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Legless lizard

Legless lizards are a polyphyletic assemblage of squamate reptiles characterized by the evolutionary loss or severe reduction of limbs, resulting in elongated, snake-like bodies adapted primarily for burrowing or surface-dwelling lifestyles. This limbless condition has arisen independently at least 25 times within Squamata, the order encompassing lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians, often linked to ecological pressures such as fossorial habits. Unlike true snakes, legless lizards retain distinguishing traits including movable eyelids, external ear openings, and a transverse fracture plane in the tail for autotomy (voluntary tail shedding).^[1] These reptiles are distributed across multiple families and suborders, reflecting convergent evolution rather than close relatedness. Notable examples include the glass lizards of the family Anguidae (e.g., Ophisaurus species, found in North America, Europe, and Asia), which feature rigid, brittle tails that mimic a second head for defense; the California legless lizard (Anniella pulchra) of the family Anniellidae, endemic to western North America and specialized for sandy habitats; and the flap-footed or snake-lizards of the family Pygopodidae (e.g., Lialis burtonis), native to Australia and New Guinea, which are gecko relatives with small hindlimb flaps used in mating.^[1]^[2] Other families with legless forms include Dibamidae (blind lizards of Southeast Asia) and certain Scincidae (skinks, with species like the European slow worm Anguis fragilis).^[3] Legless lizards exhibit diverse diets, primarily consisting of insects, small vertebrates, and invertebrates, facilitated by their chemosensory forked tongues and agile locomotion via lateral undulation or concertina movement.^[4] Many species are threatened by habitat loss and road mortality due to their ground-dwelling nature, with recent discoveries of new species (e.g., in 2023) and petitions for endangered status (as of October 2025) highlighting ongoing conservation needs in fragmented ecosystems.^[5]^[6] Their repeated evolution underscores key principles of adaptive radiation and modularity in vertebrate morphology, where limb reduction correlates with vertebral elongation but varies in degree across lineages.^[7]

Taxonomy

Classification

Legless lizards represent a non-monophyletic assemblage of squamate reptiles within the suborder Lacertilia, where limb reduction or loss has occurred independently across multiple evolutionary lineages, resulting in snake-like body forms adapted for fossorial or semi-fossorial lifestyles.^[2] This polyphyly underscores the convergent evolution of limblessness in lizards, distinct from the monophyletic snakes (Serpentes). The primary families encompassing legless lizards include Anguidae (subfamily Anguinae), Anniellidae, Pygopodidae, Dibamidae, Scincidae, and select genera within Gymnophthalmidae. In Anguidae, the subfamily Anguinae comprises approximately 20 species across the genera Anguis (5 species) and Ophisaurus (about 13 species), distributed in Europe, Asia, and North America.^[8] Anniellidae consists of a single genus, Anniella, with 6 species endemic to western North America, all fully limbless.^[9] Pygopodidae, relatives of geckos endemic to Australia and New Guinea, includes approximately 48 species in genera such as Delma (19 species), Aprasia (12 species), Lialis (2 species), Pygopus (5 species), and others (Ophidiocephalus, Paradelma, Pletholax, each with 1 species), all exhibiting varying degrees of limb reduction to complete absence. Dibamidae, known as blind skinks, features 27 species in the genus Dibamus (26 species as of 2024, plus one in Anelytropsis), primarily from Southeast Asia and the Philippines, with highly reduced eyes and limbs.^[10] Scincidae includes numerous legless or limb-reduced species across genera such as Lerista (over 80 species, many fully limbless in Australia) and Acontias (about 20 species in Africa). Within Gymnophthalmidae (microteiids) of South America, legless forms are represented by genera like Bachia (31 species), which display extreme limb reduction alongside other genera such as Procellosaurinus and Vanzosaurus with similar adaptations.^[11] Collectively, these families account for over 200 species of legless lizards, with Anguinae contributing ~20, Anniellidae 6, Pygopodidae ~48, Dibamidae 27, Scincidae exceeding 100 legless forms, and Gymnophthalmidae's legless taxa exceeding 35. Historically, early taxonomic schemes, such as those by Camp (1923), grouped legless lizards into separate categories or allied them closely with snakes based on morphology, often overlooking their lizard affinities. However, post-2000 molecular phylogenetic analyses, including multilocus studies of Squamata, have robustly demonstrated their polyphyletic origins, embedding legless forms within diverse lizard clades and highlighting multiple independent instances of limb loss.

Phylogenetic relationships

Legless lizards, defined as squamates lacking external limbs, are exclusively placed within the suborder Lacertilia (lizards) of the order Squamata, distinct from the suborder Serpentes (snakes), which represent a separate monophyletic lineage derived from within Lacertilia. These legless forms are polyphyletic, arising from at least six independent evolutionary lineages within Lacertilia, reflecting convergent adaptations to fossorial or serpentine lifestyles rather than a single common ancestor.^[12]^[13] Phylogenetic analyses position key legless lizard families in scattered branches of the squamate tree. The Anguidae, including legless glass lizards such as Ophisaurus, form part of the infraorder Anguimorpha, alongside monitor lizards (Varanidae) and beaded lizards (Helodermatidae). The Anniellidae, comprising the California legless lizard (Anniella), is basal to and sister to the Anguidae within Anguimorpha. The Pygopodidae, or flap-footed lizards, are nested within the Gekkota clade, closely related to geckos and showing limb reduction unique among gekkotans. The Dibamidae, blind snakes-like lizards, occupy a basal position near the root of Squamata, often as the sister group to all other squamates or adjacent to fossorial groups like amphisbaenians. The Gymnophthalmidae, a diverse Neotropical family with some fully limbless species like those in Microteiinae, belong to the Teiioidea superfamily, forming the sister group to the Teiidae (whiptails and tegus). Scincidae, with legless forms, is placed within Scincoidea.^[12]^[13]^[14] Molecular evidence from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and nuclear genes has been instrumental in resolving these relationships. Early studies, such as Townsend et al. (2004), utilized mtDNA sequences (e.g., 12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome b) combined with nuclear loci like RAG-1 to reconstruct squamate phylogenies, confirming the deep divergence of dibamids and the embedding of pygopodids within Gekkota while highlighting polyphyly in limb-reduced forms. More comprehensive analyses, like Pyron et al. (2013), incorporated up to 44 nuclear protein-coding genes across thousands of species, demonstrating that limb reduction and loss evolved convergently 6–7 times within Lacertilia alone, with strong Bayesian support (posterior probabilities >0.95) for the non-monophyly of legless lizards. These datasets underscore the role of extensive taxon sampling in overcoming long-branch attraction artifacts common in squamate phylogenetics.^[13]^[12] A simplified text-based outline of the relevant squamate phylogeny illustrates these scattered placements:

Squamata

This branching pattern, derived from integrated molecular phylogenies, emphasizes the multiple origins of limblessness across Lacertilia.^[12]^[13]

Evolutionary history

Origins of limb loss

The earliest fossil evidence of partial limb reduction in squamate lineages dates to the Late Cretaceous, approximately 95 million years ago, with forms like Adriosaurus showing vestigial forelimbs adapted for aquatic lifestyles.^[15] Further evidence from the Eocene epoch, approximately 50 million years ago, includes anguid-like forms such as placosaurids exhibiting reduced or absent limbs alongside elongated bodies and delicate osteoscutes.^[16] These fossils, primarily from European deposits, suggest that limb reduction manifested in specific squamate groups during this period, marking transitions toward limbless forms. Pre-Cretaceous origins for the broader potential of limb loss are inferred from the divergence of squamates around 200 mya in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, as estimated by integrated molecular and fossil data, providing the deep evolutionary framework for subsequent reductions.^[17] Genetic mechanisms underlying limb loss involve mutations and regulatory changes in Hox genes, which control limb bud development, leading to suppression of limb formation in various lizard lineages. Studies highlight alterations in the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway, where enhancer degeneration disrupts limb patterning, a process analogous to that observed in snake evolution but independently evolved in lizards such as those in Anguidae and Scincidae.^[3] These changes often result in the failure of limb buds to initiate or fully develop, with genomic analyses revealing convergent regulatory shifts across multiple squamate clades. Initial limb reduction is strongly associated with the adoption of fossorial lifestyles in ancestral lizard forms, where burrowing through soil favored streamlined bodies over functional limbs, facilitating a shift from quadrupedal to serpentine locomotion for efficient underground movement. This adaptation likely provided selective advantages in navigating tight spaces and reducing drag in substrate, as evidenced by the prevalence of limb-reduced taxa in paleoecological reconstructions of early Cenozoic environments.^[18] Molecular clock analyses date specific limb loss events to the Cenozoic, with the divergence of Pygopodidae around 40 mya in the Eocene-Oligocene, coinciding with Australian aridification and fossorial specialization. Similarly, Anniellidae experienced limb reduction approximately 30 mya during the Oligocene-Miocene, linked to North American habitat shifts toward semi-arid burrowing niches. These timelines underscore the repeated, post-Cretaceous bursts of limb loss driven by environmental pressures.

Convergent evolution

Limb loss has evolved independently at least 25 times within squamate reptiles, with the vast majority of these events occurring in lizard lineages across multiple clades, in stark contrast to the single origin of limblessness in snakes.^[19] Notable examples include independent origins in Anguimorpha (e.g., Anguidae, such as glass lizards), Gekkota (e.g., Pygopodidae and Dibamidae), and Scincomorpha (e.g., multiple lineages within Scincidae), alongside additional events in families like Gymnophthalmidae and Teiidae, totaling over seven distinct instances in lizards alone.^[3]^[20] This repeated pattern underscores the prevalence of convergence in squamate evolution, where unrelated groups have arrived at similar limbless forms.^[21] The primary selective pressures driving these convergent events are associated with adaptation to fossorial or semi-fossorial lifestyles, particularly in environments like narrow burrows, dense leaf litter, and sandy grasslands, where protruding limbs create drag and impede efficient substrate penetration.^[7] Reduced or absent limbs facilitate streamlined body elongation, enhancing wriggling and burrowing efficiency, as evidenced by paleoecological reconstructions of early fossorial niches in Oligocene deposits that reveal transitional forms with partial limb reduction.^[22] These adaptations provide clear advantages in resource-limited subterranean habitats, minimizing energy costs for locomotion while maximizing survival in constrained spaces.^[23] Evidence for this convergence comes from comparative biology, which reveals strikingly similar morphological traits across distantly related legless lizard families, including elongated vertebral columns for increased flexibility and specialized scale patterns that aid in friction reduction during movement.^[18] At the molecular level, genomic studies demonstrate convergent changes in gene regulatory networks, such as the degeneration of limb enhancers and loss of claw-related keratins, with limb-reducing genes exhibiting parallel patterns of expression or inactivation in independent lineages.^[3]^[24] The recurrent nature of these evolutionary shifts highlights the modularity inherent in squamate body plans, allowing flexible reconfiguration of limb structures in response to environmental demands.^[21] In some cases, partial reversals of limb reduction have occurred, as seen in certain skink (Scincidae) lineages where tiny limbs re-evolved during wetter climatic periods. In Pygopodidae, flap-footed forms retain vestigial hindlimb remnants from their gecko ancestors, illustrating the potential for evolutionary plasticity even after significant reduction.^[25]^[20] This modularity facilitates rapid adaptation and explains the high frequency of such transitions in squamate history.^[26]

Morphology

Body plan

Legless lizards are characterized by an elongated, cylindrical body form that lacks external limbs, resulting in a snake-like appearance adapted for specific ecological niches. Typical body lengths range from 10 to 40 cm, with snout-vent lengths (SVL) often between 12 and 20 cm in common species such as Anguis fragilis, though some, like Ophisaurus attenuatus, can attain total lengths up to 106 cm.^[27]^[28] The tail frequently exceeds the body length, averaging 1.9 to 2.3 times the SVL in surface-dwelling forms like glass lizards (Ophisaurus spp.), and is notably fragile in anguines, featuring fracture planes that enable autotomy for predator escape, after which it regenerates but remains distinguishable by altered scalation and color.^[29]^[19] The head and neck blend seamlessly into the body, with a small, tapered head that lacks distinct demarcation, enhancing streamlining. This structure includes a kinetic skull typical of lizards, permitting flexible jaw movement during feeding, and a fused lower jaw (mandible) composed of united dentaries, unlike the divided mandibles of snakes.^[30] In pygopodids, such as those in the genus Lialis, the head is similarly elongate but retains gecko-like features in cranial kinesis despite limb reduction.^[31] The skin is covered in smooth or slightly keeled scales arranged in regular transverse rows, forming a flexible yet protective integument; in many anguids, including Anniella and Anguis, underlying osteoderms—calcified dermal plates aligned with each scale—provide armored reinforcement against predation and abrasion.^[32]^[33] Coloration is predominantly cryptic, featuring shades of brown, gray, or copper with longitudinal stripes or uniform tones that aid camouflage in leaf litter or soil, as seen in the gray-brown adults of Anguis fragilis or the striped patterns of Ophisaurus attenuatus.^[27]^[28] Sexual dimorphism is generally subtle, manifesting in differences such as relatively longer tails in males of Anguis species, which may relate to reproductive behaviors, alongside occasional variations in body size where females can be slightly larger overall.^[34]^[35]

Sensory and skeletal adaptations

Legless lizards display notable skeletal modifications that support their elongated, limbless body form and fossorial habits. A key adaptation is the elevated vertebral count, typically ranging from 44 to 120 total vertebrae in limbless species, compared to roughly 50–100 in limbed lizards, enabling greater body flexibility and elongation for burrowing and locomotion.^[36]^[37] The limb girdles are correspondingly reduced; the pectoral girdle is often vestigial or absent, while the pelvic girdle persists in a diminished state, manifesting as small, scale-like remnants in families such as Pygopodidae.^[20] In burrowing taxa like amphisbaenians, the skull is reinforced with robust bone structure to withstand soil penetration during head-first tunneling.^[38] Sensory systems in legless lizards are adapted for low-light or subterranean environments, emphasizing chemoreception over vision. Most species retain movable eyelids for blinking and external ear openings for auditory detection, distinguishing them from snakes.^[39] The tongue, typically forked (though often less deeply than in snakes), serves as a primary chemosensory tool, delivering airborne particles to Jacobson's organ in the roof of the mouth for detecting scents in dark habitats.^[40]^[41] In highly fossorial groups like Dibamidae, eyes are severely reduced—lacking a lens, iris, and functional vitreous body—and covered by scales, resulting in near-blindness where chemical cues predominate for navigation and prey location.^[42] Internal adaptations further align with their lifestyle, including a respiratory system featuring two equally functional lungs, unlike the asymmetrical configuration in many snakes with a vestigial right lung.^[43] Cloacal scales are arranged transversely, aiding in distinction from the longitudinal ventral scales of snakes.^[39]

Distribution and habitat

Global distribution

Legless lizards display a fragmented global distribution, with concentrations in temperate and tropical regions across multiple continents, reflecting independent evolutionary origins in Laurasian and Gondwanan lineages. Major families show disjunct ranges, with legless lizards present across Africa, including Anguidae in northern regions and diverse Scincidae (e.g., Acontias) in southern Africa. Overall patterns indicate that approximately 25% (47 species) of all legless lizard species occur in Australia, largely due to the diversification of the Pygopodidae family, while other groups exhibit relictual distributions tied to ancient continental breakups.^[44]^[45]^[46] In Africa, the Scincidae family includes numerous legless species in the Acontinae subfamily, such as the genus Acontias with about 26 species and Typhlosaurus with 5 species, endemic primarily to southern Africa including South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and Angola.^[47]^[48] In the Old World, the Anguidae subfamily Anguinae includes widespread temperate species like Anguis fragilis, distributed across Europe from Scandinavia to the Balkans and into western Asia.^[49] The tropical Dibamidae, comprising 29 species in the genus Dibamus, are concentrated in Southeast Asia, ranging from Vietnam and Cambodia through Indonesia (including Borneo and Sulawesi) to the Philippines and parts of New Guinea.^[50] North American legless lizards are primarily represented by the endemic Anniellidae family, with six Anniella species confined to coastal and central California in the United States and Baja California in Mexico.^[51] Anguidae species like Ophisaurus extend from the southern United States (e.g., Texas to Florida) into northern Mexico.^[52] The Pygopodidae family dominates in Australia and New Guinea, encompassing 47 species across seven genera, with nearly all endemic to Australia and a few extending to New Guinea, showcasing high regional diversity.^[44] In South America, legless species within the Gymnophthalmidae family, particularly the genus Bachia with over 30 species, occur in the Amazon basin, Cerrado, and Andean foothills, exemplified by distributions in Brazil, Peru, and Guyana.^[53]^[54]

Habitat preferences

Legless lizards exhibit a range of habitat preferences that align with their fossorial or semi-fossorial lifestyles, often favoring substrates that facilitate burrowing and provide cover from predators. Many species, particularly in the family Anguidae, thrive in loose, sandy, or organic-rich soils where they can construct burrows for shelter and foraging. For instance, the California legless lizard (Anniella pulchra) is commonly found in coastal dunes, chaparral, pine-oak woodlands, and desert scrub habitats with sandy washes and stream terraces supporting sycamores or cottonwoods, allowing it to burrow effectively in friable soils.^[55]^[56] Similarly, the slow worm (Anguis fragilis) prefers damp, cool environments such as open woodlands, grasslands, and heathlands with high levels of ground cover, including thick vegetation, leaf litter, or underground refugia to maintain moisture levels essential for its skin.^[27]^[57] Surface-dwelling tendencies are more pronounced in certain species, particularly within the Pygopodidae family, which occupy open grassy or arid landscapes. The striped legless lizard (Delma impar), a grassland specialist, inhabits native grasslands and grassy woodlands, often under rocks or in spinifex grass tussocks in semi-arid regions, showing a preference for open microhabitats that support its ambush foraging style.^[58] In contrast, glass lizards of the genus Ophisaurus, such as the slender glass lizard (O. attenuatus), favor open fields, prairies, pastures, woodland edges, and dry rocky hillsides, including glades and occasionally fens, where loose soil and vegetative cover provide semi-fossorial opportunities.^[59]^[60]^[61] Microhabitat requirements emphasize conditions that support ectothermic regulation and prevent desiccation, given their reduced mobility limits basking. These lizards often select burrows or leaf litter layers that retain high humidity for cutaneous respiration and hydration, while using subsurface refugia to buffer temperature fluctuations, as active basking is uncommon due to their legless form.^[27]^[62] Species like Anniella and Anguis are active at relatively low temperatures (below 20°C) and across day-night cycles, relying on stable microclimates in their chosen substrates.^[62] Altitudinally, legless lizards range from sea level to approximately 2000 meters, with a predilection for temperate and subtropical climates that offer moderate temperatures and seasonal moisture. For example, Anniella pulchra occurs from coastal lowlands up to 1800 meters in the Sierra foothills, avoiding extreme arid deserts lacking burrowable soil or overly saturated wetlands.^[55]^[62] This elevational tolerance reflects their adaptability to varied but non-extreme conditions, as seen in the broader distribution patterns of Anguidae across North America and Europe.^[55]

Behavior and ecology

Locomotion and foraging

Legless lizards employ a variety of locomotion strategies adapted to their limbless body plan, primarily relying on axial undulation to propel themselves across substrates. Lateral undulation, the most common mode, involves propagating waves along the body to generate thrust through contact points with the ground, facilitated by the ventral scales that provide friction and grip. In confined or complex environments, such as tunnels or dense vegetation, many species shift to concertina motion, where the body alternately anchors and extends segments in a concertina-like folding pattern to advance incrementally. Some taxa, like members of the Anguidae family including Ophisaurus apodus, also utilize slide-pushing, particularly at higher speeds on rough surfaces, where the head and anterior body push against obstacles to initiate movement.^[63]^[36]^[63] Foraging behaviors in legless lizards vary by species and habitat but generally emphasize energy efficiency, reflecting their low metabolic rates. Many are ambush predators, remaining stationary to detect and strike at passing prey, as seen in Burton's legless lizard (Lialis burtonis), a pygopodid that exhibits a low standard metabolic rate suited to prolonged waiting. Others, such as the common scaly-foot (Pygopus lepidopodus), actively search for food, covering greater distances with higher metabolic costs. Chemosensory cues play a key role in prey detection across taxa, with tongue flicks allowing lizards to sample airborne or substrate-bound scents to locate food sources. Diets predominantly consist of invertebrates, including earthworms, insects, and spiders; for instance, the slow worm (Anguis fragilis) frequently preys on earthworms, which are detected in the feces of over 85% of individuals, exploiting both surface-dwelling and deeper-burrowing species depending on habitat. Small vertebrates occasionally supplement this, particularly in predatory species like L. burtonis, which targets other lizards.^[64]^[64]^[65] Activity patterns align with foraging needs and thermal constraints, promoting energy conservation. Species like Ophisaurus ventralis are primarily diurnal but may shift to crepuscular or nocturnal activity in warmer conditions, while Anguis fragilis favors crepuscular periods for hunting to avoid peak heat. Lialis burtonis forages mostly during the day but remains opportunistic across light cycles. Predatory adaptations enhance survival during these activities; caudal autotomy allows escape from threats by detaching the tail, which continues writhing to distract pursuers, a mechanism widespread in legless lizards despite their elongate form. Some species also employ body vibrations as a warning signal or to startle prey, though this is less documented than in limbed relatives. These traits collectively support a low-energy lifestyle, enabling persistence in diverse but often challenging environments.^[66]^[67]^[68]

Reproduction and life cycle

Legless lizards exhibit diverse reproductive strategies across their polyphyletic groups, primarily involving sexual reproduction with variations in mating behaviors and developmental modes. In many species, mating occurs seasonally, often in spring, with males engaging in combat displays to establish dominance.^[69] These interactions help secure mating rights with females. Reproductive modes vary by family: most pygopodids are oviparous, laying clutches of typically two leathery eggs in concealed sites such as under rocks or leaf litter, with incubation periods ranging from 66 to 77 days.^[70] In contrast, within the Anguinae subfamily of Anguidae, species like the European slow worm (Anguis fragilis) are viviparous or ovoviviparous, giving live birth to 3–20 young after a gestation of 3–5 months.^[27] Other anguines, such as North American glass lizards (Ophisaurus spp.), are oviparous, depositing 4–15 eggs in summer clutches that hatch after 1–2 months of incubation.^[28] Clutch or litter sizes generally range from 2 to 10 offspring, reflecting adaptations to fossorial lifestyles where small broods enhance survival in limited burrow spaces.^[71] The life cycle begins with hatching or birth in late summer to fall, with juveniles growing rapidly through frequent ecdysis—shedding skin 2–4 times annually to accommodate elongation.^[72] Sexual maturity is typically reached at 2–4 years, depending on species and environmental conditions; for example, female California legless lizards (Anniella pulchra) mature around 2 years, while males do so at 3 years.^[72] Lifespans vary but can extend 6–20 years in captivity, with wild individuals likely shorter due to predation and habitat constraints.^[73] Growth slows post-maturity, and adults reproduce annually or biennially. Parental care is minimal and absent in most species post-parturition, but some anguines display brief egg attendance. Female glass lizards (Ophisaurus spp.) coil around clutches to protect them from predators until hatching, after which offspring receive no further investment and disperse independently.^[71] This limited guardianship aligns with the secretive, burrowing habits of legless lizards, prioritizing energy conservation over extended care.

Distinction from snakes

Anatomical differences

Legless lizards differ from snakes in several key anatomical traits related to limbs, head structures, scale arrangement, and internal organization, reflecting their distinct evolutionary paths within the order Squamata.^[1] Many legless lizards exhibit vestigial hindlimbs, particularly in families like Pygopodidae, where these appear as small, scale-covered flaps used potentially for sensory purposes, while forelimb remnants are typically absent; in contrast, snakes lack any limb vestiges.^[74] Other groups, such as Anguidae (e.g., glass lizards in genus Ophisaurus), show no external limbs at all, but their skeletal structure retains lizard-like proportions rather than the fully elongated vertebral column of snakes.^[75] Head features further distinguish the two groups. Most legless lizards possess movable eyelids that allow blinking, though some groups like Pygopodidae lack them; all have external ear openings for hearing, features absent in snakes, which rely on a fixed spectacle over the eye and jaw vibrations for sound detection.^[1]^[75]^[74] Additionally, legless lizards retain a movable quadrate bone in the skull, enabling moderate jaw mobility similar to other lizards, whereas snakes exhibit advanced cranial kinesis with a more loosely connected quadrate for extreme jaw distension. Their pupils are typically round, whereas many ambush-hunting snakes have vertical slits, though snake pupil shapes vary. The scales and body covering also vary significantly. Legless lizards generally have small, uniform or granular scales arranged in transverse rows along the ventral surface, lacking the broad, overlapping ventral scutes that aid snakes in locomotion by providing grip.^[1] Their tongues are broad, fleshy, and unforked or merely notched, used primarily for gustation rather than the chemosensory vomeronasal detection facilitated by the deeply forked tongues of snakes.^[76] Tails in legless lizards are often long and fragile, capable of autotomy (voluntary breakage) as a defense mechanism—a trait not found in snakes—allowing regeneration, though sometimes imperfectly.^[75] Internally, legless lizards maintain two functional lungs of roughly equal size and symmetrically arranged paired organs (e.g., kidneys, gonads), preserving the bilateral symmetry of typical lizard anatomy.^[77]^[78] Snakes, by comparison, have an elongated right lung with a reduced or vestigial left lung, and their organs are asymmetrically positioned and stretched along the body axis to accommodate their linear form. Males of both groups possess hemipenes, but females in legless lizards lack these structures entirely, consistent with squamate reproduction, though the overall organ symmetry highlights the lizard affinity.^[78]

Ecological and behavioral distinctions

For example, the California legless lizard (Anniella pulchra) maintains activity during cooler mornings and nights owing to its wide thermal tolerance.^[79] In contrast, snakes' activity is frequently more restricted by narrow performance breadths, influencing their behavioral extremes in thermoregulation.^[80] Legless lizards lack venom, differing markedly from the potent venoms in numerous snake species that facilitate prey capture and digestion. Species such as Australian pygopodids lack venom glands entirely, relying instead on physical restraint or speed.^[81] This absence shapes less confrontational hunting approaches in legless lizards compared to snakes' chemical weaponry.^[82] Niche overlap between legless lizards and snakes remains minimal, limiting direct competition; legless lizards primarily target insects and arthropods in high volumes, whereas snakes favor larger vertebrate prey like amphibians, mammals, and reptiles consumed infrequently. For instance, anguid legless lizards focus on arthropods, while snakes shift toward vertebrates, reflecting divergent evolutionary trajectories in feeding ecology.^[83] Legless lizards utilize burrows transiently for shelter and short foraging bouts, in contrast to snakes' longer-term occupation of dens for hibernation or extended refuge.^[84] Defensive strategies diverge significantly, with legless lizards employing tail autotomy—detaching and regenerating the tail to evade predators—over snakes' reliance on constriction, venom injection, or aggressive strikes. Up to two-thirds of a legless lizard's body length may be tail, enhancing this mechanism's utility, while promoting camouflage and quick submersion into substrate as primary escapes rather than overt aggression.^[76] Legless lizards fulfill key ecosystem roles as burrowers that aerate soil and promote nutrient turnover, alongside serving as prey for avian and mammalian predators, thereby supporting food web dynamics in their habitats.^[85] Their cryptic, fossorial habits often result in lower predation intensity in select environments relative to more conspicuous or defensively armed snakes.^[86]

Conservation

Major threats

Habitat loss represents one of the primary threats to legless lizard populations worldwide, driven largely by human activities such as urbanization, agriculture, and resource extraction that destroy or fragment their preferred burrowing and grassland habitats. In California, development for oil and gas operations, solar projects, and urban expansion has compacted soils, altered moisture levels, and removed essential leaf litter and plant cover critical for species like the Temblor legless lizard (Anniella alexanderae), leading to significant habitat degradation. Similarly, in Australian deserts, agricultural conversion and pasture improvement have resulted in the loss of native grasslands and rock habitats vital for pygopodid legless lizards, such as the striped legless lizard (Delma impar), exacerbating population isolation and decline.^[87]^[88]^[89] Climate change poses an escalating risk to legless lizards, particularly fossorial species dependent on stable soil moisture and temperature regimes, through mechanisms like prolonged droughts, rising temperatures, and shifts in precipitation patterns that dry out soils and alter suitable habitats. For instance, in western North America, projected changes in hydrology and increased aridity are expected to reduce burrow viability for anguid legless lizards, such as the California legless lizard (Anniella spp.), potentially shifting their distributions or causing local extinctions. Studies on fossorial lizards indicate high extinction risks under future climate scenarios, with thermal habitat suitability diminishing for species in arid regions like Australia's outback, where altered rainfall could fragment already vulnerable ecosystems.^[90]^[91]^[92] Collection for the pet trade and persecution due to misidentification as venomous snakes further endanger certain legless lizard species, especially those with snake-like appearances. In Australia, pygopodid lizards face illegal collection driven by demand in the exotic pet market, contributing to population declines in accessible habitats despite regulatory protections. Additionally, mistaken identity leads to direct killing; for example, legless lizards like the common scaly-foot (Delma plebeia) are often slain by people fearing they are brown snakes, a problem intensified by warmer weather increasing surface activity and human encounters.^[93]^[81] Introduced predators and infrastructure-related mortality compound these pressures, particularly in regions with invasive species. In Australia, feral cats and red foxes prey heavily on legless lizards, including the striped legless lizard, with foxes accounting for a significant portion of predation events in semi-arid grasslands, reducing recruitment and survival rates. Road mortality also affects surface-active or dispersing individuals, as vehicles strike legless lizards crossing highways in fragmented landscapes, a notable issue for mimic glass lizards (Ophisaurus mimicus) and similar species in the United States.^[94]^[95]^[96]

Conservation efforts

Conservation efforts for legless lizards focus on legal protections, habitat management initiatives, and targeted research to mitigate population declines across various species. Several species within the genus Anniella in California are designated as Species of Special Concern by the state, providing regulatory safeguards against habitat destruction and collection.^[97] The Temblor legless lizard (Anniella alexanderae) is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List and has been granted candidate status under the California Endangered Species Act since 2022, affording it interim protections equivalent to endangered species during review.^[97]^[88] In Asia, Dibamus bogadeki, a burrowing legless lizard endemic to Hong Kong, faces significant threats from its restricted range and habitat loss, prompting local conservation measures. Australian species like the striped legless lizard (Delma impar) are listed as Vulnerable under national environmental laws, emphasizing the need for ongoing protection in grassland remnants.^[94] Habitat restoration and translocation programs represent key initiatives, particularly in urbanizing areas. In California, a 2013 translocation project at Los Angeles International Airport successfully relocated populations of the California legless lizard (Anniella pulchra) from construction sites to preserved habitats, maintaining genetic diversity in fragmented landscapes.^[2] In Australia, systematic reptile surveys and monitoring grids for Delma impar in nature reserves, such as those in the Australian Capital Territory, track population trends and inform grassland management to enhance habitat connectivity.^[98] Public education campaigns in regions like New South Wales aim to reduce incidental killings by distinguishing legless lizards from venomous snakes, as misidentification often leads to unnecessary mortality during warmer months.^[81]^[99] Research efforts include genetic analyses to guide management and predictive modeling for environmental changes. Studies on Delma impar have revealed low genetic diversity in isolated populations, supporting translocation strategies to bolster resilience in translocated groups.^[100] Climate modeling for western North American lizards, including fossorial species like Anniella, projects potential range contractions under future warming scenarios, highlighting the urgency of protected area expansion.^[101] In October 2025, a petition was submitted to list the mimic glass lizard (Ophisaurus mimicus) under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, addressing its decline due to habitat fragmentation and other threats.^[96] Successes such as the LAX translocation demonstrate effective mitigation of development impacts, though challenges persist in maintaining viable populations amid ongoing habitat fragmentation.^[2]

References

[1]
Mimic Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus mimicus) - SREL herpetology
Long, slender, legless lizards that superficially resemble snakes. They differ from snakes, though, in that they have moveable eyelids, external ear openings, ...
[2]
The legless lizards of LAX - Understanding Evolution
Oct 6, 2013 · To find out if a legless lizard is a snake, just look for a lack of eyelids and external ears. Snakes are unique in having inherited these ...
[3]
Convergent and lineage-specific genomic differences in limb ...
Jan 18, 2022 · Our results suggest that the repeated evolution of limblessness is not due to a prevalence of mutations preferentially affecting a single ...
[4]
Eastern Slender Glass Lizard - National Park Service
Apr 14, 2015 · The eastern slender glass lizard, Ophisaurus attenuatus longicaudus, is a legless lizard that reaches the northern part of its range in the Big South Fork area.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[5]
RATES AND PATTERNS IN THE EVOLUTION OF SNAKE‐LIKE ...
Jul 23, 2008 · Using the morphometric data, we find that the transition from lizard-like to snake-like body form involves concerted evolution of limb reduction ...
[6]
Phylogenetic relationships and divergence dating in the Glass ...
The Anguinae currently consist of about 20 described species; 6 found in Europe, 1 in North Africa, 5 in Asia, 2 in Indonesia, and 6 in North America. Many taxa ...
[7]
(PDF) Four New Species of California Legless Lizards ( Anniella )
Occupancy sampling could provide valuable information on the ecology of North American legless lizards (genus Anniella). In 2013, the California legless lizard ...
[8]
Pygopus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Content: Seven genera, Aprasia, Delma, Lialis, Ophidiocephalus, Paradelma, Pletholax, and Pygopus, with 12, 19, 2, 1, 1, 1, and 5 species, respectively.<|separator|>
[9]
Dibamidae) from Nui Chua National Park, Ninh Thuan Province ...
Feb 2, 2024 · our study brings the number of species in the genus Dibamus to 26; Dibamus deimontis sp. nov. is the eighth species of Dibamus recorded in ...<|separator|>
[10]
(PDF) The reduced limbed lizards of the genus Bachia (Reptilia ...
Feb 12, 2019 · In this paper, we increase the number of species in the genus Bachia from 25 to 31 with the description of two new species and the elevation of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 ...
Apr 29, 2013 · Squamate reptiles (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians ["worm lizards"]) are among the most diverse radiations of terrestrial vertebrates.
[12]
Molecular Phylogenetics of Squamata: The Position of Snakes ...
We present a molecular phylogenetic study of 69 squamate species using approximately 4600 (2876 parsimony-informative) base pairs (bp) of DNA sequence data.
[13]
Molecular systematics of teioid lizards (Teioidea ...
Mar 17, 2016 · The sister taxon of Teiidae, the clade of Gymnophthalmidae excluding Alopoglossinae, is divided into two large reciprocally monophyletic groups ...Abstract · Materials and methods · Discussion · Conclusions
[14]
Eocene Anguid Lizards from Europe and a Revision of the Genus ...
In the former he included all the heavily armored forms with well developed limbs and tubercular sculpture on their osteo- scutes and cranial elements, whereas ...Missing: evidence | Show results with:evidence
[15]
Evolutionary origins of the prolonged extant squamate radiation
Nov 29, 2022 · A phylogeny and revised classification of Squamata, including 4161 species of lizards ... In Phylogenetic Relationships of the Lizard Families. ( ...Missing: polyphyletic | Show results with:polyphyletic
[16]
[PDF] A farewell to arms and legs: a review of limb reduction in squamates
In squamates, limb reduction is generally associated with the acquisition of a snake-like body shape (Lande, 1978; Greer, 1991).
[17]
[PDF] Evolution of Limblessness - Wiens lab
Jan 4, 2010 · For example, the burrowing morph has evolved in families of lizards distributed throughout the squamate tree, including amphisbaenians ...
[18]
Flap-Footed Lizards (Gekkota: Pygopodidae) Have Forelimbs, Albeit ...
Sep 13, 2019 · The general evolutionary pattern is the gradual loss of limb elements proceeding from the toes to the shoulder or hip. In contrast, forelimbs ...
[19]
Appendages and Gene Regulatory Networks - PubMed Central - NIH
Some of these limbless lineages are more ancient than snakes, originating approximately 200 million years ago at the base of the squamate tree. Others are more ...
[20]
THE SQUAMATE TREE OF LIFE - BioOne
May 5, 2021 · Knowledge of venom in helodermatid lizards is much more recent (Woodson, 1947). Anecdotally, belief that various other lizard species are ...
[21]
Evolution in Action: Lizards Losing Limbs - Live Science
Nov 12, 2008 · About 53 lineages of lizards and snakes are known to have lost one or more bones of their limbs throughout their evolution, Skinner said. Video ...
[22]
Convergent Evolution Has Led to the Loss of Claw Proteins in ...
We conclude that the convergent evolution of a limbless body was associated with the convergent loss of claw keratins and differentiation genes in squamates.Missing: legless | Show results with:legless
[23]
Lizards that lost their legs re-evolved them as the climate got wetter
Nov 11, 2020 · In the distant past, climate change may have driven limbless lizards to evolve legs – having already lost them once before.
[24]
Anguis fragilis (Slow Worm) | INFORMATION | Animal Diversity Web
The slow worm is a smooth, elongate legless lizard, with a snout-vent length (SVL) of between 120-200 mm. Adults are typically gray-brown to copper in color.
[25]
Ophisaurus attenuatus (Slender Glass Lizard) - Animal Diversity Web
After two years, 261 (12.3% survivorship) glass lizards were left, and after three years the number dropped to 81 (3.8%). Years 4 (2.1%), 5 (1.2%), and 6 (0.5%) ...
[26]
Eastern Glass Lizard - Virginia Herpetological Society
Tail length was 1.9-2.3 x body length. A deep, lateral groove is present on each side of the body. Scutellation: Scales smooth, squarish to rhomboidal in shape, ...
[27]
Skull Anatomy and Ontogeny of Legless Lizard Pseudopus apodus ...
Dec 16, 2016 · ... legless lizard P. apodus are described in detail. In the present ... Since that time, the authors dealing mostly with the anatomy of lizards ...Missing: plan | Show results with:plan
[28]
Ecomorphometric Analysis of Diversity in Cranial Shape of ...
Apr 22, 2021 · All pygopodids have a snake-like body plan with absent forelimbs (although pectoral girdle vestiges persist), and extremely reduced or ...
[29]
New data on the structure and the growth of the osteoderms in the ...
Each osteoderm coincides exactly with an epidermal fold forming the keratinized scales characteristic of the skin of reptiles. Sections perpendicular to the ...
[30]
Osteoderms of the California Legless Lizard Anniella (Squamata - jstor
Aug 20, 2007 · In none of the other examined parts of Anguidae is there a gradual caudal enlargement of body scales as in Anniella. In overall form, the body ...
[31]
Sexual size dimorphism in Eastern slow-worm (Anguis fragilis ...
The direction and magnitude of inter-sexual differences in body and head size in one eastern slow-worm (A. f. colchica) population were investigated.
[32]
[PDF] SEXUAL SIZE DIMORPHISM IN EASTERN SLOW-WORM (Anguis ...
As the ratio of indi- viduals with intact tail was low (below 25%), the use of tail length had to be rejected. A. f. colchica inhabit the undisturbed parts ...
[33]
Angles and waves: intervertebral joint angles and axial kinematics of ...
Whereas limbless lizards have 44 to 120 vertebrae, snakes have at least 136, and sometimes over 300 vertebrae (Hoffstetter and Gasc, 1969; Lindell, 1994; ...
[34]
Nomenclature of Vertebral Laminae in Lizards, with Comments on ...
Feb 23, 2016 · Lacertids generally have approximately 26 presacral vertebrae, ranging from 23 to 30 [1,6].
[35]
Eocene lizard from Germany reveals amphisbaenian origins - PubMed
May 19, 2011 · Amphisbaenia is a speciose clade of fossorial lizards characterized by a snake-like body and a strongly reinforced skull adapted for ...
[36]
Florida's Legless Lizards - UF Wildlife
Glass lizards are legless, and their long tails give them a very snake-like appearance. Unlike snakes, they have moveable eyelids and external ear openings.Missing: distinguish | Show results with:distinguish
[37]
Snakes Vs. Legless Lizards! Are They One In The Same!?
Jul 17, 2024 · The belly, or ventral scales of most species of legless lizards are therefore less flat and wide than snakes, and resemble those of most other ...
[38]
Anatomy, Physiology, and Disorders of the Spectacle ... - NIH
Mar 21, 2023 · Dibamidae (Blind lizards), Dibamidae, Reduced eyes. Moveable eyelids have been replaced by transparent scales that cover the eye [4,6].
[39]
The Evolution of Unidirectional Pulmonary Airflow | Physiology
Jul 1, 2015 · Sphenodon has a simple lung consisting of a single chamber, whereas the complexity of the lung varies significantly in squamates (53, 54, 76). ...Missing: legless | Show results with:legless
[40]
Search results - The Reptile Database
Search results. Search Parameters. Higher taxa: Pygopodidae. Search results ... Distribution (e.g. Madagascar, Florida): Types (e.g. USNM 6769): Reference ...
[41]
Systematics of the Lizard Family Pygopodidae with Implications for ...
We therefore used the molecular clock method to root the pygopodid tree. Results of two independent molecular clock analyses (mtDNA and nDNA) converged upon the ...
[42]
Anguis fragilis LINNAEUS, 1758 - The Reptile Database
The 5 species cannot be diagnosed morphologically although they clearly form genetic clades.Missing: count | Show results with:count
[43]
https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physiol.00056.2014
[44]
Anniella pulchra GRAY, 1852 - The Reptile Database
Taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species, such as turtles, snakes, lizards, and crocodiles, as well as tuataras ...
[45]
https://news.berkeley.edu/2013/09/17/four-new-species-of-legless-lizards-discovered-living-on-the-edge/
[46]
Bachia peruana | The Reptile Database
Higher Taxa, Gymnophthalmidae (Cercosaurinae, Bachiinae), Sauria, Gymnophthalmoidea, Squamata (lizards). Subspecies. Common Names, E: Peru Bachia.
[47]
[PDF] Life history account for California Legless Lizard
This secretive fossorial lizard is common in suitable habitats in the Coast Ranges from the vicinity of Antioch, Contra Costa Co. south to the Mexican ...
[48]
Northern Legless Lizard - Anniella pulchra - California Herps
Based on the one species concept of Anniella pulchra as it was known before being split into 5 species in 2013. Size. 4 - 3/8 to 7 inches long from snout to ...
[49]
[PDF] Apparent parental care in the slow worm Anguis fragilis
variety of habitats with a preference for high levels of ground cover, where for most of the time it remains hidden in thick vegetation or underground ...
[50]
Habitat preference of the striped legless lizard: Implications of ...
Mar 30, 2016 · In this study, we investigate the habitat requirements of a threatened Australian grassland reptile, the striped legless lizard, Delma impar, ...
[51]
Western Slender Glass Lizard | Missouri Department of Conservation
A number of species are long, slender, and legless, causing them to be ... Ophisaurus, the glass lizards, with four species (including ours). Title.<|separator|>
[52]
Slender Glass Lizard - Reptiles of North Carolina
Taxonomic Comments: Ophisaurus is a genus of legless lizards found in both North America and Southeast Asia, with four species occurring north of Mexico ...
[53]
Slender Glass Lizard - Kansas Herpetofaunal Atlas
Feb 27, 2024 · This lizard is often mistakenly identified as a snake because it has no limbs, but its ear openings and eyelids that close distinguish it from ...
[54]
[PDF] Microhabitats and Home Range of the California Legless Lizard ...
Blackberry vines were apparently adequate lizard habitat. supporting the expected number of lizards. Most of the study site was yellow sund overlain by 20 to -0 ...
[55]
(PDF) Tests on the locomotion of the elongate and limbless reptile ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Unlike snakes, most limbless lizards are capable of only a few forms of locomotion, often "simple undulation" and concertina, and display little ...Missing: legless | Show results with:legless
[56]
Does foraging mode affect metabolic responses to feeding? A study ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Most studies on the effects of tail loss have focused on active foraging lizards, but few data exist for ambush foraging lizards. we ...
[57]
Pyrosequencing of prey DNA in reptile faeces - PubMed
... diets, with the specific aims of determining which earthworm species are exploited by slow worms (the legless lizard Anguis fragilis) and whether they feed ...Missing: foraging | Show results with:foraging
[58]
Ophisaurus ventralis - Eastern Glass Lizard
They are primarily diurnal, but crepuscular and nocturnal activity is known. As in other Ophisaurus species, males appear to be more active than females ...
[59]
(PDF) Ecology and Behaviour of Burton's Legless Lizard (Lialis ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Gekkotans have evolved very disparate morphologies, including limb loss to permit efficient burrowing, webbed digits to prevent sinking in sand, ...
[60]
At What Cost? Trade-Offs and Influences on Energetic Investment in ...
Nov 25, 2021 · Caudal autotomy, the ability to drop a portion of the tail, is found in many lizard species and is used as an effective survival tactic when ...
[61]
The olive delma (Delma inornata), on the many legless geckoes
Dec 22, 2019 · ... tails. Seasonal combat between males has been documented, involving wrestling and body pushing rather than biting. Dentition and Hemipenial ...
[62]
[PDF] Fauna of Australia 2A - Reptilia - Squamata - Pygopodidae - DCCEEW
Colour pattern, where present, typically involves stripes or longitudinal rows of spots on the body, which may continue onto the tail, or in a few species of.Missing: plan | Show results with:plan
[63]
Eastern Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus ventralis) - SREL herpetology - UGA
They are normally found in pine flatwoods but can be found in wetter habitats such as the edges of freshwater wetlands, salt marshes, and beaches. Habits and ...
[64]
Anniella pulchra (California Legless Lizard) - Animal Diversity Web
The breeding season probably occurs between early spring and July. Range number of offspring: 1 to 4. Average number of offspring: 2. Average gestation period ...
[65]
[PDF] Silvery Legless Lizard (Anniella pulchra pulchra)
The location database for the silvery legless lizard (Anniella pulchra pulchra) within its known range in California includes 14 data records dated from ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[66]
https://auth1.dpr.ncparks.gov/reptiles/view.php?checklist_number=135.0
[67]
Island Glass Lizard (Ophisaurus compressus) - SREL herpetology
Long, slender, legless lizards that superficially resemble snakes. They differ from snakes, though, in that they have moveable eyelids, external ear openings, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[68]
What's the difference between a snake and a legless lizard?
Oct 22, 2024 · Legless lizards and snakes are two entirely different animals from separate evolutionary lines. Legless lizards evolved from the legged lizards with which most ...Legless Lizards and Snakes... · Both Legless Lizards and...
[69]
Exhibit Scavenger Hunt | Snakes and Lizards: Structure and Function
Reptiles have well-developed lungs from birth and breathe air. Most of them have two lungs, except some snakes which have a single lung. Scales and scutes ...
[70]
Pseudopus apodus Soft Tissue Anatomy Based on Comparison of ...
Feb 20, 2025 · The species object of our interest is the lizard Pseudopus apodus, a large, legless lizard, most active at night, which is broadly ...
[71]
California Legless Lizard - Safeguarding Native Reptiles
Anniella pulchra has a wide thermal tolerance, which allows it to be active throughout the day, including colder mornings and nights. It is a burrowing ...Missing: lifespan | Show results with:lifespan
[72]
Temperature, Physiology, and the Ecology of Reptiles - ResearchGate
... lizards often have broader tolerance ranges than do frogs, but their thermal. performance breadths are strikingly narrower (Tracy, 1978; Huey, 1982). Other ...
[73]
Legless lizards are no snakes in the grass, but mistaken identity can ...
Dec 29, 2022 · "They are actually a type of gecko, and they don't contain any venom at all, but if you don't know what it is then, like any other animal ...
[74]
lacking venom and constriction, how do snake-like lizards (Lialis ...
Aug 6, 2007 · Numerous adaptations, including constriction, venom, and a strike-and-release feeding strategy, help them avoid injury during predatory ...
[75]
Snakes do it faster, better: How a group of scaly, legless lizards hit ...
Feb 22, 2024 · Snakes evolved up to three times faster than lizards, with massive shifts in traits associated with feeding, locomotion and sensory processing.Missing: distinguish | Show results with:distinguish
[76]
Are Legless Lizards Snakes? - Live Science
Oct 30, 2013 · The answer, of course, lies in ancestry. Legless lizards are not snakes. Rather, functional limblessness has evolved independently perhaps a dozen times.
[77]
Unveiling the Mysteries of Legless Reptiles: A Unique Evolutionary ...
Jun 27, 2025 · Legless reptiles have evolved from limbed ancestors through a process of convergent evolution. The loss of limbs has been linked to factors such ...
[78]
Snakes do it faster, better: How a group of scaly, legless lizards hit ...
Feb 23, 2024 · Snakes evolved up to three times faster than lizards, with massive shifts in traits associated with feeding, locomotion and sensory processing.
[79]
Legless Lizard in California One Step Closer to Endangered ...
Jun 16, 2021 · The oil and gas industry damages lizard habitat by compacting the soil, changing moisture levels, removing plant cover and the leaf-litter layer ...
[80]
CNDDB News | Temblor legless lizard status review: How you can ...
Aug 16, 2022 · The Temblor legless lizard is a unique, limbless lizard endemic to the alkali desert scrub and annual grasslands of the southwestern San Joaquin ...Missing: altitudinal | Show results with:altitudinal
[81]
Striped Legless Lizard - SWIFFT
Threats. The major threat is loss of native grasslands habitat which is associated with, removal of rocks, pasture improvement, extended intense grazing ...
[82]
[PDF] Evaluation of Petition to List Temblor Legless Lizard as a ... - CA.gov
Mar 25, 2022 · High genetic diversity among fossorial lizard populations. (Anniella pulchra) in a rapidly developing landscape (Central California).
[83]
[PDF] Temblor Legless Lizard Petition - Center for Biological Diversity
Oct 19, 2020 · Reptiles are highly sensitive to anthropogenic climate change since all aspects of their life are influenced by temperature and moisture.
[84]
How will climate change impact fossorial lizard species? Two ...
Results suggest that both species are at high risk of extinction by global climate change based on the thermal habitat suitability.
[85]
Time to wake up to the illegal trade of sleepy lizards
Jul 13, 2021 · Australian reptiles face serious conservation threats from illegal poaching fuelled by international demand and the exotic pet trade.Missing: legless persecution
[86]
[PDF] Striped Legless Lizard (Delma Impar) ACtion Plan - ACT Government
Delma impar may also be susceptible to predation by introduced predators; there is anecdotal evidence to suggest foxes may prey upon the lizards. (Robertson ...
[87]
National Recovery Plan for the Striped Legless Lizard (Delma impar ...
Oct 10, 2021 · The effect of introduced predators is not well understood, and may be significantly detrimental in grasslands adjacent to urban areas (such ...
[88]
Endangered Species Protection Sought for Legless Southeastern ...
Oct 15, 2025 · Their already small and isolated populations are threatened by habitat destruction and degradation, predation, road mortality and climate change ...Missing: major threats loss
[89]
[PDF] Temblor legless lizard Petition 2020 - Center for Biological Diversity
Oct 20, 2020 · The Temblor legless lizard is in the genus Anniella, known as the American legless lizards. Anniella was discovered to science in 1852 by Dr.<|control11|><|separator|>
[90]
Threatened species monitoring: the striped legless lizards of ...
Sep 14, 2020 · Ongoing clearing for urban development, grassland degradation (e.g. invasive weeds), habitat fragmentation, overgrazing, drought, fire and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[91]
Snakes | Native animals - Environment and Heritage
Many harmless snakes, and even legless lizards, are killed unnecessarily in this way. A number of snake species have been listed as threatened in New South ...
[92]
Genetic diversity and structure of the threatened striped legless ...
Genetic diversity and structure of the threatened striped legless lizard, Delma impar: management implications for the species and a translocated population.Missing: parthenogenetic | Show results with:parthenogenetic
[93]
Climate Futures for Lizards and Snakes in Western North America ...
Oct 13, 2024 · We assessed changes in fundamental climate-niche space for lizard and snake species in western North America under modeled climate scenarios.