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Library of Pergamum

The Library of Pergamum was a renowned ancient library in the Hellenistic kingdom of Pergamon, located in the sanctuary of Athena Polias Nikephoros in the city of Pergamon (modern Bergama, Turkey), founded around 197–159 BCE by King Eumenes II of the Attalid dynasty as a center for philological and scholarly pursuits.^[1]^[2] It housed an estimated 200,000 scrolls, making it the second-largest collection in the ancient world after the Library of Alexandria, and featured architectural elements such as a colonnaded reading room, protective air circulation spaces for scrolls, and possibly a statue of Athena.^[1]^[3] The library's establishment reflected the Attalid rulers' patronage of learning, and it became a hub for textual criticism and Homeric studies under scholars such as Crates of Mallos, who headed the institution and developed innovative approaches to allegory and linguistics, including the creation of the first known globe.^[2]^[1] Its rivalry with Alexandria intensified cultural competition; when Ptolemy V banned papyrus exports to hinder Pergamon's growth, the library pioneered the use of treated animal skins known as parchment (charta pergamena), revolutionizing book production and preservation, although earlier uses of animal skins for writing are attested, such as in Herodotus.^[1]^[3] This innovation, attributed to the era's material shortages during conflicts like the invasion by Antiochus IV, allowed Pergamon to sustain its vast holdings independently.^[3] The library's scholarly legacy included a distinct editorial tradition for classical texts, such as an augmented Homeric corpus with "plus-verses" omitted by Alexandrian critics like Aristarchus of Samothrace, fostering a holistic canon formation that contrasted with Alexandria's more selective methods.^[2]^[1] Its prominence ended around 41 BCE, when Roman general Mark Antony reportedly transferred its 200,000 volumes to Cleopatra to replenish the Alexandrian library, though archaeological remains in Pergamon, traditionally identified as the library, attest to its original grandeur and are among the few surviving structures associated with Hellenistic libraries.^[3]^[1]

Historical Background

The City of Pergamum

Pergamum originated as a modest settlement in the 4th century BCE, serving as a minor polis and sub-satrapal center under Achaemenid Persian rule in western Asia Minor, near the modern town of Bergama in Turkey.^[4] Around 302 BCE, Philetairos, a local governor, assumed control of its fortified citadel, laying the groundwork for Attalid dominance; by 281 BCE, following the collapse of the Kingdom of Thrace, he established independence, marking the city's transformation into the capital of the Attalid dynasty and a burgeoning Hellenistic powerhouse.^[4] This evolution positioned Pergamum as a vital urban center, expanding dramatically under rulers like Eumenes II in the mid-2nd century BCE, who enclosed approximately 91 hectares within extensive 4-kilometer walls, incorporating sophisticated urban planning.^[4] Strategically situated in the fertile Kaikos (Bakırçay) Valley at the crossroads of key land and sea routes in the Aegean region, Pergamum functioned as a crucial buffer state against invasions from the Seleucid Empire to the east and Celtic Galatians to the north, while facilitating control over military and commercial pathways across Anatolia.^[4]^[5] Its acropolis, perched on Kale Hill, dominated the landscape with monumental temples, a steeply terraced theater seating up to 10,000 spectators—one of the largest and most dramatic in the ancient world—and the imposing Great Altar of Zeus, symbolizing the city's architectural and religious grandeur.^[5] These features underscored Pergamum's role as a political and cultural hub, with the Attalid rulers briefly elevating its status through ambitious building programs and alliances.^[4] The city's economy relied heavily on the surrounding valley's rich agricultural output, including grains, olives, and vines, which supported local sustenance and surplus production.^[6] Trade flourished via the nearby port of Elaea, enabling the export of goods and integration into broader Hellenistic networks, bolstered by Attalid innovations like the cistophorus silver coinage that standardized transactions across their realm.^[4]^[7] Following Attalus III's bequest of the kingdom to Rome upon his death in 133 BCE, Pergamum transitioned into the Roman province of Asia, serving as its initial administrative capital and benefiting from imperial infrastructure that sustained its economic vitality into the Roman era.^[4]

The Attalid Dynasty

The Attalid dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Pergamon from 281 to 133 BCE, originating with Philetaerus, a eunuch of Macedonian descent who served as treasurer to Lysimachus of Thrace before transferring allegiance to Seleucus I Nicator following the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BCE. Philetaerus governed Pergamon from 282 to 263 BCE, amassing wealth and consolidating control over the surrounding region, including expansions into the Caicus valley, while defending against Galatian incursions around 278–276 BCE. Without heirs, he adopted his nephew Eumenes I as successor, establishing the familial line that would elevate Pergamon to a prominent Hellenistic power.^[8]^[9]^[10] The dynasty's political independence solidified after the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE, which fragmented Alexander the Great's empire and allowed Philetaerus to secure autonomy under nominal Seleucid overlordship. Eumenes I (r. 263–241 BCE) further asserted independence by defeating Seleucid forces at Sardis around 262 BCE, incorporating territories in Mysia and Aeolis. Subsequent rulers expanded through strategic alliances and military victories: Attalus I (r. 241–197 BCE) repelled Galatians decisively around 238 BCE, earning the epithet Soter ("Savior") and allying with Rome against Macedon in the First and Second Macedonian Wars (214–205 and 200–197 BCE). The dynasty peaked under Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BCE), who, allied with Rome, defeated Antiochus III at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BCE, securing vast territories north of the Taurus Mountains via the Peace of Apamea in 188 BCE and transforming Pergamon into a major Hellenistic kingdom.^[8]^[9]^[10] The Attalids were renowned for their cultural patronage, commissioning grand architectural projects such as temples, gymnasia, and the Library of Pergamon to symbolize Hellenistic sophistication and royal prestige. Under Eumenes II, this patronage flourished with constructions like the Great Altar of Zeus, blending Greek and local Anatolian elements to project cultural dominance. Attalus II (r. 159–138 BCE) continued these efforts, founding cities like Philadelphia and Attaleia while enhancing civic facilities to foster intellectual and athletic life. This era of building elevated Pergamon's status as a center of learning and piety, rivaling other Hellenistic courts.^[8]^[9]^[10] The dynasty concluded when Attalus III (r. 138–133 BCE), childless and without a designated heir, bequeathed the kingdom to Rome in his will upon his death in 133 BCE, an act motivated by internal instability and a desire to prevent civil war. Rome accepted the legacy, incorporating Pergamon as the province of Asia after suppressing a revolt led by the pretender Eumenes III Aristonicus from 133 to 129 BCE, thus ending Attalid rule and marking Rome's expansion into Asia Minor.^[8]^[9]^[10]

Establishment and Development

Founding under Eumenes II

The Library of Pergamum was initiated by King Eumenes II of the Attalid dynasty during his reign from 197 to 159 BCE, as part of extensive expansions on the city's acropolis that reflected the dynasty's broader cultural policies of promoting Hellenistic learning and prestige.^[2] This founding was driven in significant part by a competitive rivalry with the Library of Alexandria, where Ptolemy V Epiphanes reportedly banned papyrus exports to hinder Pergamon's efforts, according to ancient tradition.^[1] Eumenes II, known for his personal enthusiasm for philology and literature, envisioned the library as a symbol of intellectual sovereignty, positioning Pergamon as a rival center of scholarship in the Hellenistic world.^[2] The structure was integrated as an annex within the sanctuary of Athena Polias Nikephoros, the city's patron goddess, thereby associating the pursuit of knowledge with divine protection and endorsement under Athena's auspices.^[1] This placement on the acropolis not only underscored the library's sacred and royal significance but also facilitated its role as a hub for philosophical and literary study, drawing on the Attalids' tradition of blending religion with cultural patronage.^[2] From its inception, the library was staffed with distinguished scholars recruited from key Hellenistic centers, including Athens and Alexandria, to establish it as a premier research institution focused on textual criticism and interpretation.^[1] Notable among them was Crates of Mallos, a Stoic grammarian who served as its early director and advanced studies in Homeric epics, fostering a school that rivaled Alexandria's under Aristarchus of Samothrace.^[2] These experts contributed to its reputation as a vibrant intellectual environment, emphasizing Greek literature, philosophy, and philology. The initial collection under Eumenes II emphasized core works of Greek literature and philosophy, with estimates suggesting it rapidly amassed tens of thousands of volumes—though precise figures for the founding phase remain elusive, the library grew to hold approximately 200,000 scrolls by the late Hellenistic period, second only to Alexandria in scale.^[1] This focus on acquiring and copying seminal texts, such as those of Aristotle and Homer, underscored its foundational mission as a repository for Hellenistic scholarship.^[2]

Building the Collection

The Attalid kings of Pergamum pursued aggressive strategies to amass a vast collection of texts, rivaling the Library of Alexandria through systematic acquisition efforts across the Hellenistic world. Under Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BCE), scribes were dispatched to major centers like Athens and Alexandria to copy manuscripts, while royal agents purchased scrolls from merchants and private owners in Greece, Asia Minor, and beyond.^[2] Diplomatic exchanges also played a key role, with allies and vassal states offering texts as gifts to curry favor with the Attalids, including rare philosophical works that were otherwise closely guarded.^[11] These methods, supported by substantial royal funding, enabled the library to grow rapidly from its founding in the mid-second century BCE. According to ancient tradition, an embargo on papyrus exports by Ptolemy V around 197 BCE prompted the refinement of parchment in Pergamon, though this story is likely apocryphal. While animal skins had been used for writing earlier, Pergamon's artisans refined the process to produce high-quality parchment (known as pergamenum or membrana), treating primarily goats and sheep skins into thin, durable sheets suitable for writing, which proved more robust than papyrus for long-term storage and transport.^[11]^[1] This shift not only sustained the library's expansion but also allowed for the production of codices alongside traditional scrolls, enhancing accessibility and preservation of texts. By the late second century BCE, the library's holdings reportedly peaked at approximately 200,000 scrolls and codices, encompassing a broad spectrum of Hellenistic knowledge with emphasis on literary classics and scholarly works. The collection prioritized Homeric epics like the Iliad and Odyssey, Attic tragedies by playwrights such as Sophocles and Euripides, and scientific treatises on medicine, astronomy, and natural philosophy, including Aristotle's corpus acquired through persistent pursuit.^[2]^[11] To manage this expansive archive, librarians likely used cataloging systems similar to those in Alexandria, organizing materials by genre, author, and subject, though no details or surviving inventories from Pergamon are known.^[2]^[11] The absence of a full inventory today underscores the challenges of ancient record-keeping, yet fragmentary references highlight the library's role as a pioneering organizational hub.^[11]

Physical Structure and Facilities

Location on the Acropolis

The Library of Pergamum was strategically situated at the northern end of the Acropolis in ancient Pergamon, now Bergama in western Turkey, providing both defensive elevation and a commanding view over the surrounding landscape.^[12] This placement overlooked the fertile plain of the Caicus River (modern Bakırçay), which stretched northward from the city's base, enhancing the site's symbolic prominence as a center of Attalid power and intellectual prestige.^[5] The elevated position on the Acropolis, rising sharply to about 335 meters above sea level, offered natural protection against floods from the river valley and potential invasions, while also capitalizing on the prevailing winds for ventilation in the region's Mediterranean climate.^[13] In close proximity to key cultural structures, the library was integrated into the Acropolis's sacred precinct, directly adjacent to the Temple of Athena Polias, from which it may have been annexed or extended as part of a unified scholarly complex.^[13] This positioning facilitated an interconnected life of learning and worship, with the library situated near the grand theater seating up to 10,000 spectators and other public spaces like stoas, allowing scholars easy access to performances, discussions, and religious rites that enriched intellectual pursuits.^[14] The topographical layout of the Acropolis, with its terraced design, further supported this integration by creating a cohesive urban environment where the library's location promoted both accessibility and seclusion for study.^[5] Archaeological evidence confirming the library's precise layout emerged from 19th-century excavations led by German archaeologist Carl Humann, from 1878 to 1886 under the German Archaeological Institute.^[13] These digs uncovered the library's ruins amid the broader Acropolis remains, including foundations and structural elements that mapped its northern placement relative to the Temple of Athena and the theater, with detailed plans published in the "Altertümer von Pergamon" series starting in 1885.^[12] The site's preservation amid later Byzantine and Ottoman overlays has allowed modern reconstructions to verify its role within the Acropolis's defensive and cultural topography.^[13]

Architectural Features

The Library of Pergamum featured a multi-room layout designed to support both storage and scholarly activities, consisting of four interconnected chambers within the Sanctuary of Athena on the acropolis. The largest room served as the primary reading and depository space, measuring approximately 13.5 meters by 15 meters, with built-in wooden shelves lining the walls for housing scrolls. Adjacent smaller rooms functioned as storage stacks and reception areas, and possibly included scriptoria for copying texts, reflecting the library's role in manuscript production.^[15]^[16]^[1] A key innovation for book preservation was a 50 cm air gap between the outer walls and the shelves, allowing air circulation to mitigate dampness from the Anatolian climate and protect papyrus and parchment materials. The floors incorporated a similar raised design with ventilation spaces beneath to further control humidity and prevent mold. These features exemplified Hellenistic engineering priorities for environmental stability in library construction.^[3] Decorative elements enhanced the space's grandeur and symbolic importance, including a central colossal statue of Athena Polias over 3 meters tall, positioned in the main reading room as a patroness of wisdom. Marble colonnades framed the northern stoa providing shaded porticos for protected access, while the structure primarily utilized local andesite stone for walls, valued for its durability in the seismically active region, with marble accents for finer details.^[15]^[17]

Intellectual and Cultural Significance

Competition with the Library of Alexandria

The rivalry between the Library of Pergamum and the Library of Alexandria emerged around 200 BCE, during the reigns of Eumenes II of Pergamum and Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt, as both rulers sought to establish the preeminent center of Hellenistic scholarship.^[1] This competition was fueled by the Attalid kings' ambition to rival the Ptolemaic Mouseion, leading to aggressive efforts in collecting texts and attracting intellectuals across the Greek world.^[18] Ancient sources recount that Ptolemy V, envious of Pergamum's burgeoning collection, imposed a ban on papyrus exports from Egypt around 190 BCE, aiming to cripple the rival library's ability to produce scrolls.^[1] In response, according to legend, Pergamum developed the use of parchment—treated animal skins—as a durable alternative writing material, though parchment had been in use prior to this period.^[1]^[18] This material became associated with Pergamum and enhanced preservation capabilities.^[1] The libraries engaged in fierce contests to acquire rare manuscripts, including multiple editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, which were central to Hellenistic textual criticism.^[1] Pergamum's agents scoured markets and private collections, often outbidding Alexandrian counterparts, while Alexandria employed similar tactics to secure canonical works.^[18] Scholar recruitment intensified the rivalry; for instance, Aristophanes of Byzantium faced imprisonment in Alexandria under Ptolemy V for suspected defection to Pergamum around 145 BCE.^[1] These efforts underscored a broader competition for intellectual talent, with both institutions offering patronage to grammarians and critics. The mutual influence of the two libraries shaped Hellenistic library standards, as Alexandria's vast scale—estimated at over 500,000 volumes—contrasted with Pergamum's reported 200,000 volumes, emphasizing quality curation and greater public accessibility.^[1] While Alexandria prioritized comprehensive catalogs like Callimachus's Pinakes, Pergamum fostered a more holistic approach to textual interpretation, influencing subsequent Roman libraries.^[18] This dynamic rivalry elevated standards for manuscript authentication and scholarly debate across the Mediterranean. Anecdotes of espionage and book piracy highlight the intensity of the competition, as reported by ancient sources like Galen.^[19] Galen described how Ptolemy III Euergetes seized official Athenian copies of tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides under the pretense of copying them, retaining the originals while returning inferior duplicates—a tactic mirrored in efforts to undermine rivals like Pergamum.^[20] He also noted unscrupulous copyists exploiting the high prices paid by both libraries, producing forged or hastily duplicated texts to capitalize on the demand for rare works.^[19] Such practices, including suspected spying on departing scholars, reflected the shadowy undercurrents of the libraries' quest for dominance.^[1]

Scholars and Contributions

The Library of Pergamum attracted prominent scholars who advanced classical scholarship, particularly under the patronage of the Attalid kings. Crates of Mallus, a Stoic philosopher and grammarian from Cilicia, served as the chief librarian during the reign of Eumenes II (197–158 BCE), where he led the Pergamene school of criticism.^[21] He is renowned for constructing the first known terrestrial globe, interpreting Homer's descriptions of the world—such as the shield of Agamemnon in the Iliad (Book 18)—as representations of a spherical Earth encircled by Oceanus, thereby contributing to early Stoic geography and cosmological thought.^[1] Crates also engaged in textual criticism of Homer, editing an expanded version known as the Homerus Auctus by incorporating additional verses and prooemia, which contrasted with the more conservative Alexandrian approach and emphasized a holistic interpretation of poetic language.^[21] Another key figure was Apollodorus of Athens (c. 180–after 120 BCE), a pupil of Aristarchus of Samothrace who, after expulsion from Alexandria around 145 BCE, may have briefly associated with the library in Pergamum before settling in Athens. There, he produced his Chronica, a comprehensive historical chronicle from the fall of Troy to his own time, which synthesized mythological, literary, and chronological data, influencing later Greek and Roman historiography.^[2] Apollodorus' work exemplified the library's emphasis on systematic analysis of classical texts, bridging philology and history. The library served as a vital hub for philology, fostering innovations in textual editing and linguistic analysis that established rational principles for interpreting ancient literature, particularly Homer's epics.^[1] Scholars there championed the concept of "anomaly" in language, arguing for irregular but meaningful connections between words and ideas, which spurred debates on poetic authenticity and structure.^[1] Beyond philology, the institution supported advancements in medicine and astronomy through its extensive collection of treatises, which were meticulously copied and preserved, enabling the dissemination of knowledge on topics like humoral theory and celestial mechanics across the Hellenistic world.^[2] As a center for scribal activity, the library produced high-quality parchment manuscripts that circulated throughout the Mediterranean, facilitating the exchange of scientific and philosophical ideas among scholars in Greece, Egypt, and beyond.^[2]

Decline and Legacy

Roman Annexation and Transfer

In 133 BCE, the Kingdom of Pergamon was bequeathed to the Roman Republic through the will of its last Attalid ruler, Attalus III, marking the end of independent Hellenistic rule in the region and initiating Roman control over the city and its institutions, including the library.^[22] Initially, the Romans maintained the library as part of the newly formed province of Asia, with Pergamon serving as the provincial capital, allowing the collection to remain intact and accessible for scholarly use during the late Republic.^[23] However, as Roman provincial administration solidified, the library experienced gradual neglect, diminishing its role as a central hub of learning amid shifting political priorities and the integration of Greek intellectual resources into Roman culture.^[24] This decline accelerated in 41 BCE when Mark Antony reportedly transferred approximately 200,000 scrolls from the library to Cleopatra VII as a gift to restore the Library of Alexandria after its wartime damages, an act described by the historian Plutarch as part of Antony's lavish favors toward the Egyptian queen.^[25] Following Antony's defeat at Actium and death in 30 BCE, Emperor Augustus partially reversed the transfer by returning some scrolls to Pergamon, though the overall dispersal of the collection significantly reduced the library's prominence and resources.^[13] Despite these losses, the library persisted into the early Imperial era, with surviving texts circulating in Roman circles and influencing Roman authors in their philosophical and rhetorical works.^[1]

Later History and Modern Preservation

Following the Roman annexation in 133 BCE, the Library of Pergamum endured under imperial administration but faced significant setbacks in the third century CE. The city, including the library, suffered extensive damage from a major earthquake in 262 CE and a subsequent Gothic raid during the Crisis of the Third Century, which weakened structures across Pergamon and contributed to economic decline under Roman and early Byzantine rule.^[13]^[26] Despite repairs and continued use into the early Byzantine period, the library saw partial abandonment by the fourth century CE as the city's population dwindled amid broader imperial instability and shifting trade routes.^[27] Medieval records of the library are sparse, with the site transitioning under Byzantine oversight before the Ottoman conquest in the early fourteenth century. Pergamon remained inhabited, potentially allowing limited scholarly access to remnants of the collection until around 1300 CE, after which the city declined further; the library's final fate remains unclear, though its volumes were likely dispersed gradually by scholars or through looting, leaving no intact archive by the late medieval era. Under Ottoman rule from circa 1345 onward, the acropolis ruins were repurposed for fortifications and settlements, but no evidence suggests organized library functions persisted.^[28]^[29] The site's modern revival began with systematic archaeological work in the nineteenth century. German engineer and archaeologist Carl Humann led official excavations on the Pergamon acropolis from 1878 to 1886, commissioned by Prussian authorities in collaboration with the Ottoman Empire, uncovering foundations, inscriptions, and artifacts linked to the library and surrounding structures.^[30] Key finds, including architectural fragments and sculptures, were transported to Berlin, where they form the core collection of the Pergamon Museum, constructed between 1910 and 1930 and opened in 1930 to house these Hellenistic treasures.^[31] In contemporary times, preservation efforts have intensified to protect the acropolis as a layered historical site. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designated "Pergamon and its Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape" a World Heritage Site in 2014, recognizing its Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman significance under criteria including outstanding universal value in architecture and cultural exchange.^[32] As of 2025, Turkish authorities continue conservation through the Culture and Tourism Ministry's "Heritage for the Future" initiative, with a $32 million budget allocated since 2024 for site stabilization, landscaping, and accessibility improvements across the acropolis, including the nearby Red Basilica, whose restoration began in March 2025 and is slated for reopening in 2026 with new visitor paths and nighttime lighting.^[33]^[34] These efforts support growing tourism, drawing nearly one million annual visitors to the Bergama district and promoting sustainable management under Turkey's Law No. 2863 on cultural heritage protection.^[35]

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