of this deformation was out-of-sequence thrusting, where later faults cut across earlier thrust sheets, accommodating additional shortening after initial in-sequence propagation. In the Alps, such thrusts, like the Glarus overthrust in the Helvetic domain, reactivated basement structures and contributed to the exhumation of deeper units, integrating thin- and thick-skinned styles. This mechanism, combined with basement involvement, allowed for sustained deformation despite varying rheologies.^[46]^[44]

Associated Features

Sedimentary Basins

The Alpine orogeny influenced the development of peripheral foreland basins on both the northern and southern margins of the orogen, where syn-orogenic sediments accumulated in response to tectonic loading. The northern Molasse Basin, extending approximately 850 km from western France to Austria, represents a classic foreland basin formed adjacent to the European plate, with up to 5 km of Cenozoic sediments deposited near the Alpine front, primarily during the Oligocene to Miocene.^[47] Similarly, the southern Po Plain Basin, situated on the Adriatic foreland, accumulated over 6-8 km of sediments in its depocenters, reflecting asymmetric subsidence driven by the advancing Apennine thrust belt and Alpine compression.^[48] These basins served as primary depositional sites for eroded material from the rising Alps, with sediment thicknesses tapering northward and southward away from the orogenic wedge. Intra-orogenic extension, particularly in the eastern segment of the orogen, led to the formation of intra-montane basins amid ongoing compression. The Vienna Basin, a prominent example at the junction of the Eastern Alps and Western Carpathians, originated as a pull-apart structure during Middle Miocene (~16 Ma) sinistral strike-slip tectonics associated with eastward lateral extrusion of Alpine blocks.^[49] This extension accommodated up to 4.3 km of Neogene marine and brackish sediments, with the basin evolving from active rifting in the Badenian to terrestrial conditions by the Late Miocene, influenced by the broader Pannonian Basin dynamics.^[49] The evolution of these basins transitioned from dominant flexural loading during thrusting, which caused initial subsidence through lithospheric bending under the orogenic load, to post-orogenic phases marked by partial rebound and inversion. In the Molasse Basin, early flexural downwarping peaked around 20 Ma due to slab and topographic loads, followed by localized subsidence in the central and western sectors while the eastern part experienced uplift after slab breakoff.^[47] The Po Plain similarly shifted to increased subsidence post-20 Ma eastward of the Giudicarie fault line, but overall basin systems underwent inversion and erosion between 10-5 Ma as compression waned, leading to current peripheral positioning.^[47] A significant economic aspect of the Alpine orogeny involves hydrocarbon reservoirs in inverted Mesozoic rift basins peripheral to the orogen, such as extensions in the southern North Sea, where Late Cretaceous to Paleogene compression reactivated normal faults into reverse structures, trapping hydrocarbons in Jurassic sandstones and chalks.^[50] This inversion enhanced trap formation and migration pathways, contributing to major fields like those in the Central Graben.^[50]

Volcanic and Magmatic Activity

The volcanic and magmatic activity during the Alpine orogeny prominently features calc-alkaline magmatism in the Miocene, driven by subduction along convergent plate boundaries such as the Carpathian arc. In the northern Carpathian-Pannonian region, this phase spanned approximately 16 to 11 Ma, producing dominantly andesitic to dacitic rocks with medium-K calc-alkaline affinities, reflecting partial melting of a mantle wedge metasomatized by subducted slab-derived fluids.^[51] These rocks show typical arc signatures, including enrichment in large ion lithophile elements (LILE) like Ba, Rb, and Sr relative to high field strength elements (HFSE) such as Nb, Ta, and Zr, with ratios like Ba/Nb > 200 and Th/Yb > 1, indicative of subduction influence on mantle sources.^[52] Post-collisional potassic magmatism, occurring broadly between 20 and 10 Ma, arose from slab break-off following continental collision, which facilitated asthenospheric upwelling and heating of the overlying lithospheric mantle. In the Carpathian-Pannonian domain, this transition is evident after the initial calc-alkaline phase, with potassic to ultrapotassic alkaline rocks (e.g., shoshonites and high-K andesites) emplaced around 18 to 10 Ma, linked to delamination and partial melting of enriched subcontinental lithospheric mantle.^[53] The process involved rapid mantle decompression and influx of slab-derived components, resulting in geochemical patterns with elevated LILE/HFSE ratios (e.g., Rb/Nb > 10) and radiogenic isotope signatures (e.g., high ^{87}Sr/^{86}Sr > 0.706), distinguishing them from earlier arc magmas.^[54] Notable examples of this magmatism include the Aeolian Islands and Mount Etna in Sicily, where ongoing slab rollback of the Ionian lithosphere has sustained volcanic activity since the late Miocene. The Aeolian arc hosts calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series with high LILE/HFSE ratios, derived from mantle upwelling in a back-arc setting influenced by retreating subduction.^[55] Similarly, Etna's Na-K alkaline basalts and potassic trachybasalts, active from ~0.5 Ma to present, reflect localized mantle decompression due to rollback-induced extension, with geochemical evidence of HIMU-type enriched sources mixed with subduction-modified mantle.^[56] Overall, these igneous manifestations underscore the role of mantle upwelling in generating orogenic magmas, with persistent high LILE/HFSE enrichment tracing the legacy of prior subduction metasomatism across the Alpine belt.^[55]

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[PDF] Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate
3) reveals an increase in mountain erosion rates since about 6 Myr ago, by nearly a factor of two for the Pleistocene compared to the Pliocene. This change ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Glacial isostatic uplift of the European Alps | Nature Communications
Nov 10, 2016 · Here we show that ∼90% of the geodetically measured rock uplift in the Alps can be explained by the Earth's viscoelastic response to LGM deglaciation.<|control11|><|separator|>
[33]
Back arc extension, tectonic inheritance, and volcanism in the ...
Jun 15, 2002 · In the NE Ligurian basin the prerift Alpine thickening of the crust and a relatively slow rollback effect contribute to delocalize the extension ...
[34]
Present-day uplift of the western Alps | Scientific Reports - Nature
Jun 27, 2016 · In the western Alps, most GIA models predict less than ~0.3 mm/yr of present-day uplift of the Alpine range with respect to its foreland, but ...Abstract · Introduction · Author InformationMissing: Pliocene | Show results with:Pliocene<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Periglacial processes and landforms in the European Alps
The mountain range is arcuated in the western part, extend over a length of 1200 km, are up to 280 km wide, and reach their highest elevation at Mont Blanc ...
[36]
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep28404
[37]
[PDF] Geophysical-Petrological Modeling of the Crust and Upper Mantle ...
different mountain ranges: Carpathian Mountains, with an average elevation of 1000-2000 m; the Dinarides (~2000 m) and the Alps (~3000 m). Figure 2.8 ...
[38]
Evolution of the Alpine orogenic belts in the Western Mediterranean ...
Africa-Eurasia collision. ... 2002.00053. Rosenbaum G, Lister GS, Duboz C. 2002b. Relative motions of. Africa, Iberia and Europe during Alpine orogeny.
[39]
[PDF] Large-scale rock slope failures in the eastern Pyrenees: identifying a
The Pyrenees are a compact mountain belt of the Alpine orogeny, some 450 km long and only 100-150 km wide (Fig. 1), and attain elevations exceeding 3000 m.
[40]
[PDF] Alps vs. Apennines
In the eastern Southern Alps, during Late Cretaceous and Paleo- gene, the Alps interfered with the Dinarides, an orogen related to the underthrusting of the ...
[41]
[PDF] The Plio-Quaternary uplift of the Apennine chain
Mar 25, 2008 · 6b). The Apennine main divide has an average elevation of 1200 m, but it rises up to 2200 m a.s.l., on the Meta-Mainarde massif.
[42]
Basement-involved thin-skinned and thick-skinned tectonics in the ...
Jan 22, 2016 · Considering the Alpine orogen as a whole, the lower crust deformed seemingly independently from the upper crust. The detachment of the cover ...
[43]
[PDF] Tectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen
Around the Tauern window, along a thrust formed during the Tertiary orogeny, the Austroalpine nappes are seen to overlie Penninic units that consist of slivers ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
The accretion of foreland basin sediments during early stages of ...
Aug 9, 2016 · In the following, the Helvetic nappes were thrusted toward the foreland along huge out-of-sequence-thrusts (e.g., the Glarus thrust) that cut ...2 Geological Context · 2.1 Tectonic Setting Of The... · 5.1 Tectonic Context And...
[45]
Slab Load Controls Beneath the Alps on the Source-to-Sink ... - MDPI
May 27, 2022 · The Sedimentary Basins Surrounding the Alps. The Molasse and Po basins are the foreland sedimentary troughs situated on the northern and ...
[46]
Sedimentary response of the Po Basin to Mid-Late Pleistocene ...
Nov 15, 2024 · Thickness is < 3 m. These deposits are barren of meiofauna, while wood fragments are locally observed. Sand bodies with FU trend are interpreted ...
[47]
Strike‐slip tectonics and Quaternary basin formation along the ...
May 8, 2012 · Formation of the Vienna Basin is the consequence of eastward lateral extrusion of a major Alpine-Carpathian block in the Middle and Late Miocene ...Introduction · The Evolution of the Vienna... · Results · Discussion
[48]
Polyphase tectonic inversion and its role in controlling hydrocarbon ...
May 4, 2018 · Most North Sea hydrocarbon discoveries are located within, or in close proximity to, the mature source kitchens corresponding to three Late ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
Geochemistry, Petrogenesis and Geodynamic Relationships of ...
In this study, we focus on the northern part of the Carpathian–Pannonian region, where Miocene (16–11 Ma) calc-alkaline magmatism was followed by sodic alkaline ...
[50]
Carpathian‐Pannonian Magmatism Database - AGU Journals - Wiley
Sep 9, 2021 · A database containing previously published geochronologic, geochemical, and isotopic data on Mesozoic to Quaternary igneous rocks from the Carpathian-Pannonian ...1 Introduction · 3 Data · 4 Application To...
[51]
Genesis of the Neogene to Quaternary volcanism in the Carpathian ...
Jan 1, 2007 · Calc-alkaline volcanism along the Eastern Carpathians was mostly postcollisional and could have been related to slab break-off processes.
[52]
(PDF) Post-collisional Neogene magmatism : a consequence of slab ...
Feb 4, 2017 · ... Post-collisional Neogene magmatism : a consequence of slab breakoff ... Ma period were. globally much more potassic than the average andesite.
[53]
[PDF] Compositional variations of Plio-Quaternary volcanism in Italy
Calcalkaline, shoshonitic and potassic rocks show many geochemical characteristics in common (e.g., high LILE/HFSE ratios), although they display different ...
[54]
Slab disruption, mantle circulation, and the opening of the ...
Jan 1, 2007 · Calc-alkaline volcanic activity has occurred at the Aeolian arc, and other seamounts in the Tyrrhenian Basin, such as Anchise and Aceste ...