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Liquid oxygen

Liquid oxygen (LOX or LOx) is the cryogenic liquid form of dioxygen (O₂), a pale blue, viscous fluid that exists at standard atmospheric pressure between its boiling point of −182.96 °C (−297.33 °F) and freezing point of −218.79 °C (−361.82 °F).^[1] With a density of approximately 1.141 g/cm³ at its boiling point, it is significantly denser than gaseous oxygen and is produced industrially through the fractional distillation of liquefied air, where air is cooled and compressed to separate oxygen from nitrogen and other components.^[2]^[3] This process yields high-purity LOX, which is non-flammable but acts as a powerful oxidizer, accelerating combustion when in contact with fuels.^[4] One of the most prominent applications of liquid oxygen is as a rocket propellant oxidizer, paired with fuels like liquid hydrogen or kerosene in engines for launch vehicles, including those used by NASA and other space agencies, due to its high specific impulse and energy density in cryogenic combinations.^[5] In medicine, LOX serves as a compact storage medium for supplemental oxygen therapy, particularly for ambulatory patients, as it expands to about 860 times its liquid volume when vaporized into gas, enabling portable systems that last longer than compressed gas cylinders.^[6] Industrially, it supports processes such as steelmaking in blast furnaces, oxy-fuel welding, and chemical oxidation reactions, where its cryogenic properties allow efficient delivery and handling in large-scale operations.^[7] Handling liquid oxygen requires stringent safety measures owing to its extreme cold, which can cause frostbite or cryogenic burns upon skin contact, and its oxidizing nature, which poses fire and explosion risks near organic materials or flammables.^[8] Stored in insulated dewars or tanks to minimize boil-off, LOX has been integral to aerospace milestones since the early 20th century, evolving from experimental rocketry to routine use in modern space exploration and healthcare.^[9]

Properties

Physical Properties

Liquid oxygen appears as a pale blue liquid at its boiling point, owing to the absorption of red light by O₂ molecules in the visible spectrum.^[10] This coloration arises from electronic transitions in the liquid phase and becomes more intense under increased pressure due to enhanced molecular interactions.^[11] The normal boiling point of liquid oxygen is 90.188 K (-182.96 °C) at standard atmospheric pressure of 1 atm.^[12] Its critical point occurs at 154.581 K (–118.57 °C) and 5.043 MPa (50.43 bar), beyond which the distinction between liquid and gas phases disappears.^[13] The density of saturated liquid oxygen at its boiling point is 1.141 g/cm³, decreasing as temperature rises toward the critical point due to thermal expansion.^[12] The volume expansion coefficient reflects this behavior, with liquid oxygen exhibiting a positive thermal expansion typical of most liquids above the triple point.^[14] Phase behavior of oxygen includes a triple point at 54.36 K and 0.00152 MPa (1.52 mbar), where solid, liquid, and gas phases coexist in equilibrium.^[15] Viscosity of the saturated liquid is approximately 0.20 mPa·s near the boiling point, increasing slightly as temperature decreases.^[16] Surface tension along the saturation curve measures about 13.2 mN/m at the boiling point, diminishing to zero at the critical point.^[17] Thermal properties include a specific heat capacity of 1.7 J/g·K for the saturated liquid at the boiling point.^[18] Thermal conductivity of liquid oxygen is around 0.15 W/m·K near 90 K, facilitating efficient heat transfer in cryogenic applications.^[17] Optical properties feature a refractive index of 1.221 for liquid oxygen at 670 nm wavelength under standard conditions.^[19]

Chemical Properties

Liquid oxygen consists of diatomic O₂ molecules, each featuring a double bond between two oxygen atoms and two unpaired electrons in the antibonding π* orbitals, which confer paramagnetism to the substance.^[20] This paramagnetism arises from the unpaired electrons' intrinsic magnetic moments, causing liquid oxygen to be weakly attracted to external magnetic fields, a property observable when the liquid is suspended between the poles of a strong magnet.^[21] Liquid oxygen is fully miscible with liquid nitrogen, forming homogeneous mixtures across all proportions due to their similar intermolecular forces and phase behavior in the cryogenic regime.^[22] In contrast, its solubility in hydrocarbons is limited, with molar solubilities typically below 6% for common alkanes like propane at temperatures near 110–120 K, which influences the phase separation and mixing efficiency in fuel-oxidizer systems.^[23] As a potent oxidizer, liquid oxygen vigorously supports combustion of organic materials upon initiation, and its liquid form poses greater risks due to higher oxygen density and material saturation.^[24] It supports ignition of hydrocarbons such as kerosene at temperatures around 200 °C in pure oxygen environments, facilitating efficient energy release in oxidative processes.^[25] Under elevated pressure, liquid oxygen can form trace amounts of ozone (O₃) through partial dissociation and recombination of O₂ molecules, particularly in the presence of energy inputs like electrical discharge.^[26] Liquid oxygen remains chemically stable with minimal decomposition at cryogenic temperatures, where thermal energy is insufficient to overcome the O=O bond dissociation energy of approximately 498 kJ/mol.^[20] However, the presence of organic impurities accelerates decomposition, potentially leading to explosive reactions as the contaminants oxidize rapidly, releasing heat and generating reactive species that propagate further breakdown.^[27] The natural isotopic composition of oxygen in liquid oxygen reflects atmospheric abundances: approximately 99.757% ¹⁶O, 0.038% ¹⁷O, and 0.205% ¹⁸O.^[28] These isotopes subtly influence bulk properties, with heavier isotopes (¹⁷O and ¹⁸O) increasing molecular mass and thus slightly elevating the density and boiling point of isotopically enriched samples compared to pure ¹⁶O₂, though the effect is minor (on the order of 0.1–0.2% variation) in natural mixtures.^[29]

Production

Laboratory-Scale Production

In laboratory settings, early methods for producing liquid oxygen relied on the Joule-Thomson effect, where compressed air is expanded through a porous plug or valve, causing cooling due to intermolecular forces in real gases, eventually leading to liquefaction upon repeated cycles or pre-cooling./10%3A_The_Joule_and_Joule-Thomson_Experiments/10.03%3A_The_Joule-Thomson_Experiment) This technique, adapted from 19th-century experiments by James Joule and William Thomson, allows small-scale demonstration using a continuous flow apparatus with pressure differentials of 100-200 atm to achieve temperatures below the inversion point for air.^[30] Modern laboratory techniques have shifted to more accessible and efficient approaches, primarily involving the condensation of high-purity gaseous oxygen using liquid nitrogen baths for pre-cooling, often supplemented by small-scale cryogenic pumps or compact heat exchangers to control the process.^[31] A common setup immerses a coiled copper tube in a Dewar flask filled with liquid nitrogen (boiling point 77 K), through which oxygen gas from a compressed cylinder is passed until droplets form and collect at the bottom, leveraging the lower boiling point of oxygen (90.18 K) for selective liquefaction.^[31] These methods avoid the complexity of multi-stage expansion required in Joule-Thomson setups and are suitable for educational or research environments. Purity is critical in laboratory production to prevent contamination that could affect experiments or safety; when starting from atmospheric air, water vapor and carbon dioxide are removed prior to liquefaction using molecular sieves, such as 13X zeolite, which adsorb these impurities at ambient temperatures while allowing oxygen and nitrogen to pass.^[32] For higher purity (>99%), direct use of compressed oxygen gas from cylinders bypasses initial separation, though traps may still filter residual hydrocarbons.^[33] Laboratory yields typically range from 10 to 100 mL of liquid oxygen per run, depending on the apparatus size and gas flow rate, with efficiencies limited by heat transfer rates and evaporation losses in open systems.^[34] Energy requirements for these small-scale processes are approximately 0.5-1 kWh per liter, accounting for gas compression, liquid nitrogen production (if not supplied), and cryogenic cooling, though actual consumption varies with setup efficiency.^[35] Safety protocols in laboratories emphasize minimizing risks associated with cryogens and oxidizers by limiting production to small volumes (under 100 mL) to reduce explosion potential from rapid vaporization or reactions with organics.^[8] Storage uses vacuum-insulated Dewar flasks to maintain low temperatures and prevent pressure buildup, with operations conducted in well-ventilated areas wearing cryogenic gloves, face shields, and non-static clothing to guard against cold burns, asphyxiation, and ignition sources.^[36]

Industrial-Scale Production

Industrial-scale production of liquid oxygen is dominated by cryogenic air separation units (ASUs), which employ fractional distillation of liquefied atmospheric air to isolate oxygen at high purity. This method, refined through the Linde process—initially a single-column rectification system introduced in 1902—and the Claude process, which incorporates expansion turbines for enhanced cooling efficiency, accounts for the vast majority of global output.^[37]^[38] The production process begins with the compression of ambient air to approximately 5-7 bar, followed by purification to eliminate contaminants such as carbon dioxide and water vapor using molecular sieves or chemical absorbents. The purified air is then precooled and progressively chilled through heat exchangers and expansion cycles until liquefaction occurs near -196°C, the boiling point of oxygen. This cryogenic mixture enters double-column distillation towers—a high-pressure column for initial separation and a low-pressure column for refinement—yielding liquid oxygen with greater than 99% purity from the sump, while oxygen-rich vapor is condensed and returned for further fractionation.^[39]^[40] Co-production of nitrogen (up to 99.999% purity) and argon occurs simultaneously in integrated sections of the ASU, optimizing resource use and reducing overall costs by generating multiple marketable products from a single feedstock.^[41] Typical energy consumption for this process is approximately 0.6 kWh per kg of liquid oxygen, primarily driven by compression and refrigeration demands, though efficiencies vary with plant scale and design.^[42] Global production of oxygen via these methods reached approximately 88 million metric tons annually by 2025, with liquid oxygen comprising a significant portion for storage and transport in industries like steelmaking and aerospace. Leading producers, including Air Liquide, Linde plc, and Air Products and Chemicals, control over 70% of the market through extensive networks of large-scale ASUs, often exceeding 5,000 tons per day capacity, which supports efficient supply chains and economies of scale.^[43]^[44] Recent advancements focus on sustainability and efficiency, such as integrating ASUs with renewable energy sources like solar or wind to power compressors and minimize greenhouse gas emissions during periods of low electricity costs, enabling "green" oxygen production. Additionally, hybrid systems combining cryogenic distillation with membrane separation technologies are emerging as alternatives for medium-scale operations, offering lower energy use (around 0.2 kWh/kg) and reduced capital costs by pre-enriching oxygen in air feeds up to 30-40% before distillation.^[45]^[46]

Applications

Rocket Propellants

Liquid oxygen (LOX) serves as a primary oxidizer in bipropellant liquid rocket engines, enabling efficient combustion with various fuels to generate high thrust for launch vehicles. Its cryogenic nature allows for dense storage, contributing to compact tank designs that enhance overall vehicle performance. When paired with fuels like refined petroleum (RP-1, a kerosene variant), LOX is commonly used in first-stage boosters due to the combination's favorable density and thrust-to-weight ratio, achieving a sea-level specific impulse of approximately 282 seconds and a vacuum specific impulse of 311 seconds in engines like the SpaceX Merlin 1D. For upper stages requiring higher efficiency, LOX is combined with liquid hydrogen (LH₂), yielding vacuum specific impulses around 421 seconds in the historical Rocketdyne J-2 engine and up to 452 seconds in the Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25. These pairings balance performance needs, with LOX/RP-1 prioritizing structural efficiency for atmospheric ascent and LOX/LH₂ optimizing velocity increments in vacuum. Combustion in LOX-based engines occurs at oxidizer-to-fuel (O/F) mass ratios of approximately 2.3:1 for LOX/RP-1, which is fuel-rich compared to the stoichiometric ratio of about 2.6:1^[47], where the reaction produces primarily carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases that expand rapidly through the nozzle. Chamber temperatures can reach up to 3500 K under optimal conditions, necessitating advanced cooling techniques such as regenerative cooling with the fuel or oxidizer to prevent material failure. The efficiency of these systems is quantified by the specific impulse I_{sp}, which relates exhaust velocity v_e to standard gravity g_0 \approx 9.81 \, \mathrm{m/s^2} via v_e = I_{sp} \cdot g_0. Thrust F is then derived from the fundamental rocket equation:

F = \dot{m} v_e + (P_e - P_a) A_e

where \dot{m} is the propellant mass flow rate, P_e and P_a are the nozzle exit and ambient pressures, and A_e is the nozzle exit area. This formulation underscores how LOX's role in high-energy combustion directly influences achievable thrust and mission delta-v. Historically, LOX/LH₂ powered the Saturn V's second (S-II) and third (S-IVB) stages using five J-2 engines each, delivering reliable upper-stage performance for Apollo missions. The Space Shuttle's three RS-25 main engines also relied on LOX/LH₂, providing 1.86 million pounds of vacuum thrust combined for orbital insertion. In modern applications, SpaceX's Falcon 9 employs nine Merlin 1D engines with LOX/RP-1 in its first stage, enabling reusable boosters with over 1.7 million pounds of sea-level thrust. These examples highlight LOX's versatility across eras. A key advantage of LOX over gaseous oxygen is its high density impulse—approximately 1.14 g/cm³ at boiling point—allowing smaller, lighter tanks that improve payload fractions compared to lower-density alternatives. However, managing cryogenic boil-off remains a challenge, as heat ingress causes vaporization losses of up to several percent per day without active cooling, complicating long-duration storage for in-space propulsion. Advances in zero-boil-off technologies, such as subcooled propellants and multi-layer insulation, mitigate these issues for future missions.

Medical and Industrial Applications

Liquid oxygen (LOX) plays a vital role in medical oxygen therapy, particularly for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and severe hypoxemia, where it serves as a reliable source for long-term supplemental oxygen delivery. Stationary LOX reservoirs, typically with capacities of 20 to 60 liters, provide extended supply lasting up to 18 days at a flow rate of 2 L/min, from which smaller portable units (0.5-3 liters) are filled to enable ambulatory use. These portable systems vaporize the liquid into gaseous oxygen at flow rates typically between 2 and 6 L/min (some models up to 15 L/min), offering 4-12 hours of duration without electricity or batteries, benefiting mobility for patients requiring higher flows greater than 6 L/min compared to compressed gas cylinders.^[48] Additionally, supplemental oxygen from LOX sources is employed in treating altitude sickness by alleviating symptoms of hypoxia during acute mountain sickness or high-altitude pulmonary edema, typically through descent combined with oxygen administration to restore blood oxygen levels. In industrial settings, LOX is integral to oxy-fuel welding and cutting processes, where it is mixed with fuels like acetylene to produce a high-temperature flame reaching approximately 3,500°C, enabling precise cutting of thick steel plates over 2 inches without generating excessive heat-affected zones. In steelmaking, the basic oxygen process (BOP) utilizes LOX by injecting high-purity oxygen—greater than 99.5%—into molten pig iron and scrap to oxidize impurities like carbon and silicon, rapidly converting the charge into steel while minimizing energy use and furnace time. This method accounts for over half of global steel production, enhancing efficiency in large-scale operations. Beyond these primary uses, LOX supports aquaculture by providing oxygenation to maintain dissolved oxygen levels in fish farming systems, preventing stress and improving growth rates in high-density environments. It also facilitates chemical synthesis through oxidation reactions, such as in the production of ethylene oxide or methanol, where controlled oxygen supply boosts reaction yields. In wastewater treatment, LOX enhances aerobic processes by increasing oxygen availability for microbial degradation of organic pollutants, thereby improving treatment efficiency and reducing sludge volume. Purity standards are critical for safe application: medical-grade LOX must exceed 99.5% oxygen content to ensure patient safety and avoid contaminants, while industrial-grade LOX typically requires at least 99% purity to support effective combustion and oxidation without impurities affecting process outcomes. The use of LOX in industrial combustion applications contributes to environmental benefits by enabling oxygen-enriched processes that reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions and overall fuel consumption compared to air-based systems, as the absence of nitrogen minimizes thermal NOx formation and allows for more complete burning.

History

Discovery and Liquefaction

Early attempts to liquefy oxygen, considered one of the "permanent gases" resistant to condensation, date back to the mid-19th century. In 1845, Michael Faraday conducted experiments using compression and cooling methods, including attempts with chemical absorbents, but failed to produce liquid oxygen despite success with other gases like chlorine and ammonia.^[49] The breakthrough came in 1877 through independent efforts by two scientists. On December 2, 1877, French physicist Louis-Paul Cailletet achieved the first liquefaction of oxygen by compressing the gas to 300 atmospheres and then rapidly expanding it, resulting in a mist that condensed into tiny droplets of liquid oxygen visible in a glass tube.^[50] Almost simultaneously, Swiss physicist Raoul Pictet liquefied oxygen using a counter-cooling cascade method, precooling the gas successively with liquid methyl chloride, ethylene, and carbon dioxide to reach the necessary low temperatures. Both experiments produced only fleeting mists or small quantities, on the order of microliters, and initial observations noted the pale blue color of the liquid, a property arising from oxygen's molecular absorption spectrum.^[50] Confirmation of stable liquid oxygen came in 1883 when Polish physicists Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski produced the first measurable quantities, approximately 1 mL, and maintained it long enough to measure its boiling point at around -183°C under atmospheric pressure. This work verified the liquidity beyond transient mists and built on theoretical principles of gas expansion cooling developed by figures like James Dewar, who advanced regenerative cooling techniques, and Carl von Linde, who later formalized the Joule-Thomson effect for continuous liquefaction processes.^[51]

Commercial and Scientific Developments

The commercialization of liquid oxygen (LOX) began in the late 19th century with advancements in air liquefaction technology. In 1895, Carl von Linde patented a process for liquefying air based on the Joule-Thomson effect, enabling the separation of oxygen through fractional distillation. This innovation laid the foundation for industrial-scale production, as Linde constructed the world's first air separation unit (ASU) plant for oxygen in 1902 near Munich, Germany, marking the transition from laboratory curiosity to viable commercial output.^[37]^[52] In the United Kingdom, Brin's Oxygen Company, originally focused on gaseous oxygen via the Brin process since 1886, adopted Linde's liquefaction methods and established early industrial facilities, contributing to the initial distribution of LOX in steel cylinders by the early 1900s.^[53]^[54] World War II accelerated LOX production dramatically due to its critical role in aviation oxygen systems and explosives manufacturing. In the UK, demand surged for high-altitude bomber operations and oxy-acetylene welding, leading to expanded facilities; this wartime push refined cryogenic storage and transportation techniques, with companies like British Oxygen Company (BOC, successor to Brin's) scaling up ASUs to meet Allied requirements.^[55]^[56] The early adoption of LOX as a rocket propellant began with American physicist Robert H. Goddard, who launched the first liquid-propellant rocket on March 16, 1926, using LOX and gasoline, achieving a flight of 12.5 seconds and 41 feet altitude. The Space Race in the mid-20th century further propelled LOX's development as a rocket propellant. NASA adopted LOX in the 1950s for early launch vehicles, including the Redstone missile and Jupiter series, pairing it with kerosene or hydrogen for high-thrust engines tested at facilities like the Lewis Research Center. For the Apollo program, engineers developed high-purity LOX specifications to minimize impurities that could affect combustion stability in the Saturn V's F-1 engines, achieving oxygen purities exceeding 99.5% through advanced filtration in ASUs.^[57]^[58]^[59] In the 2010s, SpaceX advanced reusable LOX systems, integrating it with RP-1 in the Merlin engines of the Falcon 9 rocket, enabling the first successful booster landings in 2015 and multiple reuses by 2020, which reduced launch costs by over 30% compared to expendable systems. LOX has also been incorporated into advanced propulsion research, including Ursa Major's Arroway engine, a staged-combustion LOX/methane system for reusable space launch vehicles, with hotfire testing planned as of 2023. Amid growing emphasis on sustainability, the 2020s have seen increased focus on LOX production via water electrolysis as a byproduct of green hydrogen generation, with pilot plants achieving up to 90% oxygen recovery efficiency using renewable electricity, supporting carbon-neutral industrial gases.^[60]^[61]^[62] Scientifically, LOX enabled key cryogenic milestones, including Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's 1913 Nobel Prize-winning investigations into matter at low temperatures, where liquid oxygen baths facilitated early studies of gas properties and magnetism down to -183°C. In superconductivity research, LOX cooling has supported experiments with high-temperature cuprate materials since the 1980s, such as levitation demonstrations over YBa2Cu3O7 samples and equilibrium oxygenation studies, allowing operation at 90 K without rarer liquid helium.^[63]^[64]^[65]^[66]

Safety and Handling

Hazards and Risks

Liquid oxygen (LOX) poses significant cryogenic hazards due to its extremely low boiling point of −182.96 °C (90.19 K), which can cause severe frostbite or cryogenic burns upon direct contact with skin or unprotected surfaces. Even brief exposure to cold surfaces on LOX systems, such as valves or lines, can lead to tissue damage, necessitating the use of insulated protective equipment. Additionally, the evaporation of LOX in confined spaces can lead to oxygen-enriched atmospheres (oxygen concentrations above 23.5%), significantly increasing the risk of fire and explosion by accelerating combustion.^[27] As a powerful oxidizer, LOX accelerates combustion rates of surrounding materials, dramatically increasing fire intensity even with non-flammable substances under normal conditions. It is highly incompatible with organic compounds like oils, greases, and hydrocarbons, which can ignite spontaneously upon impact or friction in its presence, producing intense heat that further vaporizes the LOX. LOX can also react with certain organics to form unstable explosive peroxides, exacerbating the risk in contaminated environments.^[67] The rapid phase transition from liquid to gas—expanding approximately 860 times in volume—can generate extreme pressure buildup in enclosed systems, potentially leading to ruptures or explosions.^[27] Mixtures of LOX with fuels, such as hydrocarbons or metal powders (e.g., aluminum), are highly detonable, forming shock-sensitive combinations that can explode with minimal initiation energy. These reactions are particularly hazardous in propulsion or industrial settings where accidental mixing occurs.^[68] Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of oxygen from LOX vaporization can induce oxygen toxicity, manifesting as nausea, dizziness, muscle twitching, vision disturbances, convulsions, and respiratory distress. The cryogenic temperatures also cause embrittlement in materials like carbon steel, reducing ductility and increasing fracture risk under stress.^[7]^[69] Notable incidents highlight these risks; for example, a 1999 NASA Test Stand 116 LOX fire started from a feed system leak, destroying equipment and underscoring ignition from contamination. Industrial accidents, such as a valve failure at a European air separation plant releasing contaminated LOX, resulted in fires due to organic buildup, damaging infrastructure and prompting enhanced purity protocols. In September 2025, a LOX leak at the Milwaukee VA Medical Center in the United States required hazmat intervention due to a faulty valve, underscoring the need for robust leak detection in medical facilities.^[70]^[71]^[72]

Storage, Transportation, and Regulations

Liquid oxygen is typically stored in specialized cryogenic vessels such as vacuum-insulated dewars or bulk tanks to minimize heat ingress and maintain its low temperature of approximately −183 °C. These vessels often feature double-wall construction with the annular space evacuated and filled with perlite powder for enhanced thermal insulation, enabling safe holding times of 20 to 45 days depending on tank size and ambient conditions. Pressure buildup from natural vaporization, or boil-off, is managed through venting systems that allow controlled release of gaseous oxygen, preventing over-pressurization while recapturing vapor where feasible for efficiency.^[73]^[74]^[75] Transportation of liquid oxygen relies on cryogenic tankers designed for hazardous materials, commonly adhering to U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) specifications such as MC-338 or DOT 407 for cargo tanks, which mandate robust insulation and pressure relief capabilities. These tankers incorporate double-wall vacuum insulation to limit boil-off rates to less than 0.5% per day during transit, with rail and ship containers similarly equipped for intermodal shipping. For medical applications, transport follows additional FDA guidelines under 21 CFR Part 211, ensuring sterility and traceability in pharmaceutical-grade deliveries.^[76]^[77] Regulatory frameworks emphasize safety due to liquid oxygen's oxidizing properties. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) governs storage and handling under 29 CFR 1910.104, requiring containers fabricated from impact-resistant materials per ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code standards and separation distances from combustibles. Internationally, it is classified by the United Nations as UN 1073, a Class 2.2 non-flammable cryogenic liquid with a subsidiary Class 5.1 oxidizer hazard, dictating labeling, packaging, and emergency response protocols under the IMDG and IATA codes for maritime and air transport.^[78]^[79] Best practices for managing liquid oxygen include selecting materials like austenitic stainless steel (e.g., 304 or 316 grades) for compatibility, strictly prohibiting hydrocarbons or oils to avoid ignition risks, and integrating leak detection systems with sensors for real-time pressure and level monitoring. Emergency response protocols, outlined in Compressed Gas Association (CGA) guidelines such as G-4.4, involve immediate evacuation, use of protective gear, and non-sparking tools for spill containment.^[24] Recent innovations enhance efficiency and safety, including composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPVs) for aerospace applications, which use carbon fiber reinforcements over metallic or polymer liners to reduce weight by up to 50% compared to traditional tanks while maintaining cryogenic integrity. In industrial settings during the 2020s, Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled remote monitoring systems have become standard, allowing real-time data on temperature, pressure, and inventory levels via cloud-based platforms to predict maintenance and optimize boil-off recapture.^[80]^[81]

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Linde based his experiment on findings discovered by J. P. Joule and W. Thomson. (1852). They found that compressed air expanded in a valve cooled down by ...
[38]
Air Separation Plants | A Linde Company - Linde Engineering
1902. We pioneered the world's first air separation unit (ASU) to produce oxygen using a single-column rectification system, thus paving the way for the use of ...
[39]
[PDF] Air separation technologies - Air Liquide Engineering & Construction
It offers standardised cryogenic ASUs for oxygen production from 70 mtpd to customised ASUs of 5,500 mtpd size.
[40]
Air Separation of Cryogenic Gases - EPCM Holdings
An Air Separation Unit (ASU) is a type of technology that separates air into its primary components. The most abundant are Nitrogen, followed by oxygen, ...
[41]
Single-column cryogenic air separation: Enabling efficient oxygen ...
Nov 15, 2021 · The air separation unit (ASU) is characterized by the simultaneous production of multiple products (oxygen, nitrogen, liquid oxygen, liquid ...
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Optimizing Air Separation and LNG Cold Utilization: Energy Savings ...
Jun 27, 2024 · The results of this study show that producing high-purity oxygen and nitrogen, respectively, requires 0.28 kWh kg−1 and 0.06 kWh kg−1 of ...
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Oxygen Market - Size, Share & Industry Trends - Mordor Intelligence
Sep 23, 2025 · The Oxygen Market is expected to reach 87.93 million tons in 2025 and grow at a CAGR of 4.59% to reach 110.04 million tons by 2030.
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Leading companies in the industrial gases market include Air ...
Sep 8, 2025 · MARKET RANKING The industrial gases market is highly consolidated. The five largest players are Air Liquide (France), Linde plc (UK), Air ...
[45]
Flexible cryogenic air separation unit—An application for low-carbon ...
Dec 1, 2022 · The rapid integration of intermittent renewable sources into the electricity grid is driving the need for a flexible cryogenic air ...
[46]
Recent developments in gas separation membranes enhancing the ...
Membrane technology is the most cutting-edge method for enriching oxygen for small to medium-sized operations. It can produce O2 gas with a purity range of 25– ...
[47]
This Month in Physics History | American Physical Society
By 1845, legendary physicist Michael Faraday had successfully liquefied ... Cailletet and Raoul Pictet, managed to create (independent of each other) oxygen ...
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Louis Paul Cailletet: The liquefaction of oxygen and the emergence ...
Oct 9, 2013 · This paper examines Cailletet's path to the liquefaction of oxygen, as well as a debate between him and the Polish physicist Zygmunt Wróblewski.
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Accelerator Update - Fermilab
In 1895 Linde invented the first continuous process for air liquefaction, which allowed for the generation of bulk quantities of liquid oxygen. Linde's ...
[50]
Carl von Linde and William Hampson – Cool inventions - Features
Sep 1, 2010 · Joule and Thomson had noticed that as a gas expands, it gets colder. The cooling effect is relative to the degree of compression prior to ...
[51]
Defining an industry, 1886–1914 (Part I) - Building on Air
Carl von Linde's air separation unit number 14, which was similar in type to ... Carl von Linde patented his air liquefaction process in 1895. Indeed ...
[52]
Brin's Oxygen Co - Graces Guide
Sep 1, 2017 · Brin's Oxygen Co was registered by the Sharp brothers on 26 January, to acquire certain patent rights in a process to produce oxygen.Missing: 1902 | Show results with:1902
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4 - The Great Depression, the Second World War, and the industrial ...
In 1939, industrial oxygen sales exceeded a billion ft 3 for the first time, and they climbed rapidly as the war intensified, exceeding 2 billion ft 3 in 1942.
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[PDF] The case of industrial gases, 1886-2006 - Enlighten Publications
Apr 27, 2015 · Oxygen. Industries had purchased the UK rights to new liquid oxygen production, distribution, and storage technologies which promised to ...<|separator|>
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High-Energy Propellants and Advanced Propulsion 1952-1957
May 19, 2021 · The lab's first successful liquid-hydrogen/liquid-oxygen engine firing took place on November 23, 1954.
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[PDF] OXYGEN - NASA Technical Reports Server
By the 1930s the largest demand for oxygen was for coal liquefaction, a process primarily used by the Germans to produce gasoline from coal. Several.
[57]
SpaceX reusable launch system development program - Wikipedia
SpaceX has developed technologies since the 2010s to facilitate full and rapid reuse of space launch vehicles. ... liquid oxygen and liquid methane. Super Heavy ...
[58]
SpaceX sets new mark in rocket reuse 10 years after first Falcon 9 ...
Jun 4, 2020 · SpaceX launched a Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral with a reused first stage Wednesday, then landed the previously-flown booster for a record fifth time.
[59]
Air Force Research Laboratory Selects Leading U.S. Rocket ...
May 24, 2023 · Arroway is a reusable liquid oxygen and methane staged combustion engine for medium and heavy launch vehicles, expected to hotfire in 2025.
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A review of oxygen generation through renewable hydrogen ...
Oxygen is produced as a byproduct of renewable energy-based water electrolysis, with up to 90% efficiency using transition metal catalysts.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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[PDF] Heike Kamerlingh Onnes - Nobel Lecture
The first great stage in the development of the cryogenic laboratory, which made measurements in a bath of liquid oxygen possible, was likewise not reached.
[62]
[PDF] Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's Discovery of Superconductivity
1913 when he received the Nobel Prize for Physics. His primary research goal ... who liquefied oxygen and nitrogen, was extremely useful to Onnes.
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Superconducting levitation at 90 K—a base for construction of non ...
Dec 6, 2004 · As a result, we could levitate a permanent magnet over the (Nd,Eu,Gd)Ba2Cu3Oy superconductor cooled by liquid oxygen.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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Equilibrium of 1:2:3 CLBLCO superconductors with oxygen
The cooling is done by immersing the sample in liquid gas. Obviously, when liquid oxygen is used for cooling, the sample may have the equilibrium oxygen ...
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[PDF] A survey of the hazards of handling liquid oxygen
oxygen has the following properties (1)* boiling point density heat capacity heat of vaporization critical temperature critical pressure critical density. - ...
[66]
[PDF] Fire And Explosion Hazards Of Flight Vehicle Combustibles
Sodium chloride and nitrogen desensitized the liquid oxygen system; sodium chloride or water reduced the explosive yield of this system.Missing: oxidative risks
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[PDF] ESM Chapter 17, Attachment GUIDE-2 – Oxygen System Design ...
Sep 22, 2023 · The concerns are similar to those for high-pressure, high-temperature oxygen, with the addition of material embrittlement because of the low ...
[68]
Test Stand 116 Liquid Oxygen Fire Mishap Investigation - Llis
A liquid oxygen fire occurred in the LOX feed system of Test Stand 116, starting at the valve and destroying the test article and equipment.
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[PDF] Incidents Involving Manually Actuated Isolation Valves in LOX Service
A significant quantity of perlite was blown out together with liquid oxygen from the plant. The resulting fire combusted approximately 50 % of the valve as well ...
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https://llis.nasa.gov/lesson/617
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[PDF] guideline for safe practices for cryogenic air separation plants - EIGA
Insulation for liquid oxygen lines or other lines that can come in contact with liquid oxygen should be non-combustible to protect against a possible reaction ...
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[PDF] COST-EFFICIENT STORAGE OF CRYOGENS. J.E. Fesmire', J.P. ...
Jun 21, 2007 · Perlite powder has historically been the insulation material of choice for these large storage tank applications. New bulk-fill insulation ...Missing: hold | Show results with:hold
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49 CFR Part 178 Subpart J -- Specifications for Containers for Motor ...
(a) The type and thickness of material for DOT 407 specification cargo tanks must conform to § 178.345-2, but in no case may the thickness be less than that ...
[74]
Liquid Hydrogen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
For double-walled, vacuum-insulated, spherical dewars, boil-off losses are typically 0.3% to 0.5% per day for containers having a storage volume of 50 m3, 0.2% ...
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UN/NA 1073 - CAMEO Chemicals - NOAA
UN/NA 1073. 2.2 - Oxygen 2.2 - Non-flammable, non-poisonous gas 5.1 - Oxidizer. Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG, 2024). A caution icon.
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[PDF] Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPV)
For lightweight, high-efficiency applications, the COPV will offer a significant weight advantage, approximately one-half the weight of a comparable metal tank.
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Internet of Things (IOT) Enabled Centralised System for Monitoring ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Preliminary designs have been proposed for on-line devices to continuously monitor the oxygen and hydrogen levels in liquid lithium systems.