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Apollodorus

Apollodorus or Apollodoros (Ancient Greek: Ἀπολλόδωρος, romanized: Apóllōdōros) is a common Greek masculine given name meaning "gift of Apollo". It was borne by numerous notable figures in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world, spanning various fields such as art, literature, history, philosophy, and politics. These individuals are categorized below.

Artists

Painter

Apollodorus, an Athenian painter active during the late 5th century BC and specifically noted in the 93rd Olympiad (408–405 BC), is recognized as a pivotal figure in the evolution of Greek painting. Known by the epithet Skiagraphos ("shadow painter"), he advanced beyond the monochromatic and outline-dominated styles of earlier Archaic artists, focusing on techniques that enhanced realism and spatial illusion in two-dimensional media.^[1]^[2] Apollodorus's primary innovation was skiagraphia, a method of shading through hatched lines and gradations of light and dark to model forms and suggest three-dimensional volume, effectively introducing chiaroscuro and rudimentary perspective to painting. This technique extended earlier applications of shadow from architectural scenes to the human figure, allowing for more dynamic representations of light effects and depth. Pliny the Elder credits him as the first artist to achieve lifelike depictions of forms (species) and to elevate the paintbrush to a tool of true artistic glory, distinguishing his work from predecessors like Polygnotus and setting a new standard for visual engagement.^[2]^[1] Although no original works survive, ancient accounts highlight Apollodorus's skill in rendering mythological and religious subjects with unprecedented realism. Key examples include his panel of a Priest at Prayer and Ajax Struck by Lightning, the latter preserved and viewable in Pergamum during Pliny's time, where the dramatic interplay of light and shadow on the figures exemplified his mastery of tonal modulation to evoke emotional and spatial depth. These compositions marked a departure from flat silhouettes toward illusionistic effects, influencing the stylistic progression in Greek panel and mural painting.^[1] Apollodorus's contributions bridged the Archaic tradition of linear forms and the Classical emphasis on naturalism, directly paving the way for contemporaries and successors like Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who further refined illusionism. His shading techniques extended their impact into the Hellenistic era, evident in the sophisticated light-shadow modeling of Macedonian tomb frescoes, such as those depicting hunts and abductions at Vergina, which built on skiagraphia for heightened dramatic realism.^[1]^[2]

Sculptor

Apollodorus was a Greek bronze sculptor active around 324 BC, likely from Athens or its vicinity, during the late Classical period. He contributed to the era's emphasis on realistic and expressive human forms. Ancient sources highlight Apollodorus's extraordinary perfectionism, which defined his reputation as an artist of unparalleled dedication. According to Pliny the Elder, Apollodorus was a severe critic of his own work, often breaking his completed statues into pieces if they failed to meet his exacting standards, driven by an intense passion that left him perpetually unsatisfied. This self-destructive habit earned him the nickname "the Madman" among his contemporaries.^[3] None of Apollodorus's sculptures survive today, a common fate for ancient bronzes due to recycling and destruction over time. However, his legacy endured in Roman literary compilations, where he was celebrated as an exemplar of unattainable artistic excellence and unyielding commitment to perfection. The sculptor Silanion, a fellow Athenian active in the same period, even created a bronze portrait of Apollodorus titled The Madman, portraying not merely the man but the embodiment of artistic fury.

Authors

Of Carystus

Apollodorus of Carystus was a prominent Greek playwright of the New Comedy, active in Athens during the early third century BCE, likely born around 300 BCE in Carystus on the island of Euboea. He was a contemporary of Menander, with whom he shared stylistic affinities, and is recorded as having composed 47 comedies, earning five victories at Athenian dramatic festivals.^[4] Although exact birth and death dates remain uncertain, his career flourished between approximately 300 and 260 BCE, marking him as a key successor to Menander in the evolution of Attic comedy. Apollodorus specialized in the domestic themes central to New Comedy, employing intricate plots involving mistaken identities, familial intrigues, and social satire to explore everyday Athenian life. His works are noted for their meticulous dramatic structure, with a focus on character-driven narratives and witty dialogue that highlighted human follies and relationships.^[4] Surviving evidence consists primarily of fragments preserved in later authors, such as Athenaeus, who quotes passages illustrating Apollodorus's sharp social commentary and realistic portrayals. Key among these are fragments from The Flatterer (Kolax), which satirizes sycophancy through clever exchanges, and The Goddess (Thea), featuring mythological elements woven into domestic comedy for humorous effect. Apollodorus's influence extended significantly to Roman comedy, where his structured plots and character development served as models for later adaptations. Notably, Terence directly adapted two of his plays: The Mother-in-Law (Hecyra) for his own Hecyra, emphasizing marital tensions and generational conflicts, and The Claimant (Epidikazomenos) for Phormio, which revolves around legal deceptions and inheritance disputes.^[4] While Plautus drew more from contemporaries like Philemon and Diphilus, Apollodorus's emphasis on plot coherence contributed to the broader tradition of Roman adaptations, bridging Greek New Comedy with Latin stagecraft. His fragments, totaling around 50 lines across various collections, underscore his role in refining the genre's focus on psychological depth over farce.^[5]

Pseudo-Apollodorus

Pseudo-Apollodorus is the conventional name for the anonymous author of the Bibliotheca, a comprehensive handbook of Greek mythology composed in the late 1st or early 2nd century AD during the early Roman imperial period. This attribution distinguishes the work from the 2nd-century BC scholar Apollodorus of Athens, with whom it was once confused by Byzantine sources like Photius, though modern scholarship confirms the author remains otherwise unknown. The Bibliotheca synthesizes mythological narratives into a systematic reference, emphasizing genealogical lineages, chronological progression, and geographical details from the world's origins to the post-Trojan War era, with little interpretive commentary. The text is structured in three books, followed by an epitome preserving later sections. Book 1 begins with cosmogony and theogony, detailing the primordial deities like Uranus and Gaea, the Titanomachy, and the offspring of the Olympian gods, including early heroes such as Deucalion and the Argonauts.^[6] Book 2 continues with heroic sagas from the descendants of Inachus (e.g., Io and the Danaids) through Perseus and Heracles' labors and exploits.^[7] Book 3 shifts to Theban and related myths, covering Europa, Cadmus, Oedipus, the Seven Against Thebes, and culminating in the suitors of Helen and Theseus' adventures, while the epitome reconstructs the Trojan War, Nostoi (returns), and Odysseus' death.^[8] Throughout, the compilation incorporates variant traditions and extensive genealogies to create a continuous narrative framework, serving as a practical compendium rather than a literary composition. Pseudo-Apollodorus drew from a broad array of earlier sources, including epic poetry like Hesiod's Theogony and Catalogue of Women (Ehoiae), Homeric epics, and Hellenistic works such as those by Pherecydes of Athens and Apollonius Rhodius' Argonautica.^[9] However, the author likely relied on intermediary mythographical summaries, commentaries, and hypotheseis rather than direct consultation of primary texts, as evidenced by selective adaptations like the unique purification rite in the Danaids myth.^[9] This compilation method reflects a scholarly effort to reconcile disparate variants into a cohesive handbook, prioritizing comprehensiveness over originality. Only an epitomized version of the Bibliotheca survives intact from medieval manuscripts, with the full text reconstructed through Byzantine scholia, excerpts, and comparisons to related works; the last critical edition remains Richard Wagner's 1926 revision.^[9] Recent scholarship debates the precise dating, with some proposing a terminus ante quem around 207 AD based on parallels with Pseudo-Dositheus' excerpts, while others emphasize its role in early imperial cultural synthesis.^[10] Comparisons to Hyginus' Fabulae highlight structural contrasts—the Bibliotheca's fluid, genealogy-driven prose versus Hyginus' episodic lists—yet both underscore the era's trend toward mythographic handbooks for Roman audiences, often adapting Greek material with minimal Latin influence in Pseudo-Apollodorus' case.^[10]

Historians

Of Athens

Apollodorus of Athens (not to be confused with Pseudo-Apollodorus, the later author of the Bibliotheca), a prominent Greek scholar, historian, and grammarian, was born around 180 BC in Athens as the son of Asclepiades. He received education from the Stoic philosopher Diogenes of Babylon, maintained connections with Panaetius of Rhodes, and later engaged with the scholarly circle of Aristarchus in Alexandria, where he contributed to Hellenistic learning. Apollodorus likely returned to Athens later in life and died sometime after 120 BC, having taught figures such as Philo of Larissa, bridging Stoic and Academic traditions.^[4]^[11] His most significant contribution to Greek historiography is the Chronica, a comprehensive verse chronicle composed in iambic trimeters to facilitate memorization. Spanning from the fall of Troy, dated to 1184 BC, to around 110 BC, the work synthesizes mythological, literary, and historical events, including the lives of philosophers, poets, and rulers. It pioneered an absolute chronological system for Greek history by anchoring events to the sequence of Attic archons rather than relative intervals or Olympiads, offering synchronisms across regions like Athens, Sparta, and Persia. Structured in four books—with the first three forming the core narrative and the fourth as an addendum—the Chronica drew on predecessors like Eratosthenes while innovating didactic poetry in comic iambics.^[12]^[13]^[11] Beyond the Chronica, Apollodorus produced scholarly treatises on grammar and literature, including glosses interpreting Homeric terms and the Catalogue of Ships in the Iliad, as well as biographies of early tragic poets such as Thespis and a tabular summary (pinax) of tragic plots to aid in understanding dramatic structures. His works on the gods (Peri theōn), spanning 24 books, analyzed divine figures in Homer through etymological and mythological exegesis. Apollodorus also dated comic performances and authors, preserving fragments of Middle and New Comedy by integrating them into his chronological framework, which provided essential context for poets like Aristophanes and his successors.^[14] Fragments of Apollodorus's writings survive primarily through citations in later authors, including Eusebius of Caesarea's Chronicle, which adapted his archon-based system into a broader Christian framework synchronizing biblical, Greek, and Roman timelines. This transmission extended his influence to Byzantine chronographers, such as George Syncellus in the 9th century, who revised Eusebian models using Apollodorus's data to refine medieval historical dating and regnal lists. Additional excerpts appear in Athenaeus's Deipnosophistae, Diogenes Laertius's Lives of the Philosophers, and Stephanus of Byzantium, underscoring his enduring role in preserving and systematizing Greek intellectual history.^[15]^[12]

Of Artemita

Apollodorus of Artemita was a Greek historian active around 100 BCE, originating from the Greco-Parthian city of Artemita (also known as Chalasar) in the region of Apolloniatis, near Babylon. As a Babylonian-Greek scholar, he authored the Parthica, a multi-volume historical work—at least four books—detailing the origins and development of the Parthian Empire up to his contemporary era under rulers like Mithridates II.^[16]^[17] Only fragments of the Parthica survive, primarily quoted in later classical sources, which preserve insights into Parthian culture, geography, and history. Athenaeus cites Apollodorus in the Deipnosophistae (Book 15.29) for cultural details on Parthian customs, including references to flora such as philadelphion and smilax used in banquets and daily life, underscoring Hellenistic influences in Eastern social practices.^[16] Strabo, in his Geography (e.g., 11.9.1–2), draws on Apollodorus for precise geographical data, such as distances from the Caspian Gates to Ray (500 stadia) and to Hecatompylos (1,260 stadia), as well as the Scythian origins of the Arsacid royal lineage, highlighting transitions from Seleucid to Parthian dominance.^[16] Apollodorus's position as a local informant in a border region provided a distinctive viewpoint on Seleucid-Parthian interactions, with fragments emphasizing trade routes, military conflicts, and dynastic successions that connected Greek and Persian worlds. His work contributed to bridging Hellenistic and Eastern historiographical traditions, though surviving excerpts limit comprehensive modern analysis of his full contributions.^[16]^[17]

Orators and Rhetoricians

The Logographer

Apollodorus, son of the banker Pasion and an Athenian citizen of Acharnae, was active in the Athenian courts from approximately 370 to 340 BC, emerging as a prominent litigant following his father's death. Born around 394 BC to a family of non-citizen origins that later gained Athenian citizenship through Pasion's benefactions, Apollodorus inherited significant wealth, including banking operations, but quickly became entangled in protracted legal battles, most notably over inheritance and property with his stepfather Phormio. His frequent appearances as a prosecutor and defendant marked him as one of the era's most litigious figures, earning him recognition as the "eleventh Attic orator" beyond the canonical ten.^[18] Six to seven speeches associated with Apollodorus survive within the Demosthenic corpus (Orationes 45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53, and 59), though their authorship is debated, with some likely composed by Apollodorus himself and others by professional logographers. These works address diverse forensic matters, including inheritance claims, assault charges, false testimony, financial debts, and citizenship violations, often arising from personal enmities and economic rivalries. A standout example is the prosecution against Neaera around 340 BC (Dem. 59), where Apollodorus accused the former slave and courtesan—linked through her husband Stephanus to prior disputes involving associates like Demosthenes—of illegally posing as an Athenian citizen, committing adultery, and undermining marital laws; the case exemplifies disputes over status and gender roles in Athenian society. The speeches blend rigorous legal exegesis, drawing on statutes and precedents, with vivid emotional appeals to jurors' outrage over perceived injustices, such as betrayal of family trust or civic purity.^[19] Apollodorus' approach to oratory reflected influences from Isocrates' rhetorical school, prioritizing logical structure, ethical framing, and persuasive narration over flamboyant display, which helped elevate forensic speechwriting into a more systematic profession amid Athens' democratic litigation culture. While he occasionally hired logographers, his personal involvement in drafting and delivering speeches underscored the amateur yet skilled nature of much Attic advocacy, bridging private feuds with public norms. Beyond their rhetorical merit, these documents preserve critical social history, detailing inheritance customs, banking ethics, citizenship criteria, and attitudes toward slavery and women—elements that illuminate everyday Athenian life more vividly than many contemporary narratives.^[18]

Of Pergamon

Apollodorus of Pergamon was a prominent Greek rhetorician born around 106 BC in the city of Pergamon. He established a renowned school of rhetoric in Rome during the late Republic, where he taught advanced techniques in oratory, focusing particularly on declamation exercises that simulated real-world public speaking scenarios to prepare students for forensic and political discourse.^[20] His pedagogical methods emphasized practical application, helping to bridge Greek rhetorical traditions with Roman practices. In 45 BC, Julius Caesar selected Apollodorus to serve as the primary tutor in rhetoric for his great-nephew Gaius Octavius, the future emperor Augustus, recognizing his expertise in declamation. Despite his advanced age, Apollodorus accompanied the young Octavian from Rome to Apollonia in Illyria, where he continued instruction amid preparations for Caesar's eastern campaigns. This close mentorship not only shaped Augustus's oratorical skills but also elevated Apollodorus's status, as noted by the geographer Strabo, who highlighted the rhetorician's influence through his imperial pupil. Apollodorus authored at least one key work on rhetoric, a handbook addressed to his pupil Matius, which focused on judicial oratory and became a cornerstone of his school's teachings; other attributed texts were disavowed by Apollodorus himself, according to Quintilian. His doctrines, preserved mainly through students like the Roman Valgius and the Greek Atticus, contributed to the Apollodorean school, which competed with rival institutions and influenced the stylistic evolution of early Imperial Roman oratory by promoting eloquent, persuasive delivery over rigid formalism. During the turmoil of the civil wars following Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, Apollodorus returned to Greece, where his methods continued to impact rhetorical education in Hellenistic centers.^[21]

Philosophers

The Epicurean

Apollodorus (fl. 2nd century BC) was a Greek Epicurean philosopher based in Athens, where he led the school's Garden community during the mid-2nd century BC.^[22] As scholarch, he oversaw the institution for approximately four decades, from around 150 BC until circa 110 BC, maintaining its focus on practical philosophy amid Hellenistic intellectual currents.^[20] His tenure as head positioned him as a key successor in the Epicurean tradition, emphasizing communal living and ethical inquiry in the school's namesake garden outside Athens' walls.^[23] Apollodorus earned the moniker "Tyrant of the Garden" for his rigorous enforcement of discipline within the school, reflecting a commitment to structured pursuit of Epicurean ideals.^[22] He mentored notable pupils, including Zeno of Sidon, who succeeded him as scholarch and continued the school's prolific output.^[22] This leadership style underscored the Garden's role as a haven for empirical study and modest lifestyle, contrasting with more public philosophical schools in Athens. He was contemporary with Stoic advancements led by figures like Apollodorus of Seleucia.^[20] A prolific author, Apollodorus composed over 400 works covering physics, ethics, and biographies, including a detailed Life of Epicurus.^[22] Surviving fragments, primarily preserved in Diogenes Laërtius' Lives of Eminent Philosophers, reveal his engagement with foundational Epicurean texts and historical accounts of the school's origins.^[22] These writings reinforced the school's emphasis on empirical observation—relying on sensory evidence to comprehend atomic motion and natural processes—as essential to dispelling unfounded fears.^[22] Central to Apollodorus' promotion of Epicureanism was the doctrine of pleasure (hēdonē) as the highest good, interpreted not as excess but as ataraxia (untroubled tranquility) achieved through freedom from physical pain and mental disturbance.^[24] He advanced atomism, positing that the universe consists of indivisible atoms swerving in the void, which explains phenomena without invoking divine agency.^[24] This materialist framework critiqued superstition and fears of afterlife punishment, urging simple living—moderate diet, friendship, and contemplation of nature—to attain ethical fulfillment.^[24] Archaeological traces of Epicurean communities under Apollodorus' influence remain scant, with proposed sites for the Garden near the Dipylon Gate yielding limited artifacts like philosopher statues of possible Epicurean style, but no direct confirmation of his era's activities.^[25]

Of Seleucia

Apollodorus of Seleucia, also known as Apollodorus Ephillus, was a Stoic philosopher active around 150 BC, originating from Seleucia on the Tigris in Mesopotamia. As a pupil of Diogenes of Babylon, the head of the Stoic school following Chrysippus, he studied under one of the last major figures of Middle Stoicism and became a prominent teacher in Athens, where he led discussions and advanced Stoic doctrines during the transition to Late Stoicism.^[26]^[27] His work helped maintain continuity between the rigorous systematization of earlier Stoics like Chrysippus and the evolving interpretations of successors such as Panaetius, emphasizing orthodox positions amid emerging debates.^[28] In dialectic, Apollodorus specialized in Stoic logic, particularly the analysis of syllogisms and the nature of dialectical objects. He contributed to the development of hypothetical syllogisms, exploring their structure and validity as tools for rigorous reasoning, which aligned with the Stoic view of logic as a foundational part of philosophy.^[29] His definitions, preserved in fragments, addressed concepts like qualities and their relation to bodies, reinforcing the Stoic commitment to materialist explanations in logical inquiry.^[28] In physics, Apollodorus authored a treatise cited extensively by Diogenes Laertius for orthodox Stoic views, including the cosmos as a rational, ensouled entity governed by divine reason (logos), with the world described as spherical and finite in extent.^[30] He upheld traditional Stoic cosmology against innovations, arguing for the unity of the universe under providential fate.^[27] Apollodorus's ethical teachings integrated Cynic influences with Stoic moral rigor, famously characterizing the Cynic way of life as a "shortcut to virtue" (syntomon hodos epi aretēn), portraying it as an ascetic path that accelerates the attainment of eudaimonia through self-sufficiency and endurance.^[31] He emphasized virtue as the sole good, aligned with Stoic determinism, where fate (heimarmenē) directs human actions but moral responsibility persists through rational alignment with nature.^[32] This perspective influenced later Stoics, including Posidonius, who echoed Apollodorus's conservative ethical stance on fate's compatibility with virtue, bridging the school's Hellenistic core to Roman adaptations.^[33]

Rulers and Generals

Tyrant of Cassandreia

Apollodorus seized control of Cassandreia around 278 BC, establishing himself as tyrant through a calculated display of patriotism that masked his ambitions. As a private citizen, he cultivated a reputation for civic virtue and careful conduct, earning the trust of the populace, but once in power, he unleashed a reign of terror marked by extreme cruelty. According to Polyaenus, after being acquitted by judges due to a display of humility, he punished them with the greatest cruelty upon seizing power.^[34] Accounts by Aelian and Diodorus Siculus portrayed him as one of the most despotic rulers of the era, comparable to infamous tyrants like Phalaris.^[20] During his brief rule, Apollodorus transformed Cassandreia into a fortified stronghold, leveraging its strategic position in the Chalcidice peninsula to assert independence amid the fracturing Macedonian kingdom. He allied temporarily with Antigonus II Gonatas, the emerging Antigonid ruler, against the invading Galatians who threatened the region in the late 270s BC. Antigonus besieged Cassandreia for ten months but initially raised the siege. To end Apollodorus's tyranny, Antigonus enlisted the pirate Ameinias, who gained the tyrant's trust by pretending to mediate a reconciliation and providing supplies. Ameinias then secretly constructed ladders and scaled the walls at dawn with his forces, capturing the city and allowing Antigonus to take control.^[35] This betrayal highlighted the fluid military dynamics of Hellenistic Greece, where local tyrants navigated alliances to survive the Diadochi wars' aftermath. In 276 BC, following the capture of Cassandreia, Apollodorus was killed by Antigonus's forces. His downfall underscored the precarious nature of tyrannical rule in the power vacuum following Alexander the Great's death, where regional strongmen like Apollodorus vied for control against ambitious successors.

The Sicilian

Apollodorus the Sicilian was a trusted courtier and loyal follower of Cleopatra VII, the last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, during the turbulent early years of her reign in the mid-1st century BC. Known primarily through ancient historical accounts, he played a pivotal role in Cleopatra's political maneuvering amid her conflict with her brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII. As a close confidant, Apollodorus assisted Cleopatra when she was ousted from Alexandria and forced into exile around 48 BC, demonstrating his unwavering allegiance during a critical juncture in her bid to secure Roman support against her rivals. The most famous episode involving Apollodorus occurred during Julius Caesar's arrival in Egypt in 48 BC, when Cleopatra sought to gain his favor to reclaim her throne. Exiled and barred from the palace by Ptolemy XIII's forces, Cleopatra devised a daring plan to reach Caesar undetected. Accompanied solely by Apollodorus, she traveled by small skiff from the countryside to Alexandria under cover of dusk. To bypass the guards, Apollodorus concealed her inside a sack—later romanticized in legends as a bedroll or carpet—and carried it into Caesar's quarters, where she emerged to captivate the Roman general. This audacious act not only facilitated Cleopatra's alliance with Caesar but also decisively shifted the balance of power in her favor, leading to Ptolemy XIII's defeat and her restoration.^[36] His epithet "the Sicilian" suggests origins in Sicily, likely from one of the Greek-speaking communities in the island's Hellenistic cities, such as Syracuse or Agrigentum, reflecting the diverse ethnic makeup of Ptolemaic court officials who often included Greek expatriates. Beyond this clandestine operation, historical records provide scant details on Apollodorus's broader career, with no surviving accounts of further diplomatic or military roles in Cleopatra's campaigns. He vanishes from the historical record shortly after the events of 48 BC, leaving his ultimate fate unknown—though later traditions speculate on possible exile or discreet withdrawal from public life amid the escalating Roman-Egyptian conflicts. Recent scholarship has begun to explore potential Sicilian cultural influences on such figures in the Ptolemaic milieu, but primary evidence remains limited to this singular, high-stakes intervention.^[37]

Other Notable Figures

Of Damascus

Apollodorus of Damascus (c. 60 – c. 130 AD) was a renowned Greek architect and engineer born in Damascus, Roman Syria, who rose to prominence as the chief architect and military engineer for Emperor Trajan (r. 98–117 AD). His career began in the Roman army, where he likely encountered Trajan during campaigns, before transitioning to major civil projects in Rome. Apollodorus is credited with designing the expansive Trajan's Forum complex, including the basilica, libraries, and the iconic Trajan's Column, which commemorates Trajan's Dacian victories and stands as a masterpiece of helical frieze sculpture integrated into architecture. He also engineered the adjacent Trajan's Markets, a multi-level commercial structure that utilized innovative vaulting and brick-faced concrete to create terraced semicircular halls, demonstrating his expertise in functional urban design.^[38]^[39] One of Apollodorus's most celebrated engineering achievements was Trajan's Bridge over the Danube River, constructed between 104 and 105 AD to facilitate the Roman invasion of Dacia. This segmental arch bridge, the longest of its kind in antiquity at approximately 1,135 meters (3,724 feet) in span, featured 20 massive stone piers rising up to 45 meters (150 feet) high, with wooden arches between them for rapid assembly. The structure not only enabled efficient troop movements but also showcased advanced hydraulic and load-bearing techniques, influencing later Roman bridge designs; remnants of the piers remain visible today near the Iron Gates. Some scholars attribute to Apollodorus a possible role in the reconstruction of the Pantheon's dome under Hadrian, citing stylistic parallels in its oculus and coffered concrete engineering, though direct evidence is lacking.^[38]^[39] Apollodorus authored the Poliorcetica, a technical treatise on siege engines composed around 100 AD, which details catapults, rams, and defensive machines used in Trajan's Dacian Wars; the work survives in Byzantine compilations and highlights his dual expertise in military and civil engineering. His influence extended to advising on other imperial projects, such as suggesting elevated foundations for Hadrian's Temple of Venus and Roma to accommodate subterranean mechanisms. However, tensions arose with Hadrian, leading to Apollodorus's execution around 130 AD. According to the historian Cassius Dio, Hadrian banished and later killed him after Apollodorus mockingly criticized the emperor's architectural plans, reportedly asking if the temple's design was meant for "a pumpkin" due to its proportions. This account underscores the perilous intersection of artistic patronage and imperial ego in Roman court life.^[38]^[39]

The Jurist

Apollodorus was a Graeco-Roman jurist of the 5th century AD, best known for his role in the compilation of the Codex Theodosianus, or Theodosian Code, under Emperor Theodosius II. Active primarily between approximately 435 and 450 AD, he served as a spectabilis comes consistorianus (honorable count of the imperial consistory) and was appointed to the second commission formed in 435 to codify imperial constitutions dating from the reign of Constantine I (312 AD) through to the contemporary era. This effort built on an initial commission established in 429, but the 435 group, headed by the quaestor Antiochus, successfully organized and edited the material into a cohesive legal corpus, which was promulgated on February 15, 438, and extended to the Western Empire later that year.^[40] As a co-author of the Theodosian Code, Apollodorus contributed to its structural innovation: the division of roughly 2,700 selected constitutions into 16 thematic books, prioritizing subject-based arrangement over chronological order to enhance accessibility and application. The code emphasized practical governance, with significant coverage of administrative law (e.g., Books 6–8 on public offices, fiscal matters, and imperial honors), ecclesiastical law (Book 16, detailing church privileges, orthodoxy enforcement, and relations between state and clergy), and criminal law (Books 9–10, addressing crimes, punishments, and judicial procedures). This topical organization facilitated the resolution of legal ambiguities and contradictions accumulated over more than a century, reflecting Apollodorus's expertise in streamlining imperial edicts for consistent enforcement across the Roman Empire. His Greco-Roman background, likely rooted in the Eastern scholarly traditions of Constantinople, informed this focus, blending classical rhetorical precision with the administrative needs of a Christianizing state.^[41]^[42] The Theodosian Code's influence extended far beyond its immediate context, serving as a foundational source for Emperor Justinian I's Corpus Juris Civilis (529–534 AD), where many provisions were directly incorporated or adapted, particularly in administrative and criminal domains. In the Western Empire, fragmented manuscripts of the code preserved Roman legal principles amid the collapse of central authority, informing barbarian law codes like the Visigothic Breviary of Alaric (506 AD). Furthermore, its ecclesiastical sections profoundly shaped medieval canon law; Book 16's rulings on church-state relations and doctrinal uniformity were excerpted in early medieval collections and influenced Gratian's Decretum (c. 1140), which integrated imperial precedents into systematic ecclesiastical jurisprudence. Apollodorus's potential Eastern origins—suggested by his Greek name, Constantinopolitan service, and possible identification with the Apollodorus who attended the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD—highlight his position at the intersection of legal codification and late antique theological debates, underscoring the code's role in Christianizing Roman governance.^[43]^[44]^[42]

References

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Apollodorus [1] - Brill Reference Works
Biografia: Apollodorus of Athens, son of a certain Asclepiades and also referred to as “Apollodorus the grammarian”, was probably born around 185-180 BC.
[2]
[PDF] Kilian Fleischer: The Original Verses of Apollodorus' Chronica
Apollodorus of Athens was one of the most important ancient chronographers. His now lost. Chronica treated history from the fall of Troy down to his own ...
[3]
Apollodorus
### Summary on Authorship and Date of the Bibliotheca in Relation to Apollodorus of Athens
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LacusCurtius • Pliny the Elder's Natural History — Book 35
### Summary of References to Apollodorus in Book 35 of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History
[5]
Wall paintings through the ages: the roman period—Republic and ...
Oct 13, 2021 · In particular, the painter Apollodorus, known as the skiagraphos (i.e. the “painter of shadows”), who lived at the end of the fifth century BC ...
[6]
Pliny, Natural History, 34 (a) - Attalus.org
A discovery that was entirely his own is the art of making statues throwing their weight on one leg, although Varro says these figures are of a square build and ...Missing: 4th anecdote
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Apollodorus - Brill Reference Works
Greek painter and Athenian citizen, active in the last quarter of 5th cent. BC, who became famous under the name of σκιάγραφος (skiágraphos skiagraphia ). In ...
[8]
Greek New Comic Fragments - Classics - Oxford Bibliographies
Sep 24, 2020 · New Comedy poets were generally more prolific than their 5th-century colleagues, but their plays are largely lost.
[9]
APOLLODORUS, THE LIBRARY BOOK 1 - Theoi Greek Mythology
A compendium of myth sourced from old Greek epic and the plays of the Tragedians. The work was traditionally ascribed to Apollodorus of Alexandria.
[10]
APOLLODORUS, THE LIBRARY BOOK 2 - Theoi Classical Texts ...
But when Eurystheus demanded their surrender and threatened war, they were afraid, and, quitting Trachis, fled through Greece. Being pursued, they came to ...<|separator|>
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https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/77790/1/Verhasselt_review_Fleischer.pdf
[12]
[PDF] THE SOURCES OF PS.-APOLLODORUS'S LIBRARY - Lirias
-Apollodorus's sources for the Danaids myth. In turn, this specific case- study may throw new light on the general question of the mythographer's sources.
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Apollodorus' Library and Hyginus' Fabulae. Two Handbooks of ...
Oct 19, 2007 · The obvious answer is that they are two of our major sources for Greek myth and so complement each other, but another is to facilitate ...
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Apollodorus: Chronicle - ATTALUS
Apollodorus of Athens was a Greek grammarian who lived in the second century BC. He wrote a chronicle (Chronica) in verse, covering from the earliest times ...Missing: FGrH works
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Apollodorus of Athens - Brill Reference Works
The Greek Chronica of Apollodorus (ca 180-120 bc [110?]) covered the period from the fall of Troy (1184 bc) down to 146 bc. Apollodorus's conception of history, ...Missing: historiography | Show results with:historiography
[16]
Apollodorus [1] - Brill Reference Works
The Chronica became a highly influential and exemplary chronographic reference work right from its publication and may be considered Apollodorus' most famous ...
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[PDF] Chronology and History in Byzantium
Apollodorus of Athens and then Castor of Rhodes developed its expansion down to 61 B.C., when Castor finished his chronicle for the reigns of Assyria, Media ...
[18]
APOLLODORUS OF ARTIMITA - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Apollodorus has been suggested as the source of the passage that the Philippic Histories of Trogus Pompeius (abridged by Justin, Epitomae historiarum Phil ...
[19]
(PDF) Apollodorus of Artemita and the date of his 'Parthica' revisited
The first two contain all the named fragments of Apollodor- us from the extant Classical sources. 2 On Trogus and his lost historical work see Liebmann ...
[20]
Apollodoros the Son of Pasion - Jeremy Trevett
Apollodoros the Son of Pasion. Jeremy Trevett. A Clarendon Press Publication · Oxford Classical Monographs. $190.00.Missing: logographer | Show results with:logographer
[21]
Demosthenes, Speeches 50-59 - University of Texas Press
This volume contains four speeches that are most probably the work of Apollodorus, who is often known as "the Eleventh Attic Orator." Regardless of their ...
[22]
Apollodorus - in ancient sources @ attalus.org
Apollodorus 6 of Carystus - a writer of the New Comedy → Wikipedia entry ... 118/6 Apollod:Fr_, the fragments of Apollodorus' "Chronica". 118/7 The ...Missing: 47 | Show results with:47
[23]
LacusCurtius • Quintilian — Institutio Oratoria — Book III, Chapters 1‑5
### Summary of Sections Mentioning Apollodorus on Rhetoric
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LacusCurtius • Diogenes Laërtius: Epicurus
Summary of each segment:
[25]
κῆπος - Garden of Epicurus?, philosophical school ... - ToposText
Four seated statues of philosophers, all headless but two of a recognizably Epicurean type, were found, three built into a Late Roman wall at Marathonos 61, ...
[26]
Epicurus - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 10, 2005 · The philosophy of Epicurus (341–270 BCE) was a complete and interdependent system, involving a view of the goal of human life (happiness)Missing: Apollodorus | Show results with:Apollodorus
[27]
The Archaeology of Atheism in Ancient Athens
Aug 22, 2016 · Prof. Tim Whitmarsh explores the evidence for the location of the Garden of Epicurus, arguing that its physical position was an expression of Epicureans' “ ...
[28]
Textgroups - Perseus Catalog
Apollodorus, of Seleucia ... Stoic philosopher who is frequently mentioned by Diogenes Laertius....." Brill's New Pauly: "Apollodorus, 12, of Seleucia ...
[29]
The First Hundred Years (Chapter 1) - Later Stoicism 155 BC to AD ...
Apr 30, 2022 · Includes some aspects of Diogenes of Babylon's philosophy, but focusses on the impact of the Academic Carneades on Stoicism from Antipater ...
[30]
Stoic Dialectic and Its Objects (Chapter 5)
Oct 26, 2018 · 2 and the author of T6* def. 2 are the same author, i.e., Apollodorus of Seleucia, a rather shadowy figure, mainly known by the testimony of ...
[31]
[PDF] Stoic Logic and Multiple Generality - PhilArchive
1999, 197-198. 22 Reference is to the 2nd century BCE Stoic Apollodorus of Seleucia, student of Diogenes of ... “Wholly Hypothetical Syllogisms.” Phronesis 45: 87 ...
[32]
https://www.docenti.unina.it/webdocenti-be/allegati/materiale-didattico/35013538
[33]
[PDF] ROMAN STOICISM
THIS book is the outcome of a course of lectures delivered by me in successive years to Latin Honours students in accordance with the regulations of the ...
[34]
[PDF] Fate, Providence and Moral Responsibility in Ancient, Medieval and ...
13. In itself, the soul is an intelligible and incorporeal entity and is, therefore, an indi- ... in Apollodorus of Seleucia: S.V.F. iii, Apollodorus 6)27. It is ...
[35]
Posidonius (Chapter 2) - Later Stoicism 155 BC to AD 200
Apr 30, 2022 · Posidonius was the most influential Stoic philosopher after Chrysippus. In many areas of philosophy, especially physics, he forged a systematic ...
[36]
Polyaenus: Stratagems - Book 6 - ATTALUS
2 Apollodorus, when he was a private citizen at Cassandreia, was so careful in his words and actions, that he was considered the greatest patriot who ever lived ...
[37]
Polyaenus: Stratagems - Book 4 (b) - Attalus.org
18 # Antigonus was determined to crush Apollodorus tyrant of the Cassandreia, and invested the city; but, after a ten month's blockade, he was obliged to ...
[38]
Nea Potidaea, the Diateichisma of Cassandreia
The fortification wall of Kassandreia is located on the northern boundary of the settlement of Nea Potidaea and extends for approximately 1200m from the ...
[39]
Cleopatra: Biography of the last pharaoh of ancient Egypt
Mar 24, 2022 · An assistant named Apollodorus "tied the bed-sack up with a cord and carried it indoors to Caesar" Plutarch wrote. It's a source of debate among ...
[40]
Cleopatra VII - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 30, 2018 · Cleopatra VII (l. c. 69-30 BCE, r. 51-30 BCE) was the last ruler of Egypt before it was annexed as a province of Rome.<|separator|>
[41]
Apollodorus of Damascus
Another work by Apollodorus does survive, the Poliorcetica (c.AD 100), a treatise on siege machines that has been preserved in the corpus of Byzantine ...Missing: birth | Show results with:birth
[42]
Apollodorus of Damascus - Livius.org
May 20, 2020 · The Roman architect Apollodorus of Damascus is mentioned in only two ancient sources, but we can also identify several of his buildings. The ...
[43]
Codex Theodosianus
The Theodosian Code was composed between AD 429 and 438. In 429 the Emperor Theodosius ordered for the nine men commission to compose all imperial ...Missing: Apollodorus | Show results with:Apollodorus
[44]
Theodosian Code | Oxford Classical Dictionary
In March 429 Theodosius II in Constantinople set up a commission, consisting of eight officials or ex-officials and a practising advocate, to collect all the ...
[45]
Case Study: The Theodosian Code in Its Christian Conceptual Frame
Sep 28, 2023 · The conceptual framing of the Theodosian Code, I argue, points to the “Christianization” of structures of knowledge and governance in the later Roman empire.
[46]
Theodosius II: Beyond the Code (438–450) - Oxford Academic
This chapter discusses several laws that were enacted after the Theodosian Code was formed. The first part of the chapter is devoted to a description of some ...
[47]
The History of Medieval Canon Law (Part I)
Jan 13, 2022 · The imperial constitutions excerpted in book 16 of the Theodosian Code (promulgated by the emperor Theodosius II in 438) and book 1 of the ...