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Parchment

Parchment is a durable writing material produced from the specially prepared, untanned skins of animals, chiefly sheep, goats, and calves, resulting in a thin, flexible, and smooth surface ideal for inscription with ink or pigments.^[1] Unlike tanned leather, parchment undergoes a process of liming, scraping, and tension-drying to preserve its translucency and strength without altering the skin's natural collagen structure.^[2] Often confused with vellum—a finer variant typically made from calfskin—the terms are now largely interchangeable, though vellum historically denoted higher-quality material from younger animals.^[2] The origins of parchment trace back to the ancient Near East, with evidence of its use as early as the fifth century B.C., and it gained prominence in the second century B.C. in the city of Pergamum (modern-day Turkey), where, according to ancient sources, it was developed as an alternative to papyrus after an export embargo from Egypt.^[2] By the fourth century A.D., parchment had begun superseding papyrus as the preferred substrate for writing in the Mediterranean and Europe, particularly for codices that facilitated easier navigation than scrolls.^[3] It became the dominant medium during the early Middle Ages in Northwestern Europe, especially with the spread of Christianity, reaching its peak production in the medieval period for illuminated manuscripts and legal documents, before declining from the twelfth century onward due to the introduction of cheaper paper.^[1] Notable examples include early Christian scriptures, such as those in the Codex Sinaiticus, which highlight parchment's role in preserving textual traditions and artistic heritage.^[4] The production of parchment is a labor-intensive process beginning with the selection of fresh animal hides, which are soaked in water and lime to loosen the hair and epidermis.^[4] The hair is then scraped off with a blunt knife, and the flesh side is thinned using a semi-lunar blade, after which the skin is stretched on a wooden frame, dried under tension, and further smoothed by rubbing with pumice or similar abrasives to achieve an even, ink-receptive surface.^[1] One hide typically yields only a few sheets, making large manuscripts resource-demanding; for instance, a 229-folio book required approximately 115 animal skins.^[2] Historically used for biblical texts, royal charters, and artistic works like the Book of Hours of Jeanne d’Evreux, parchment's versatility extended to bookbinding and, in modern times, to ceremonial documents, lamp shades, and conservation applications due to its longevity and resistance to certain environmental damages.^[2] Despite its durability, parchment remains sensitive to fluctuations in humidity and water exposure, which can cause gelatinization and distortion.^[1]

Definitions and Terminology

Etymology and Meaning

The term "parchment" derives from the Latin pergaminum, which originated from the ancient Greek Pergamēnós, meaning "of Pergamon," referring to the city in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) where the material is traditionally credited with being developed as a writing surface around the 2nd century BCE.^[5] This innovation reportedly arose when Pergamon's ruler, Eumenes II, faced an Egyptian embargo on papyrus exports and sought an alternative medium for the city's renowned library.^[6] In ancient Greek, the general term for dressed animal skins used for writing was diphthera, a word denoting prepared hide that evolved into broader usage for book-like formats. Parchment is defined as a writing surface produced from the specially prepared, untanned skins of animals, primarily sheep, goats, or calves, through processes that remove hair, fat, and flesh to create a thin, flexible sheet suitable for ink.^[7] This preparation results in a material distinct from tanned leather, as it retains the skin's collagen structure for enhanced workability.^[1] Key properties of parchment include its smooth surface, which promotes excellent ink adhesion without bleeding; exceptional durability, allowing it to endure for centuries or even millennia when stored in stable, low-humidity conditions away from light and pests; and a natural translucency that permits light to pass through, often making writing visible from the reverse side.^[7]^[8]^[3] By the medieval period, the Latin term had shifted to pergamenum, reflecting its widespread adoption across Europe for manuscripts and documents.^[5] While vellum refers to a finer grade of parchment typically made from calfskin, the terms are often used interchangeably in historical contexts.^[7]

Parchment vs. Vellum and Other Materials

Parchment is a general term for a writing surface made from processed animal skins, typically from sheep, goats, or calves, while vellum specifically refers to a finer subset produced from the skins of calves (or occasionally kids), resulting in a smoother, thinner, and more uniform texture ideal for high-quality manuscripts.^[9] This distinction arises because calfskin yields a supple material with minimal grain, allowing for precise calligraphy and illumination, whereas general parchment from sheep or goats may have a rougher surface due to the animal's hair follicles.^[10] Vellum's superior quality made it preferable for deluxe codices, such as those in monastic scriptoria, where durability and aesthetic appeal were paramount.^[11] In contrast to papyrus, a plant-based material derived from the pith of Cyperus papyrus reeds, parchment offers greater flexibility and longevity, as papyrus is inherently brittle and prone to cracking along its fiber seams, especially in humid climates outside its native Nile Delta region.^[12] Papyrus dominated ancient Egyptian record-keeping from around 3000 BCE but was geographically limited and less versatile, with one side smoother for writing while the other remained fibrous and uneven.^[4] Parchment, being writable on both sides and erasable for reuse, gradually supplanted papyrus in the Mediterranean world by the early centuries CE.^[13] Compared to paper, which consists of cellulose fibers from mulberry bark, rags, or other plants and was invented in China around 105 CE by Cai Lun, parchment is more resistant to insects, mold, and mechanical wear, though paper's lower cost and scalability enabled mass production and widespread adoption in Europe after the 12th century.^[7] Paper is lighter and easier to produce in large quantities but degrades faster under environmental stress, lacking parchment's inherent tensile strength from collagen.^[12] Special variants of parchment include uterine vellum, made from the skins of young animals, prized for its exceptional thinness (as fine as 0.03 mm) and translucency, which allowed compact formats like 13th-century pocket Bibles without sacrificing legibility.^[14] The term abortivum, used in medieval sources, referred to this material. A 2015 study using noninvasive peptide fingerprinting revealed that 13th-century uterine vellum was primarily made from calfskin in France, with other regions using local species like goat or sheep, achieved through selection of young animals and advanced liming processes; modern analyses have shown that this material was produced from the skins of young animals through specialized liming techniques, rather than from fetal or abortive sources, confirming its origin in sustainable practices for the era.^[15] These variants were uncommon due to limited availability and the labor-intensive nature of such production. In contemporary usage, particularly in legal documents, diplomas, and printing, "vellum" is frequently misused as a synonym for any high-grade parchment, blurring the traditional distinction and leading to confusion in archival contexts where the specific animal source affects preservation needs.^[9] This interchangeable application persists in modern reproductions and certifications, despite efforts by conservators to revive precise terminology.^[7]

Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Civilizations

While the refined production of parchment is traditionally attributed to the ancient Greek city-state of Pergamon in the 2nd century BCE, evidence of writing on treated animal skins dates back to at least the 5th century BCE in the Near East, as noted by Herodotus.^[2] It emerged as a durable alternative to papyrus amid an export embargo imposed by Ptolemaic Egypt on writing materials.^[16] This development addressed the scarcity of papyrus, which had been the dominant medium for scrolls in the Mediterranean world, allowing Pergamon to sustain its renowned library and scribal traditions.^[17] In the Hellenistic period, King Eumenes II (r. 197–159 BCE) played a pivotal role in promoting parchment's early use, reportedly commissioning its production to rival the great libraries of Alexandria and to furnish scrolls for scholarly and administrative purposes.^[18] Ancient accounts, such as those by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, credit this innovation to the royal court of Pergamon, highlighting its smooth, resilient surface derived from specially treated animal skins, which proved superior for repeated erasures and long-term preservation compared to papyrus.^[19] Parchment's adoption spread to the Roman Empire by the 1st century CE, where it was increasingly employed for codices—the folded, bound book format—alongside traditional wax tablets for note-taking and legal records.^[20] This shift facilitated easier access to text through page-turning, marking an early evolution from rolled scrolls, though papyrus remained prevalent for everyday literary works.^[21] In the Near East, examples like the Dead Sea Scrolls (c. 3rd century BCE–1st century CE) were written primarily on parchment made from processed animal hides, demonstrating early use of these techniques for sacred texts.^[22] These scrolls, produced by a Jewish sectarian community, blended leather tanning with parchment qualities to achieve a writable surface durable enough for arid storage.^[23] Parallel developments in leather preparation emerged in India and the Near East around the 1st century CE, particularly for Buddhist manuscripts, where animal skins (ajina in Sanskrit) were occasionally referenced despite cultural taboos against hides due to their association with impurity.^[24] In Gandharan regions along trade routes, early Buddhist texts on birch bark or palm leaves coexisted with rare leather-based supports, reflecting localized innovations influenced by Hellenistic exchanges but adapted to avoid full animal slaughter in line with non-violent precepts.^[25] Initially, parchment's production was highly labor-intensive, involving prolonged soaking, scraping, and stretching of skins, which elevated its cost and confined its use primarily to elite libraries, royal decrees, and official documents in these ancient societies.^[9] This exclusivity underscored its value as a prestige material, limiting widespread adoption until later refinements reduced production demands.^[26]

Evolution Through Medieval and Early Modern Periods

During the early Middle Ages, from the 5th to the 12th centuries, parchment became central to manuscript production in monastic scriptoria across Europe, where monks systematically copied and preserved texts amid the fragmentation following the fall of the Roman Empire.^[27] These scriptoria, such as those in Benedictine monasteries, featured a division of labor involving parchment preparation, text copying, and illumination, enabling the creation of durable codices that outlasted papyrus in humid climates.^[28] Parchment's resilience was particularly vital during Europe's so-called Dark Ages, as it facilitated the transmission of classical Greek and Roman knowledge through copies of works by authors like Aristotle and Virgil, safeguarding intellectual heritage against loss.^[29] The Carolingian Renaissance (c. 780–900 CE) marked a peak in parchment's prominence, with Charlemagne's court scriptorium in Aachen producing lavish illuminated manuscripts on high-quality vellum to standardize religious and scholarly texts across the Frankish Empire.^[30] Exemplifying this era, the Book of Kells (c. 800 CE), an illuminated Gospel book likely created in an Irish monastic scriptorium, utilized calfskin vellum for its intricate illustrations and iron gall ink, demonstrating parchment's suitability for fine artistic and textual work.^[31] Technological refinements enhanced parchment's utility, including the use of pumice to smooth the surface for even ink adhesion and the adoption of iron gall ink, which bonded effectively with the treated skin to produce stable, dark script resistant to fading.^[1] By the 13th century, production reached its zenith in European centers like Bologna, Italy, where specialized workshops supplied ultra-thin parchment for portable Bibles and legal texts, supporting the burgeoning university culture.^[32] In the Islamic world, while parchment was used earlier, paper played a key role in the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), particularly in Baghdad's House of Wisdom, where scholars from the 9th to 12th centuries transcribed scientific treatises on astronomy, medicine, and mathematics onto paper. Centers like Baghdad and Cordoba in Al-Andalus produced illuminated manuscripts blending Greek translations with original Arabic works, using paper for its longevity in transmitting knowledge from diverse cultures.^[33] This practice not only advanced fields like optics and algebra but also influenced European scholarship through cross-cultural exchanges.^[34] The early modern period (15th–17th centuries) brought transformative shifts as the printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450, initially employed parchment for high-value editions like the Gutenberg Bible, printed on both vellum and paper to showcase durability and prestige.^[35] However, paper's lower cost and scalability rapidly supplanted parchment for mass production, leading to its decline in everyday bookmaking, though it persisted in official documents such as the Magna Carta (1215), engrossed on sheepskin parchment for legal permanence.^[36] This transition underscored parchment's enduring cultural significance in bridging handwritten traditions with the printed era.^[37]

Decline and Modern Revival

The decline of parchment's prominence began in the 18th and 19th centuries as the industrialization of paper production rendered it a far more economical alternative for writing and printing. The invention and adoption of the Fourdrinier machine in the early 1800s enabled the continuous, large-scale manufacture of paper sheets, drastically reducing costs and increasing availability compared to the labor-intensive process of preparing animal skins for parchment.^[38] By the mid-19th century, parchment had largely been supplanted for everyday uses, with synthetic alternatives like tracing paper—made from chemically treated wood pulp or rag fibers—emerging as cheaper, transparent substitutes for technical drawings and overlays.^[39] A revival of interest in parchment occurred during the 19th century, driven by the Romantic movement's fascination with medieval aesthetics and craftsmanship. This period saw parchment employed in facsimile reproductions of historical manuscripts, where publishers like Henry Shaw and Henry Noel Humphreys created illuminated copies printed on vellum to replicate medieval originals.^[40] Additionally, it featured in luxury bookbindings, as exemplified by William Morris's Kelmscott Press in the 1890s, which used limp parchment covers to evoke pre-industrial artistry amid the Arts and Crafts reaction against mechanization.^[41] In the 20th and 21st centuries, parchment experienced a niche resurgence primarily in conservation and scholarly projects, underscoring its enduring value for preserving artifacts. For instance, conservators at the U.S. National Archives undertook a major restoration of a 1297 Magna Carta copy in 2011, repairing parchment weaknesses and removing outdated patches to stabilize the document for display.^[42] Similarly, the 2009 Codex Sinaiticus Project digitally reunited and conserved the 4th-century parchment manuscript, involving institutions across four countries to image and analyze its folios, thereby highlighting parchment's role in biblical heritage.^[43] As of 2025, parchment production remains limited, constrained by animal welfare concerns that favor ethical sourcing from livestock byproducts in the meat, milk, and wool industries, with no animals bred solely for skins.^[44] It persists in heritage crafts and restoration, though its high cost due to specialized processing restricts it to specialized applications.

Production Process

Animal Selection and Initial Preparation

Parchment production begins with the careful selection of animal hides, primarily from sheep, goats, and calves, as these provide the most suitable raw materials for creating durable writing surfaces. Sheepskin is the most common and affordable option due to its availability and cost-effectiveness, particularly in medieval Europe where it was favored for everyday manuscripts and legal documents. Goatskin offers greater flexibility, making it ideal for applications requiring bendability without cracking, such as book covers or scrolls. Calfskin, often used for high-quality vellum, is considered premium for its smooth texture and fine grain, derived from younger animals to achieve superior translucency and evenness. In religious traditions, pigskin is avoided due to prohibitions on porcine products. Selection criteria emphasize the animal's age, health, and size to ensure optimal quality. Younger animals, such as newborns or juveniles, yield hides with finer fiber structures and fewer imperfections, resulting in thinner, more uniform parchment suitable for detailed writing. Hides must be disease-free to prevent contamination or structural weaknesses, as skins with scars, infections, or parasites compromise the final product's integrity. Larger hides from mature animals are preferred for producing expansive sheets needed for scrolls or oversized codices, while historical sourcing often involved procuring fresh pelts from slaughterhouses to capitalize on byproducts from meat production. A typical animal skin yields about 2-3 bifolia (4-6 pages), depending on size and cutting; larger hides like cow may provide more but are less common for parchment. The initial preparation involves soaking the selected hides in a lime-water solution for one to two weeks, which loosens the hair, epidermis, and adhering flesh by breaking down proteins without tanning the skin. This step is followed by mechanical scraping using specialized curved knives to meticulously remove the loosened epidermis and subcutaneous layers, exposing the clean dermis while preserving the hide's tensile strength. These preliminary processes transform the raw pelt into a workable material ready for further treatment. Modern ethical considerations in parchment production are governed by regulations such as the European Union's animal by-product rules, which mandate that hides come from healthy animals slaughtered for food to minimize waste and ensure traceability, thereby addressing animal welfare concerns. Historically, medieval Europe faced overexploitation issues, with large-scale manuscript production requiring the slaughter of hundreds of animals per codex, straining livestock resources in regions like England and France.

Detailed Manufacturing Techniques

Following the initial liming of animal skins, the dehairing and fleshing stages involve manual or mechanical removal of residual hair, epidermis, and subcutaneous fat to prepare the hide for further processing. Traditionally, this is achieved by scraping the limed skin over a beam with a dull two-handled knife, which loosens and removes hair from the outer side while eliminating flesh and fat from the inner side; pumice stone may also be used for finer dehairing on delicate areas.^[9]^[45]^[46] The stretching process then transforms the cleaned skin into a taut, stable sheet by fixing it to a frame and drying it under controlled tension, which aligns the collagen fibers and prevents shrinkage or warping during use. Historically, wooden stretchers—often lunate or rectangular frames—were employed, with the skin laced or pegged at the edges and allowed to dry slowly in a shaded, ventilated area; modern production may incorporate adjustable metal frames for precision and uniformity.^[9]^[47]^[1] Once dried, the parchment undergoes smoothing and finishing to achieve a uniform, ink-receptive surface, typically by rubbing the flesh side with fine pumice or chalk to eliminate irregularities and enhance translucency. Optional tinting can be applied during this phase, such as with oak gall extracts for a subtle yellowish hue, though undyed white parchment remains standard for most applications.^[45]^[46]^[1] The entire traditional manufacturing sequence, from liming through finishing, demands significant time and labor, often spanning 2-4 weeks per batch due to the multi-day soaking, drying, and manual handling phases. Medieval guild standards emphasized consistent thickness for scribal work, targeting 0.1-0.3 mm to balance durability and flexibility.^[48]^[49]^[50] Safety considerations are paramount, particularly with lime handling, as prolonged skin contact can cause caustic burns or irritation requiring protective gloves and ventilation. In response, modern eco-friendly alternatives have emerged to reduce environmental impact while maintaining process efficiency.^[51]

Variations in Quality and Types

The quality of parchment is primarily assessed by factors such as thickness uniformity, the absence of hair holes, and color consistency, which directly impact its suitability for writing, binding, and long-term preservation. High-quality parchment exhibits even thickness, typically ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 mm in fine examples, allowing for smooth handling and reduced risk of distortion during use.^[52] Thickness variations within a single sheet can result from uneven stretching during production, leading to lower-grade material prone to warping or ink absorption issues. Hair holes—small perforations from residual follicles or production punctures—are minimized in superior parchment to ensure a flawless surface for ink and gilding, as their presence can cause ink to pool or the material to tear under stress.^[53] Color consistency is equally vital, with premium parchment displaying a uniform pale or off-white tone free from yellowing, staining, or dark spots, which enhance legibility and aesthetic value in manuscripts.^[54] Historical trade practices graded parchment based on these attributes, categorizing it into high ("perfect"), medium ("second"), and low ("waste") classes, where perfect sheets were reserved for elite codices and waste repurposed for rough drafts or discarded due to excessive defects. Subtypes emerged to meet specific needs, such as stained varieties produced by applying natural or chemical dyes to create artistic effects, such as marbled or tinted surfaces for decorative covers and illuminations, enhancing visual appeal without compromising the material's core properties.^[55] Regional variations reflect local production techniques and intended uses, with European parchment often thicker (0.2–0.4 mm) for durability in bound books that withstand frequent handling, while Middle Eastern examples were typically thinner (under 0.1 mm) to facilitate rolling into compact scrolls for religious texts.^[56] Common defects include pinholes from insect damage during storage or processing, which weaken the sheet and are evaluated through physical tests like tensile strength assessment.^[57]

Traditional and Specialized Uses

In Religious and Scribal Traditions

In Christian religious traditions, parchment served as the preferred medium for transcribing sacred texts, enabling the preservation and dissemination of the Bible and liturgical works across monasteries and scriptoria. The Codex Amiatinus, created around 716 CE in the Northumbrian monasteries of Wearmouth-Jarrow in England, stands as the oldest surviving complete manuscript of the Latin Vulgate Bible, utilizing over 1,000 large folios crafted from high-quality calfskin parchment to ensure durability and clarity for monastic study and recitation.^[58] This manuscript exemplifies how parchment's resilience allowed for the production of monumental codices that influenced Carolingian and later medieval biblical traditions, with similar techniques employed in liturgies such as missals and sacramentaries that guided daily worship.^[59] In Islamic traditions, parchment was essential for early Qur'anic manuscripts, reflecting its perceived purity and suitability for divine revelation. The Topkapi manuscript, housed in Istanbul's Topkapi Palace and dated to the early 8th century, represents one of the most complete early survivals, comprising 410 folios of fine parchment inscribed in angular Kufic script during the Umayyad or early Abbasid period. Early Islamic scribes favored untanned or minimally processed sheepskin parchment, often referred to as samani, to avoid impurities associated with tanning agents, a practice that persisted for sacred texts into the 10th century before paper gradually supplemented it in regions like Persia and the Maghreb.^[60] This material choice underscored parchment's role in maintaining the sanctity of the Qur'an, as seen in the careful preparation of hides to create smooth, absorbent surfaces for black ink and subtle diacritical marks.^[61] Scribal practices in these religious contexts were meticulously adapted to parchment's physical properties, emphasizing precision and artistry. Scribes began by pricking small holes along the edges of the sheet with a pointed tool to guide ruling lines, which were then drawn using a dry point or lead stylus to create a grid for even text placement and margins.^[62] Writing proceeded with goose or swan quill pens dipped in iron-gall ink, which bonded effectively to the parchment's collagen-based surface without excessive absorption.^[55] For illuminated initials and decorative elements in both Christian and Islamic manuscripts, parchment's resistance to ink bleeding facilitated the application of gold leaf, mineral pigments, and vibrant colors, enhancing the visual reverence of sacred words as in the intricate Kufic illuminations of early Qur'ans or the historiated capitals of Gothic Bibles.^[63] Medieval European monasteries drove large-scale parchment production to support religious manuscript output, with scriptoria consuming vast quantities of animal skins to meet the demands of copying scriptures and devotional texts. Major centers like those of the Benedictines maintained herds numbering in the tens of thousands—such as 13,000 sheep at Ely in 1086—translating to annual outputs of thousands of sheets per monastery when factoring in the needs of ongoing liturgical and scholarly work.^[64] A single grand Bible might require 150–500 calfskins, underscoring the resource-intensive nature of this endeavor across hundreds of institutions.^[65] The shift from parchment to paper marked a gradual transition in non-sacred religious copying, beginning in Islamic Asia around the 13th century with the spread of papermaking from China via the Silk Roads, though elite Qur'ans retained parchment for its prestige.^[66] In Europe, paper entered via Spain and Italy in the 13th century but saw widespread adoption for auxiliary texts by the 14th century, driven by mills and lower costs, while parchment endured for high-status Bibles and service books until the 15th-century printing revolution.^[67]

In Bookbinding and Documentation

In bookbinding, parchment served as a versatile material for structural elements, particularly spines and covers. Quires of gathered sheets were typically sewn together using techniques such as all-along sewing, then glued directly to a parchment spine for added strength and flexibility, allowing the book to open fully without strain. This method was prevalent in medieval and early modern bindings, where the parchment's tensile properties helped distribute stress across the volume. Limp parchment bindings, featuring thin, flexible covers laced onto the text block without rigid boards, emerged as a common practice in the 15th century, especially for incunabula printed during the dawn of movable type. These bindings were economical and portable, often secured with ties or clasps, and their survival in collections attests to their durability under frequent use.^[68]^[69] Parchment's longevity and resistance to degradation positioned it as the preferred medium for legal and administrative documentation, enabling the preservation of official records over centuries. Charters, deeds, and other instruments were inscribed on large sheets of vellum, which could be folded or rolled into scrolls for compact storage and transport, a format used extensively in European bureaucracies. A prime example is the Domesday Book of 1086, a exhaustive land survey commissioned by William the Conqueror and written on sheepskin vellum, functioning as an authoritative legal reference for property rights and taxation that remains valid today. This durability supported the growth of centralized administration, as parchment documents withstood handling and environmental exposure better than alternatives like papyrus.^[70]^[71] Key advantages of parchment in these applications included its superior foldability, which permitted creasing and rolling without cracking or fiber breakage, unlike more rigid materials such as early paper variants. Additionally, corrections could be made by abrading the surface with pumice powder, effectively removing ink and allowing reuse—a practical feature for iterative drafting in legal contexts. By the late 16th century, English royal and bureaucratic archives had accumulated vast quantities of such documents, with production scaling to support an expanding administrative apparatus, underscoring parchment's role in enabling detailed record-keeping and governance.^[72] Despite these benefits, parchment presented challenges in humid environments, where fluctuations in relative humidity could cause warping, cockling, or dimensional changes due to its hygroscopic nature. Historical conservators addressed such issues in weakened documents through lamination, adhering thin layers of goldbeater's skin or similar membranes with gelatin to stabilize and prevent further distortion, a technique documented in treatments of medieval and early modern records. Proper storage in controlled conditions mitigated these risks, ensuring the material's continued utility in archival practices.^[73]^[74]

Jewish Parchment Specifics

In Jewish religious practice, parchment holds a sacred status, particularly for sacred texts known as STaM (Sefer Torah, tefillin, and mezuzah), where it must adhere to stringent halakhic (Jewish legal) requirements to ensure ritual purity.^[75] The material is derived exclusively from the hides of kosher animals, such as sheep, goats, calves, or deer, which are ruminants with fully cloven hooves that chew their cud, aligning with dietary laws outlined in Leviticus.^[76] Preparation avoids modern chemical tanning agents; instead, the hides are soaked in water, treated with lime to remove hair and flesh, salted to preserve and cure, coated with flour (often barley or oat) to soften, and sometimes naturally tanned with vegetable extracts like oak galls, ensuring the parchment remains untreated by synthetic substances.^[77] Production of these parchments follows precise rules overseen by a trained sofer (scribe), who must be pious and expert in Jewish law. For a Sefer Torah (Torah scroll), the preferred parchment is gevil, an unsplit, thicker hide from the outer layer just below the hair, written on the hair side to allow ink to adhere properly without bleeding.^[77] In contrast, klaf, a thinner split parchment from the inner layers, is used for tefillin (phylacteries) and mezuzot (doorpost scrolls), written on the flesh side. The entire process requires the involvement of a Jew who declares the intention (l'shem shamayim, "for heaven's sake") during preparation, though non-Jews may assist under supervision to maintain kosher integrity.^[78] Jewish use of parchment dates continuously to the Second Temple period (c. 516 BCE–70 CE), with the Dead Sea Scrolls serving as the earliest surviving examples of Hebrew texts on animal-skin parchment, dating from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE and discovered in Qumran caves between 1947 and 1956.^[79] These scrolls, including biblical manuscripts and sectarian writings, demonstrate the established technology of parchment production among ancient Jewish communities, preserving texts through salting and drying methods similar to later traditions.^[80] In modern times, production remains under rabbinical supervision to certify compliance with halakhah, with sofrim inspecting hides for quality and preparing them in dedicated workshops, often in Israel or traditional centers like those in the United States and Europe. Defects such as holes, tears, blemishes, or infections can invalidate an entire sheet if they affect readability or structural integrity, requiring meticulous examination and patching only in non-critical areas; severe flaws lead to rejection of the skin to prevent ritual invalidation of the final scroll.^[81] Parchment must be free of infections and uniformly smooth, with edges sometimes thicker from scraping, ensuring durability for scrolls that may last centuries. Culturally, Jewish parchment symbolizes the eternal covenant between God and the Jewish people, embodied in synagogue Torah scrolls that are ritually read weekly and during holidays, representing divine revelation inscribed on imperishable material. These scrolls, housed in arks and unrolled publicly, underscore themes of continuity and sanctity in Jewish life.

Modern Applications and Variants

Contemporary Industrial and Artistic Uses

In contemporary industrial applications, animal parchment, also known as vellum when derived from calfskin, remains valued for its durability and aesthetic qualities in luxury bookbinding. Artisans and publishers use it to create high-end editions and custom bindings, where its smooth texture and longevity—often exceeding centuries—enhance the perceived value of limited-run volumes. Suppliers like TALAS offer prepared calf and goatskin sheets specifically for this purpose, emphasizing their suitability for professional book arts.^[82] Parchment is also employed in the production of official certificates and diplomas, providing an elegant, archival medium that evokes tradition. Companies such as William Cowley provide bespoke printing services on vellum for these documents, utilizing modern inks compatible with the material's surface to ensure crisp results without bleeding or fading. This practice persists in educational institutions and legal contexts, where the material's resilience to handling and environmental factors justifies its continued use over paper alternatives.^[83] Restoration efforts for historical documents frequently incorporate new or repaired parchment to preserve integrity, particularly in the United Kingdom, where conservators treat vellum-based archives from parliamentary and legal records. Specialists apply techniques like tear repair and flattening to maintain these artifacts, drawing on the material's inherent stability to match original substrates. While the UK Parliament transitioned to paper for new acts in 2017, ongoing conservation of pre-existing vellum documents underscores parchment's role in safeguarding 20th- and 21st-century heritage collections.^[84] Artistically, parchment finds application in mixed-media works and installations, leveraging its translucency for innovative designs. Contemporary book artist Timothy C. Ely incorporates vellum into his sculptural manuscripts, combining it with pigments, dyes, and custom bindings to explore themes of science and geometry; for instance, he has described envisioning large vellum books with abraded edges for enhanced flexibility in contemporary formats. Its semi-transparent quality also suits lamp shades, where makers like those at Stern Tanning Co. apply it to create diffused lighting effects in furniture and decorative pieces, blending historical craft with modern interiors.^[85]^[86] For printing and engraving, parchment accommodates modern inks and techniques, enabling limited-edition fine art prints. Its prepared surface accepts inkjet and solvent-based applications effectively, as demonstrated in calligraphy and illumination projects, allowing artists to produce high-contrast engravings or digital transfers on small sheets. The global market for animal parchment is niche, supported by specialized suppliers such as William Cowley and Pergamena, which produce sheets from food industry byproducts like calf and goatskins. Prices typically range from $40 to $60 for cut sheets (e.g., 8x10 inches of calfskin vellum), with whole skins costing $100 or more, reflecting artisanal production volumes that prioritize quality over mass scale. Innovations in bio-engineered alternatives, such as lab-grown collagen-based leathers developed since the 2010s by firms like Modern Meadow, aim to replicate parchment's properties without animal sourcing; in May 2024, Modern Meadow's technology was acquired by HTL Biotechnology for applications in beauty and biomedicine, though these remain in research phases without widespread commercial parchment applications.^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]

Plant-Based and Synthetic Alternatives

Vegetable parchment, a plant-based substitute for traditional animal-derived parchment, was developed in 1847 by French chemists Jean-André Poumarède and Louis Figuier as a grease-resistant material for food applications.^[91] The process involves treating sheets of paper made from cotton rags or wood pulp with concentrated sulfuric acid, which partially gelatinizes the cellulose fibers into a dense, translucent structure known as amyloid, rendering the material impermeable to oils and fats while maintaining flexibility.^[92] This innovation provided a cost-effective, non-animal alternative suitable for baking and packaging, commonly known today as baking paper or greaseproof paper.^[93] Other plant-derived alternatives emerged in the 19th century, including onion-skin paper, a thin, translucent sheet produced from heavily beaten wood pulp to achieve low weight and high durability for correspondence and records.^[94] Initially popularized for airmail due to its lightweight nature, onion-skin paper offered a parchment-like translucency without animal sourcing, though it lacks the grease resistance of vegetable parchment.^[95] In the early 20th century, regenerated cellulose films such as cellophane, invented by Swiss chemist Jacques E. Brandenberger and patented in 1908, further expanded plant-based options with their waterproof, transparent properties derived from viscose processing of wood pulp.^[96] These materials contributed to the historical confusion surrounding the term "parchment paper," which in culinary contexts refers to vegetable-based products unrelated to genuine animal parchment.^[92] Post-1950s developments introduced synthetic alternatives, including silicone-coated papers and polyester films that mimic the texture and durability of traditional parchment for legal and decorative purposes. Silicone coatings, applied to vegetable parchment bases, enhance non-stick properties for baking, with early commercial uses documented in the mid-20th century.^[92] Polyester-based synthetic papers, such as those made from biaxially oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BoPET), provide tear-resistant, archival-quality substitutes for certificates and documents, offering greater longevity in humid environments compared to untreated plant papers.^[97] These alternatives generally exhibit lower durability than animal parchment, with vegetable and synthetic versions prone to degradation under prolonged mechanical stress or extreme conditions, but they are significantly cheaper to produce and align with vegan preferences by avoiding animal products.^[98] Environmentally, they reduce reliance on livestock processing, minimizing resource-intensive animal husbandry impacts, though production processes like acid treatment can pose chemical waste challenges.^[93]

Parchment Craft Practices

Parchment craft, a decorative hobby involving the manipulation of thin animal-skin parchment or specialized paper substitutes, traces its origins to 16th-century Europe, where it emerged as a form of intricate embroidery and whitework on parchment sheets to create ornamental designs. This early practice often featured delicate patterns inspired by lace and floral motifs, used for personal adornments and small decorative items. The craft saw a decline over centuries but experienced a notable revival in the 1980s with the founding of Pergamano.^[99]^[100] The core techniques of parchment craft center on tracing intricate patterns onto the material using a lightbox or window, followed by embossing from the reverse side with specialized tools to raise designs into relief, creating a 3D lace-like effect. Additional methods include perforating holes with dinking tools or needles for openwork patterns, and applying subtle coloring with metallic inks or pencils on the front to enhance details without overpowering the translucent quality. These processes transform flat sheets into textured, ethereal pieces resembling fine lace or filigree, emphasizing precision and patience over bold coloration.^[101] Essential materials include ultra-thin parchment sheets, typically around 0.1 mm thick and weighing 140-160 gsm, sourced from suppliers specializing in craft kits such as Pergamano, which offers pre-printed patterns and tool sets including ball-tipped styluses for embossing and perforating grids for alignment. Modern practitioners often use vellum paper as an ethical alternative to animal-derived parchment, paired with archival inks to ensure longevity. Kits from established vendors provide beginners with all necessary components, facilitating easy entry into the craft while maintaining traditional aesthetics.^[102] The craft has spread culturally, gaining popularity in Europe and Australia through guilds and workshops, where it serves as a meditative pursuit with therapeutic applications in art therapy programs during the 2020s. Studies on crafts-based interventions highlight benefits like reduced stress and improved well-being, applicable to activities such as parchment crafting. Variations include elaborate Celtic knot designs for framed art or simpler motifs for greeting cards and bookmarks, with enthusiasts gathering at annual conventions organized by groups like the Parchment Craft Guild in the UK, fostering international exchange and innovation.^[103]^[104]^[105]

Scientific Study and Preservation

Technical Analysis Methods

Technical analysis methods for parchment artifacts encompass a range of scientific techniques designed to authenticate, date, and characterize these materials without compromising their integrity where possible. These approaches are essential for provenance determination, degradation assessment, and scholarly interpretation of historical manuscripts, drawing on interdisciplinary tools from chemistry, physics, and biology. Non-destructive methods predominate in initial examinations to preserve artifacts, while destructive sampling is reserved for critical cases requiring precise data. Non-destructive techniques include multispectral imaging, which captures images across ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) wavelengths to reveal hidden or erased text beneath surface layers. For instance, this method has been applied to recover palimpsest inscriptions in medieval codices by exploiting differences in how inks and parchment absorb or reflect specific wavelengths. Similarly, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy enables the elemental analysis of inks and pigments on parchment surfaces, identifying compositions such as iron-gall or carbon-based inks without physical contact. Macro-XRF scanning, in particular, maps distributions of elements like iron, copper, and mercury across entire folios, aiding in the detection of underdrawings or alterations in illuminated manuscripts. Destructive sampling, though minimized, provides definitive insights into parchment's age and origin. Radiocarbon dating (¹⁴C) measures the decay of carbon-14 in the collagen matrix, offering age estimates accurate to within ±50 years for samples up to about 50,000 years old, though pretreatment protocols like acid-base-acid (ABA) extraction are crucial to remove contaminants and ensure reliable collagen yields. Collagen analysis via mass spectrometry, often using zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS), identifies animal species by comparing peptide mass fingerprints from extracted proteins, distinguishing sources such as calf, sheep, or goat with high specificity even in degraded samples. Microscopic examination employs scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to visualize fiber structure at high resolution, revealing the parallel, non-tanned collagen bundles characteristic of parchment, which differ from the more irregular, cross-linked fibers in tanned leather. SEM images highlight surface topography, hair follicle remnants, and degradation patterns like fibril separation, enabling differentiation between production types and states of deterioration. Recent advances in the 2020s integrate computational tools, such as AI-assisted digitization for large-scale manuscript projects, including the Vatican Library's efforts to catalog medieval illustrations through machine learning algorithms that enhance readability and metadata extraction from scanned parchments. Additionally, DNA sequencing of endogenous ancient DNA preserved in parchment collagen traces animal origins to specific breeds or regions, as demonstrated in analyses of medieval European codices identifying bovine sources via whole-genome sequencing. As of 2025, non-destructive DNA sampling methods, such as cytology brushes, have enabled extraction of genetic material from parchment surfaces without damage, advancing biocodicological studies.^[106] Infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy have also progressed for assessing oxidative degradation influences like light and sulfur dioxide on collagen stability.^[107] These methods find practical applications in provenance authentication and degradation studies. Degradation studies further utilize pH analysis to assess stability, revealing that parchment exhibits optimal preservation at a slightly alkaline pH of 7.5-8.5, below which acid hydrolysis accelerates collagen breakdown and embrittlement.^[108]

Conservation and Restoration Approaches

Conservation of parchment focuses on preventive measures to maintain its structural integrity, as fluctuations in environmental conditions can lead to brittleness, warping, or degradation of the collagen fibers. Recommended storage conditions include a stable relative humidity (RH) of 45-55%, with variations limited to ±5% to prevent excessive drying or moisture absorption that could cause cracking or mold growth.^[109] Temperatures should be maintained between 18-20°C to minimize thermal stress, while displays require UV filtering to reduce photochemical damage from light exposure.^[110] These controls are essential for long-term archival stability, as parchment's hygroscopic nature makes it particularly sensitive to environmental shifts. Repair techniques emphasize reversible and minimally invasive methods to restore damaged parchment without altering its original properties. For tears and losses, conservators often use infills made from thin Japanese paper adhered with wheat starch paste, which provides flexible support that ages compatibly with the substrate and allows for future removal if needed.^[73] Flaking surfaces are consolidated using Klucel G, a hydroxypropyl cellulose solution in ethanol or isopropanol, applied locally to reattach loose particles while penetrating the collagen structure without introducing moisture that could cause further distortion.^[111] These approaches prioritize material compatibility and ethical non-intervention, ensuring the artifact's historical authenticity is preserved. Parchment's history of reuse as palimpsests—where surfaces were scraped to allow rewriting—presents unique conservation challenges, as revealed texts can inform scholarly understanding but risk damaging the primary layer. The Archimedes Palimpsest, a 10th-century manuscript overwritten in the 13th century, had its underlying mathematical treatises uncovered through multispectral imaging in the late 1990s, enabling the recovery of lost works like The Method.^[112] Ethical debates surround such revelations, particularly with digital enhancements that may manipulate images to clarify undertext, raising concerns about authenticity and the potential to mislead users regarding the manuscript's original state, though projects like the Archimedes initiative emphasize transparency in processing.^[113] Modern challenges to parchment preservation include mold growth from inadequate storage, often mitigated by immediate freezing at below -20°C within 48 hours of water exposure to halt fungal development, followed by freeze-drying under vacuum to remove moisture without distortion.^[114] Climate change exacerbates these issues, with 2020s reports documenting increased humidity fluctuations and extreme weather events damaging global collections; for instance, a 2023 analysis highlighted how rising temperatures and storms have accelerated degradation in archives, prompting adaptive strategies like enhanced climate modeling for vulnerable sites.^[115] Institutional practices standardize these approaches, as seen in the British Library's updated environmental policy, which specifies RH and temperature setpoints tailored to organic materials like parchment to support preventive conservation amid operational demands.^[116] Training programs for conservators, such as the Northeast Document Conservation Center's workshops and the Conservation Center for Art & Historic Artifacts' fellowships in paper conservation, provide hands-on instruction in these techniques, fostering expertise in handling parchment-specific vulnerabilities.^[117]^[118]

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Parchment Paper History: How We Got Paper Perfect for Baking
Nov 21, 2019 · This use goes back thousands of years, and because the modern alternatives didn't exist yet, was probably the stuff that Apicius used to bake ...
[100]
Genuine Vegetable Parchment technology - Ahlstrom
Ahlstrom Genuine Vegetable Parchment (GVP) technology dates back to the 1840s. Only a few producers remain worldwide for this demanding, sensitive process, ...
[101]
(PDF) Onion skin paper: History, Uses, Composition and Conservation
Mar 7, 2025 · Onion skin paper is not made from onions... but when was it invented and for what purpose? How is it related to carbon copies and what must ...
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Onion skin paper: History, Uses, Composition and Conservation
Feb 18, 2025 · It turns out that the earliest rolling paper dates from the 19th century ... Watermark on Esleeck onion skin paper dating c. 1960. This ...
[103]
Cellophane was Invented by NIHF Inductee Jacques Brandenberger
Oct 27, 2025 · Invented in 1908, cellophane came from Swiss chemist Jacques Brandenberger's desire to create a clear, flexible, waterproof film that could be applied to cloth.
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11830576/
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Preservation Self-Assessment Program (PSAP) | Paper
Natural tracing paper is the most prevalent of modern tracing/transparent papers. It is produced in a fashion similar to imitation parchment, in that chemical ...
[106]
https://archaeologymag.com/2025/02/cytology-brush-medieval-parchment-pages/
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History of Pergamano - Delicate Designs by Kelly
Although in the beginning, people used parchment primarily as a surface on which to write, parchment craft appeared in Europe in the 15th or 16th centuries. At ...Missing: origins embroidery 1970s UK
[108]
An Introduction to Parchment Craft with Pergamano - Part 1 - YouTube
Jan 21, 2015 · In Part 1, Rossella gives us an introduction to Parchment Craft telling us about the history, giving us some tips and tricks and explains ...Missing: revival | Show results with:revival
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Parchment Craft Questions and Answers about Parchment Craft Paper
Nov 19, 2017 · Parchment crafters or Parchers usually work with three main weights. 160gsm, 150gsm and 140gsm. 140gsm , 150gsm or 160gsm (gsm = grams per square metre)Missing: mm | Show results with:mm
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Pat spreads word about old paper craft across the world | Falmouth ...
Pat, a qualified teacher of parchment craft and one of only 12 Fellows of the Parchment Craft Guild of the UK, has a busy schedule of exhibitions and ...
[111]
The effects of crafts‐based interventions on mental health and well ...
Feb 16, 2025 · There is some evidence that crafts‐based interventions may benefit mental health and well‐being, but more high‐quality research is needed.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Tutors Lists
The Parchment Craft Guild does not offer a teacher qualification, but does offer a recognised standard of skill level. There are also many excellent ...
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BPG Parchment Housing and Storage - MediaWiki - Conservation Wiki
May 13, 2024 · Polyester film encapsulation is a relatively easy and cost-effective solution for effectively protecting parchment from rapid humidity ...
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2.1 Temperature, Relative Humidity, Light, and Air Quality - NEDCC
Typically, this means a temperature between 64°F and 72°F and not exceeding 75°F. However, you must consider the age and construction of the building as well as ...
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PMG Mending, Repair, and Filling - MediaWiki - Conservation Wiki
May 12, 2024 · Watercolors, colored pencil, and acrylic paints can all be used to impart color. Various surfacing materials can be used to adjust the gloss of toned papers.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Conservation of the Archimedes Palimpsest
For the purposes of safe handling the book was given a conservation binding, that kept the leaves secure between its boards, but which did nothing to alter the ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
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https://www.nedcc.org/free-resources/paper-conservation-and-preservation-resources
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3.8 Emergency Salvage of Moldy Books and Paper - NEDCC
Wet or actively moldy items should be frozen until drying and/or cleaning can commence. Mold will normally grow on wet materials within 48 hours (sometimes ...
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How Climate Change Affects Book Preservation - The New York Times
Jan 8, 2023 · As extreme weather events become more common, archivists and conservators are scrambling to protect their collections.Missing: parchment 2020s
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[PDF] Revising and developing the environmental policy at the British Library
Feb 15, 2024 · It provides explicit reference to material types and vulnerabilities, and the requirements of operational activities, emphasising preventive ...
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Paper Conservation and Preservation Resources - NEDCC
NEDCC offers online training, resources on environment, storage, handling, and conservation procedures for paper preservation.
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Fellowship in Book or Paper Conservation
The applicant should have a Master's degree from a recognized conservation training program with a specialization in book or paper conservation. Compensation.